AMA1110

Basic Mathematics I
Calculus and Probability & Statistics
Lecture Notes 4
Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

24 September 2024

Consultation Hours: 08:30-10:20

(Tuesday, TU715)

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 1 / 29
Outline

1 Review

2 Rates of Changes

3 The First Principle

4 Derivatives

5 Techniques of Differentiation

6 Extra Exercises

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 2 / 29
 Review

Exercise 1.1: Review

bx + c
Find c and b so that the limit lim exists.
x→0 sin x

Solution 1.1
Since lim sin x = 0, for the limit to exist, the only chance is that lim(bx + c) = 0. Since lim(bx + c) = c,
x→0 x→0 x→0
we have that c = 0. Now
bx + c bx 1
lim = lim = b lim sin x = b.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x→0
x
So b can be any real number, and c = 0.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 3 / 29
 Rates of Changes

§3.3 Rates of Changes

Definition ( 2.1 ). Derivative

Let f be a function defined on (a, b). We say that f is differentiable at x0 ∈ (a, b) if the limit
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0)
lim
∆x→0 ∆x
exists. The limit, when it exists, is called the derivative of f at x0, and is denoted by f ′(x0), or df (x0)
dx .

The notation ∆x is a single variable, and should not be taken as a product.

f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0)
When ∆x ̸= 0, the expression is called a difference quotient of f at x0.
∆x

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 4 / 29
 Rates of Changes

e
t lin
an
sec
f (x0 + ∆x)

l i n e
tang ent
f (x0 )
x
x0
x0 + ∆x
Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 5 / 29
 Rates of Changes

y
y

es
t lin
an
sec t l i n e
tangen
g en t line
ta n
x x
x0 x0

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 6 / 29
 The First Principle

Definition ( 3.1 ). The First Principle

′ df
Let f be a function defined on (a, b). The derivative of f is the function f (or equivalently, ), such that
dx
Dom(f ′) = {x : x ∈ (a, b), and f is differentiable at x},

′ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
Physical
Physical Interpretation
Interpretation

For t > 0, let f (t) denote the distance a car has traveled at time t. During a time span [t, t + ∆t],
the distance the car travels is f (t + ∆t) − f (t).
f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
average velocity of the car during [t, t + ∆t]:
∆t
the instantaneous velocity of the car at the instant t: f ′(t).

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 7 / 29
 The First Principle

Computing
Computing the
the Derivatives
Derivatives
1. compute ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
∆y
2. Form difference quotient
∆x
′ ∆y
3. Take limit f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x

Exercise 3.1
Compute f ′(x) for f (x) = ax + b.
Solution 3.1
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = ax + a∆x + b − ax − b = a∆x,
∆y a∆x
= = a,
∆x ∆x
′ ∆y
f (x) = lim = a.
∆x→0 ∆x

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 8 / 29
 The First Principle

Exercise 3.2
Compute f ′(x) for f (x) = x 2.
Solution 3.2
′ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
x 2 + 2x∆x + ∆x 2 − x 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2x∆x + ∆x 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2x + ∆x
= lim = 2x
∆x→0 1

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 9 / 29
 The First Principle

Exercise 3.3
Compute f ′(x) for f (x) = 1/x.
Solution 3.3
′ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
1
− 1
= lim x+∆x x
∆x→0 ∆x
1 x − x − ∆x
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x x(x + ∆x)
1 1
= lim − = − 2.
∆x→0 x(x + ∆x) x
Theorem ( 3.1 ).
In general, for any real number α ̸= 0,
(x α)′ = αx α−1.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 10 / 29
 The First Principle

Exercise 3.4 √
′
Compute f (x) for f (x) = x with x > 0.
Solution 3.4
′ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 √ ∆x √
x + ∆x − x
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
1 x + ∆x − x
= lim √ √
∆x→0 ∆x x + ∆x + x
1
= lim √ √
∆x→0 x + ∆x + x
1
= √ .
2 x

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 11 / 29
 The First Principle

Exercise 3.5
Compute f ′(x) for f (x) = sin x.
Solution 3.5
′ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
sin(x + ∆x) − sin(x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
( ) ( )
1 x + ∆x + x x + ∆x − x
= lim 2 cos sin
∆x→0 ∆x 2 ( ) 2
( ) ∆x
∆x sin 2
= lim cos x + ∆x
∆x→0 2 2
= cos x
d
Therefore sin x = cos x.
dx

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 12 / 29
 Derivatives

The The Right-Hand/Left-Hand Derivatives

Definition ( 4.1 ). The Right-Hand/Left-Hand Derivatives

Denote the right-side derivative of f at x0:
′ f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0)
f +(x0) = lim + .
∆x→0 ∆x
Denote the left-side derivative of f at x0:
′ f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0)
f −(x0) = lim − .
∆x→0 ∆x
Definition ( 4.2 ).
f ′(x0) exists if and only if f ′+(x0) and f ′−(x0) both exist and are equal, in which case f ′(x0) = f ′+(x0) =
f ′−(x0).

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 13 / 29
 Derivatives

Exercise 4.1
For f (x) = |x|, find f ′(0).
Solution 4.1
We have
′ |0 + ∆x| − |0| ∆x
f +(0)
= lim + = lim + = 1,
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
′ |0 + ∆x| − |0| −∆x
f −(0) = lim − = lim + = −1.
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
Since f ′+(0) ̸= f ′−(0), f ′(0) does not exist.
y

y 1

y = |x|
x

−1
x

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 14 / 29
 Derivatives

Theorem ( 4.1 ).
If f is differentiable at x0, then f is continuous at x0.
Exercise 4.2
Let {
4x, if x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
ax + b, if x > 0.
If f is differentiable at x = 0, find the values of a and b.
Solution 4.2
We now use the new theorem to derive the value of b: Since f is continuous at x = 0,
i.e.
lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = f (0) = lim f (x),
x→0 x→0 x→0
we have
b = lim+(ax + b) = f (0) = 4 × 0 = 0.
x→0

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 15 / 29
 Derivatives

Exercise 4.3
Let {
4x, if x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
ax + b, if x > 0.
If f is differentiable at x = 0, find the values of a and b.
Solution 4.3
We observe that
′ f (0 + ∆x) − f (0) a∆x + b − 0
f +(0) = lim + = lim + =a
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

since we know that the limit does exist, b = 0, and thus f ′+(0) = a. Furthermore,

′ f (0 + ∆x) − f (0) 4∆x − 0

f −(0) = lim − = lim − = 4.
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

Since f ′(0) exists, a = f ′+(0) = f ′−(0) = 4. ■

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 16 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

§3.4 Techniques of Differentiation

Theorem ( 5.1 ).
f
let f and g be functions differentiable at a point x. Then the same is true for the functions f ± g, fg, and
g
(with g(x) ̸= 0). In particular, we have:
[constant function]. if f (x) = c for any x, then f ′(x) = 0 for any x.
[sum/difference]. (f ± g)′(x) = f ′(x) ± g ′(x).
[product]. (fg)′(x) = f (x)g ′(x) + f ′(x)g(x), in particular, (cf )′ = cf ′ for any constant c.
( )′
f g(x)f ′(x) − f (x)g ′(x)
[quotient]. (x) = 2
.
g (g(x))
[power]. for each non-zero integer n ̸= 0, (x n )′ = nx n−1.
[linear distribution]. Let c1, . . . , cm be constants, then
(c1f1 + c2f2 + · · · + cm fm )′ = c1f1 ′ + c2f2 ′ + · · · + cm fm ′.
The proof of this theorem is not required, and is available on our textbook or any calculus book.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 17 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

As an example, we prove (fg)′(x) = f (x)g ′(x) + f ′(x)g(x) (using the First Principles) below.
Proof ( 5.1 ). Product Rule
Let’s prove this using the definition of the derivative (the limit of the difference quotient, often referred to
as “First Principles”).
The derivative of a function h(x) is defined as:
′ h(x + h) − h(x)
h (x) = lim
h→0 h
To find the derivative of the product f (x)g(x), we apply this definition:

′ f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
[f (x)g(x)] = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
[f (x + h) − f (x)]g(x + h) + f (x)[g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 ( h )
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim g(x + h) + f (x)
h→0 h h
= g(x)f ′(x) + f (x)g ′(x)
This is the product rule.
Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 18 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

Exercise 5.1:
In general, for any real number α ̸= 0,
(x α)′ = αx α−1.
Solution 5.1: The Power Rule
n > 0 is an integer:
f (x) = x ⇒ f ′(x) = 1 · x 1−1 = 1,
f (x) = x 2 ⇒ f ′(x) = 2 · x 2−1 = 2x,
f (x) = x 3 ⇒ f ′(x) = 3 · x 3−1 = 3x 2,
······
when n = 0, x 0 := 1 is a constant, so (x 0)′ = 0, and it is not natrual to include this case into the power rule.
when n < 0 is an integer:
−1 ′ −1−1 1
f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = −1 · x = − 2,
x
−2 ′ −2−1 2
f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = −2 · x = − 3,
x
······

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 19 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

Exercise 5.2
Find the derivatives
f (x) = 4x 4 + 5x 2 − x + 1
6 2
g(x) = 3 −
x x
3x − 2
h(x) = 3
x +6
Solution 5.2
f ′(x) = 16x 3 + 10x − 1,
′ 18 2
g (x) = − 4 + 2
x x
′ (x 3
+ 6) × 3 − (3x − 2)(3x 2
)
h (x) =
(x 3 + 6)2
−6x 3 + 6x 2 + 18
= 6 .
x − 12x + 36
3

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 20 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

Exercise 5.3
Suppose g is differentiable at x = 3, F (x) = (x 2 + 5)g(x). If g(3) = 4 and g ′(3) = −2, find F ′(3).
Solution 5.3
F ′(x) = (x 2 + 5)′g(x) + (x 2 + 5)g ′(x) = 2xg(x) + (x 2 + 5)g ′(x).
Therefore
F ′(3) = F ′(x)|x=3 = (2 × 3)g(3) + (32 + 5)g ′(3)
= 6 × 4 + (14) × (−2) = −4.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 21 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

Exercise 5.4
1
Let f (x) = 2 . Find f ′(1).
3x + 2x − 1
Recall that
( )′
u(x) u ′(x)v(x) − v ′(x)u(x)
=
v(x) v 2(x)
Solution 5.4
Since (1)′ = 0,
′
′ 0 − 1 × (3x 2
+ 2x − 1) −(6x + 2)
f (x) = = .
(3x + 2x − 1)
2 2 (3x + 2x − 1)
2 2

′ ′ −(6 × 1 + 2) 1
f (1) = f (x)|x=1 = =− .
(3 × 1 + 2 × 1 − 1)
2 2 2

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 22 / 29
 Techniques of Differentiation

Theorem ( 5.2 ).
We have
d d d
sin x = cos x, cos x = − sin x, tan x = sec2 x,
dx dx dx
d d d
cot x = − csc x,
2
csc x = − cot x csc x, sec x = sec x tan x.
dx dx dx
Here we already proved dx d d
sin x = cos x. The derivative dx cos x = − sin x can either be obtained in the
similar way, or use the chain rule we study next time. Then we have
( )′
d tan x sin x cos2 x + sin2 x 2
= = 2
= sec x,
dx cos x cos x
( )′
d cot x cos x − sin2 x − cos2 x
= = 2 = − csc2
x,
dx (
sin x ) sin x
d csc x 1 ′ − cos x
= = 2 = − cot x csc x,
dx (
sin x ) sin x
d sec x 1 ′ sin x
= = 2
= tan x sec x
dx cos x cos x

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 23 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Extra Exercises

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 24 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Exercise 6.1: Differentiability

{
4 cos x + 1, x ≤ 0
A function f (x) is defined as f (x) = If f is differentiable everywhere, find the values
ax + b, x > 0.
of a and b.
Solution 6.1

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 25 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Exercise 6.2
List all 7 Indeterminate forms.
Solution 6.2

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 26 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Exercise 6.3
Consider the function 
 x 2(x + 1)
2
3 if x > 0,
f (x) =  2
−x (x + 1) if x ≤ 0.
2 3

1 Find f ′(x) for x ̸= 0, −1.

2 Discuss the existence of f ′(x) when x = 0, −1.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 27 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Solution 6.3
.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 28 / 29
 Extra Exercises

Exercise 6.4
Let {
4x, if x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
ax + b, if x > 0.
If f is differentiable at x = 0, find the values of a and b.
Solution 6.4
.

Dr. LEE Kei Fung, Charles (PolyU) AMA1110 Lecture Notes 4 24 September 2024 29 / 29