Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cleaner Materials
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/cleaner-materials

A review on sustainable use of recycled construction and demolition waste

aggregates in pavement base and subbase layers
Zainul Abedin Khan a, b , Umashankar Balunaini a, * , Susanga Costa b , Nhu H.T. Nguyen b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana 502284, India
b
School of Engineering, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent times, the continuous growth of construction and demolition (C&D) activities have resulted in increases
Circular construction in the utilization of natural resources as well as global C&D waste production. A major part of C&D waste
Demolition wastes produced is dumped in landfills worldwide although some countries have adopted good recycling and reuse
Recycling
facilities to generated C&D waste. Based on an extensive critical review of published literature on the topic
Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
including global C&D waste recycling statistics and composition of generated wastes, this paper identifies key
Case studies physical, mechanical, and geotechnical characteristics of recycled C&D waste aggregates specific to use as
pavement base or subbase materials. Recycled aggregates typically have sufficient CBR, abrasion resistance,
compressive strength and resilient modulus in accordance with various road standard specifications, which
enable their applications for pavement base and subbase layer construction. Recycled aggregates typically have
higher water absorption and lower specific gravity values than virgin aggregates. Furthermore, this study
evaluates the feasibility and effectiveness of recycled aggregates in pavement base and subbase layers based on
the detailed laboratory investigations. Additionally, case studies involving large-volume utilization of recycled
aggregates for field-scale pavement construction are presented facilitating the broader adoption of recycled
materials in sustainable construction of road pavements. These studies document crucial insights into its real
field performance in terms of strength, durability and longevity. Finally, authors have discussed the potential
challenges, research gaps and future insights on the use of recycled aggregates in pavement construction. The use
of recycled aggregates in pavement construction still has some barriers and challenges such as availability in bulk
quantity especially at the field scale and absence of road standards for application, which require further research
and practical developments to promote the sustainable use of these materials in the future.

large quantity of construction and demolition (C&D) waste (Kurad et al.,

2017; Muduli and Mukharjee, 2019; Ossa et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
Introduction 2017). C&D waste material is a solid waste form material that is
generated at local and commercial levels. Its degradation is very difficult
Granular aggregates are commonly utilized in various construction in normal conditions and improper disposal has become a global
projects such as highway pavements, railway embankment, and back- concern (Disfani et al., 2011; Disfani et al., 2012). Around the world,
filling, etc. (Azarijafari et al., 2016; Gomes et al., 2021; Wang et al., nowadays, sustainable disposal of this waste is a primary concern, and
2021; Zhang et al., 2020). The demand for virgin materials is growing different researchers used various types of recycled C&D waste from
exponentially due to rapid expansion and rise in the infrastructure and industry or recycling units for their studies.
transportation facilities. Every year, about 3 billion tonnes of raw ma- In various countries, most of the generated C&D waste is being
terials are used globally for the production of construction and building dumped into the landfills, which reduces land availability. The gener-
materials (Hossain et al., 2016). The.extraction of virgin materials from ated waste in some regions is transported to other areas for further re-
natural resources destroys the environmental balance. Consequently, covery or disposal (Wu et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2021; Yazdani et al.,
finding alternative materials to natural resources is urgently needed 2021). Recycling and reuse practices have been applied in various Eu-
(Abdollahnejad et al., 2019). On the other hand, demolition and reha- ropean nations since the 1970s. The utilization of recycled aggregates
bilitation operations of existing structures result in the generation of a

* Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Sangareddy, Hyderabad 502284, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (U. Balunaini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2024.100266
Received 6 April 2024; Received in revised form 10 July 2024; Accepted 28 July 2024
Available online 7 August 2024
2772-3976/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

gradation, shear strength parameter, and resilient modulus (Arulrajah

Nomenclature et al., 2014a; Azam and Cameron, 2013). The efficient utilization of
C&D waste aggregate is possible only after comprehensive laboratory
C&D waste Construction and demolition waste and field studies. The emerging waste generation concern can be
RCA Recycled concrete aggregate addressed if recycled aggregates are safely employed in large-scale
CB Crushed brick highway construction projects (Marinković et al., 2010).
CR Crushed rock Fig. 1 shows the typical structure of reviewed content in this study.
VA Virgin aggregate This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of recent published
NA Natural aggregate literature analyzing the global C&D waste generation, recovery, and its
RCB Recycled clay brick sustainable utilization in pavement base/subbase layers. The feasibility
RBA Recycled brick aggregate of recycled C&D waste aggregates were discussed in term of physical,
RCM Recycled clay masonry mechanical and geotechnical characteristics for pavement base and
WS Waste soil subbase layer applications. Furthermore, extensive literature was con-
LAA Los Angeles abrasion ducted in evaluating the performance of recycled C&D waste aggregates
CBR California bearing ratio based on the large number of laboratory as well as field studies utilizing
UCS Unconfined compressive strength recycled C&D waste aggregates in pavement base and subbase layers.
Mr Resilient modulus Finally, potential barriers and research gaps in the application of recy-
cled C&D waste aggregates in pavement base and subbase layers were
listed to promote sustainable use of C&D waste in construction of sus-
tainable roads.
collected from C&D waste is a common practice and typically used in
pavement base/subbase layers in Netherlands (Herrador et al., 2011).
Production, composition and recycling statistics of C&D wastes
Construction wastes have good recycling potential as 80% of it can be
efficiently recycled if appropriately managed. Some countries, like
Building construction usually generates unnecessary waste and can
Denmark and Netherlands, have already achieved very high recycling
be attributed to improper handling of resources by untrained workers.
rate (Ortiz et al., 2010). Many authors have widely studied the efficient
On the other hand, destruction is necessary for the growth of megacities
recycling and reuse activities of generated C&D wastes in past years
due to lack of empty space. Demolition of old infrastructure is generally
(Azam and Cameron, 2013; Coelho and De Brito, 2013; Saberian et al.,
a favorable alternative because it is more time efficient and affordable.
2021; Xuan et al., 2015). These recycled aggregates can be utilized to
However, natural catastrophe can also be produced C&D wastes (Akhtar
replace virgin aggregate effectively in pavement base/subbase layers
and Sarmah, 2018; Arezoumandi et al., 2015). Countries worldwide are
and overcome the increasing virgin aggregate demand in road con-
trying to lower their C&D waste by enacting various laws and promoting
struction. In recent years, many research studies have been conducted to
environmental awareness via numerous mediums. Waste production
determine the feasibility of employing recycled C&D waste aggregates in
worldwide has been increasing continuously, which if correctly
pavement base/subbase layers to give a feasible alternative of virgin
managed, may save enormous amounts of energy and benefit the
aggregate (Arulrajah et al., 2014a; Asadi and Ashtiani, 2018; Herrador
economy. With a combined waste output of more than two billion
et al., 2011). Authors have already reviewed the feasibility of recycled
tonnes, China, India, and the USA are the most significant contributors
C&D waste aggregates in pavement base/subbase layers based on the
in this scenario. In many nations, concrete waste makes up significant
chemical composition and leaching behaviour of recycled aggregates
percentage of C&D waste (Noor-Ul-Amin, 2012; Safiuddin et al., 2011).
(Abedin Khan et al., 2024). Recycled C&D waste aggregates possess the
China’s annual contribution to worldwide C&D waste was 30–40%, with
essential mechanical and physical properties in terms of specific gravity,
a total quantity of 1130 million tonnes (MT) (Swarna et al., 2022). The

Fig. 1. Illustration showing the typical structure of the reviewed content.

2
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

United States accounts for 30% of worldwide C&D wastes (Aslam et al., European Commission, 2017; Kofoworola and Gheewala, 2009; Mene-
2020). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency gaki and Damigos, 2018; Swarna et al., 2022). The European Demolition
(USEPA), the quantified C&D waste in 2014 was 534 MT (USEPA, 2016). Association was founded in 1992 to encourage the scientific manage-
The quantity of C&D wastes production increased to 569 MT in 2017, ment of C&D wastes. Singapore reuses and recycles nearly 100% of its
with an increased recycling rate of 70% (Swarna et al., 2022). C&D waste (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017). Developed coun-
The annual construction waste production is approximately 900 MT tries such as the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Spain have effec-
in the European Union and this accounts to 25–30% of all the wastes tively diverted waste materials from landfill sites to recycling plants,
production (Mália et al., 2013; Yap et al., 2018). Australia produced whereas in developing nations such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, and
about 20.4 MT of C&D wastes, which accounts for 43% of the overall Nepal, more than 90% of C&D wastes is being dumped in landfills
waste production annually in the country with a recycling rate of 67% (Aslam et al., 2020; Islam et al., 2019).
(Swarna et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2018). Fig. 2 illustrates the global C&D C&D waste production rate in developing nations has been on the
waste production and recovery rate (Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018; raise with very low recycling rates (Ibrahim, 2016; Ikhlayel, 2018; Sun

Fig. 2. Statistics showing (a). C&D waste generation around the world, (b). C&D waste production around the world in million tonnes (MT) and recovery ratio in
percentage (Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018; European Commission (EC), 2017; Kofoworola and Gheewala, 2009; Menegaki and Damigos, 2018; Swarna et al., 2022).

3
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

et al., 2020). According to the report published by the Center for Science Figs. 3 and 4 present the typical composition of collected C&D wastes
and Environment (CSE), India recycled only 1% of its generated C&D in different countries and cold climate countries, respectively. Typically,
wastes (CSE, 2020). Several challenges hinder the establishment of a concrete, mortar and bricks have higher percentage in the generated
good recycling system for generated C&D waste in India and other C&D wastes. The representative C&D waste from urban northern parts
developing nations, including a lack of knowledge, inadequate legisla-
tion, weak administration, and minimal incentives (Ram and Kalidindi,
2017).
The composition of C&D waste depends on the location and type of
the waste and the demolition techniques adopted to generate it. Its
composition also depends on the climatic conditions of the region. For
instance, materials with high insulation properties, such as insulated
panels and timber, are preferred in cold climates. These materials
maintain warmth by retaining heat and preventing heat loss due to their
low thermal conductivity properties. On the other hand, temperate cli-
mates require a balance of thermal mass and insulation. Brick, stone,
timber, and concrete are suitable materials for such conditions as they
can effectively handle the varying temperatures typical of temperate
zones. C&D wastes produces a substantial part of sand, gravel, crushed
stones, rubble, concrete blocks, mortar, broken bricks, blocks, metallic
aggregate, timber, glass, plastics wastes, and some hazardous waste,
including asbestos, lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), paints, batteries, fluorescent
tubes, and air conditioning wastes (Butera et al., 2014; Dahlbo et al.,
Fig. 4. Composition of C&D waste in cold climate countries (BMTPC, 2018).
2015; Silva et al., 2014).

(a) USA (Bamigboye et al., 2021) (b) China (Wu et al., 2016)

(c) Australia (Pickin et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020) (d) India (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017)

(e) Finland (Liikanen et al., 2019) (f) Hong Kong (Poon et al., 2001)

Fig. 3. Typical composition of collected C&D wastes in major C&D generating countries, (a) USA (Bamigboye et al., 2021), (b) China (Wu et al., 2016), (c) Australia
(Pickin et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020), (d) India (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017), (e) Finland (Liikanen et al., 2019), and (f) Hong Kong (Poon et al., 2001).

4
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

of India would mainly consist of gravel, sand, and soil (26%), concrete physical, mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of recycled C&D
(28%), masonry and bricks (32%), metal (6%), wood (3%) and others waste aggregates. Grain-size distribution of recycled aggregates depends
(5%) (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017). Concrete waste has major on the material used in the construction process, demolition techniques,
proportion in generated C&D waste in the USA (Bamigboye et al., 2021), and the number of crushers used in the recycling process. Table 1 gives
China (Wu et al., 2016), Australia (Pickin et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020), the detailed gradation properties of different types recycled aggregates
India (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017), and Hong Kong (Poon from various studies. The gradation properties of recycled aggregates
et al., 2001). The percentage of concrete waste in the USA and China was highly variable. It changes significantly with the composition of
70% and 57%, respectively (Bamigboye et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2016). collected C&D waste material used in the recycling process. Recycling
The wood percentage was found to be lower than 10% in C&D wastes techniques such as separation and crushing process also affect the grain-
generated in the USA, China, India and Australia (Bamigboye et al., size distribution of these aggregates. The shape and size of the aggregate
2021; Central Pollution Control Board, 2017; Pickin et al., 2020; Wu is affected by the type of used crushing machine to break down bigger
et al., 2016). However, Finland has higher percentage of wood about piece of collected waste, as well as the number of different processing
26% in generated C&D wastes (Liikanen et al. 2019). stages. Primary and secondary crushing phases are typically used in the
C&D waste recycling plant. A secondary crushing produces a high con-
Physical and mechanical properties of recycled C&D waste tent of round shape and a low content of angular particles. If C&D waste
aggregates aggregate only undergoes primary crushing stages, then angular and flat
particles are mainly produced. Impact crushers, which are also
The stability and durability of pavement mainly depend upon the employed in secondary crushing stages, produce aggregates with well-
strength of its granular aggregates. As a result, quality of used aggre- graded distribution and minimum flakiness index (Ferreira et al.,
gates is a critical parameter for designing and analyzing multilayer 2011; Fonseca et al., 2011; Silva et al., 2014). Flaky particles affect
highway pavement structures (Asadi and Ashtiani, 2018; Li et al., 2018; aggregate packing and are likely to break into smaller particles during
Saberian et al., 2019). In various studies, the recycled C&D waste compaction process and when subjected to higher load (Dhir et al.,
aggregate characterization was mainly based on various physical and 2019).
mechanical properties to evaluate its suitability in pavement base and The grain-size distribution of recycled aggregates also depend on the
subbase layers (Akbas et al., 2021a; Arulrajah et al., 2014b; Moham- compaction process due to high breakage potential and changes in
madinia et al., 2015; Saberian and Li, 2021). Every country has its particles shapes of the material according to the Leite et al. (2011). The
guidelines for pavement layers based on geological, climatic, and sub- elongated and flat particle typically contributes in aggregate’s breakage
grade conditions, and chosen material generally fulfill the requirements during the compaction process. The C&D waste aggregates have flat
given by highway authorities. The strength of recycled C&D waste aggregates of about 39% before the compaction (higher than the limit
aggregate is mainly influenced by its physical and mechanical specified by Brazilian standards for shape and size of aggregates) and the
properties. percentage of flat aggregates was reduced to 29% post compaction due
to breakage of aggregates and this value satisfied the Brazilian stan-
Grain-size distribution and breakage dards. During the compaction, the percentage of elongated and flat ag-
gregates decreased, and the percentage of cube-shaped aggregates
The grain-size distribution of aggregates significantly impacts the increased. The crushing of C&D waste aggregate influences the final

Table 1
Detailed gradation properties of different recycled C&D waste aggregates.
Reference Types of Gravel Sand Fines Coefficient of Coefficient of USCS Flakiness Specific
recycled content content content uniformity (Cu) curvature (Cc) classification index (%) gravity
aggregates (%) (%) (%)

(Arulrajah et al., RCA 50.7 45.7 3.6 31.2 0.9 GW

2013b) CB 53.6 3.8 6.6 44.4 2 GW
WR 44.7 45.1 10.2 74.7 5.4 SW

(Rahman et al., 2015) RCA 47.9 42.2 9.9 78 2.2 GP-GM 2.65
CB 52.6 38.4 9 71 2.8 GW 2.45

(Mohammadinia RCA 62.5 31.5 6 38.8 1.3 GW 16.44

et al., 2015) CB 58.5 33.8 7.7 37.9 1.6 GW 25.0
(Diagne et al., 2015) RCB/RCA (%)
100/0 56 38.2 5.8 25.8 2.6 GW-GM 2.25
5/95 56 39.6 4.4 34 2.3 GW 2.3
15/85 52 42.2 5.5 48 3.5 GW-GM 2.36
30/70 53 43.9 3.1 30.9 2.1 GW 2.33
0/100 51 47.2 1.8 41.6 1.2 GW 2.41
(Del Rey et al., 2016) CMRA 31–62 10–20.2
FMRA 49–54
(Ghorbani et al., RCA 50.3 45 4 29.4 1.2 GW
2021b) CB 41.2 49 9.7 70.8 2.2 SW
WR 53.9 39 7 35.3 3.4 GP
(Tavakoli Mehrjardi RCA 72.2 4.9 1.3 GP 2.43
et al., 2020) WS 53 10.4 3.5 GW 2.36
NA 78.2 26.3 1.3 GP 2.63
(Akbas et al., 2021b) RCA-1 62 33 5 73.6 3.1 GW-GM
RCA-2 50 44 6 60.7 2.1 GW-GM

(*RCB- recycled clay bricks, CMRA- coarse mixed recycled aggregates, FMRA- fine mixed recycled aggregates, NA- natural aggregates, WS- waste soil, RCA- recycled
concrete aggregates, WR- waste rocks, CB- crushed bricks, GW- well-graded gravel, GP- poorly-graded gravel, GW-GM- well-graded gravel with silt, GP-GM- poorly-
graded gravel with silt, SW- well-graded sand.

5
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

sizing of the aggregate and the crushing of larger-size aggregates is more than virgin aggregates. The presence of recycled aggregates in the mix
prominent during the compaction process. However, fines content in the decreased the maximum dry density (MDD) and increased the optimum
sample increases with the compaction effort due the breakage of low water content (OMC) due to the higher water absorption value and low
strength materials. The degree of crushing of C&D waste aggregate has aggregate density of these aggregates (Ayan et al., 2011). Fig. 6 shows
typically reduced in presence of fine content (Melbouci, 2009). Fig. 5 the impact of aggregate sizes on the water absorption values. The dotted
shows the impact of compaction on gradation and particle size (Leite lines show the average water absorption value of 5.4 and 9.9% respec-
et al., 2011). tively for coarse and fine fraction with an overall mean value of water
In comparison to the microstructure and mineralogy of these ag- absorption equal to 7.6%. Additionally, the water absorption value of
gregates, shape of aggregates was found to have a critical impact on the coarse recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) was found to be lower than
breakage potential of recycled aggregates. Additionally, they showed the fine RCA aggregates indicating that coarse size RCA aggregates may
that bulky particles manifested in higher aggregate breaking resistance have less amount of cement mortar adhering to its surface, resulting in a
than elongated aggregates. Recycled C&D waste aggregates with a low low water absorption value. Typically, RCA possess a rough surface
flakiness index would experience low aggregate breakage potential texture compared to natural aggregates of similar sizes, which helps
during loading (Afshar et al., 2017). Furthermore, (Afshar et al., 2018) mortar present in concrete to firmly adhere to aggregates particles
reported the influence of stress levels on the breakage behaviour of (FHWA, 1997). Due to their higher water requirement in construction
recycled C&D waste aggregates. Recycled C&D waste aggregate tended activities, recycled aggregates must be used with greater caution. Nat-
to produce more spherical and more anisotropic-shaped fragments at ural aggregates, on the other hand, has significantly lower water ab-
low and high stress levels, respectively. sorption values ranged between 0.5 to 1.5%, which is typically suitable
The mode of impact in compaction test such as Proctor and vibratory for most the construction activities (Silva et al., 2014).
compaction also influenced the gradation of recycled aggregates (Ding In another study, water absorption properties of coarse and fine RCA
et al., 2022). The breakage potential of recycled aggregates was found to samples were found to be 6% and 13.6%, respectively (Mohammadinia
stabilize after about 2000 load cycles and fine content increased in the et al., 2015). The fine fraction of CB typically has higher water ab-
samples (Ding et al., 2022). The vibratory mode of compaction of C&D sorption value due to higher specific surface area. Furthermore, the
waste aggregate did not show a positive correlation between reduction water absorption value of blended specimens of RCA and recycled clay
in the breakage potential of aggregates and fines content. The particle bricks (RCB) ranged from 4.6% to 5.1% (Diagne et al., 2015). Recycled
breakage was found to be more uniform in vibratory compaction bricks generally have higher water absorption requirement than RCA
compared to the Proctor compaction method (Ding et al., 2022). samples. Additionally, Peng et al., 2013 conducted an experiment to
Therefore, grain size distribution and breakage potential should be determine the water absorption characteristics of recycled aggregates
critically examined before use in road pavement layers due to the its and investigate the impact of adhered mortar removal from the surface
higher impact on the strength and deformation characteristics. of recycled aggregates. Water absorption value of RCA reduced from 4%
to 2.8% after the removal of adhered mortar at the surface of RCA (Peng
Water absorption et al., 2013). Appropriate surface treatment of recycled aggregates can
lower the water requirement of recycled aggregates by reducing the
Water absorption is a critical parameter that influencing the dura- water absorption capacity as well as improve the strength of these ma-
bility and resilience of the material. The durability of construction and terials (Güneyisi et al., 2014; Junak and Sicakova, 2017).
building materials is typically affected by porosity and it is generally
accepted that less porous materials generally have a higher life span Los Angeles abrasion
because it can avoid the attack of degradation agents (Eckert and Oli-
veira, 2017; Zhang and Panesar, 2018). The water absorption values of Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test can be performed to measure the
aggregates depend mainly on their porosity; recycled C&D waste resistance of recycled aggregates under the impact and wearing loads.
aggregate generally have higher water absorption values attributed The test specimen was placed in a cylindrical rotating machine along
mainly to the presence of adhered mortar on its surface. The coarse with standard balls and subjected to shocks. The LA abrasion (LAA)
recycled aggregates have lower water absorption values than fine values of recycled aggregates are typically greater than the natural ag-
recycled aggregates due to the lower specific surface area and attached gregates (Surya et al., 2013). LA abrasion value for the base/subbase
mortar on its surface than fine aggregates (Djerbi Tegguer, 2012; Dhir layer applications should be less than 40% according to AASHTO T96-02
et al., 2019; Yap et al., 2018). as well as Indian standards (Dhir et al., 2019; Melbouci, 2009). Abrasion
Typically, C&D waste aggregates have higher water requirement value of recycled aggregates can vary with material type and composi-
tion. Researcher evaluated LA value for two different RCA specimens
collected from two different recycling plants located in Adelaide,
Australia; the mean LA value for RCA-1 and RCA-2 specimens was 38.5%
(Gabr and Cameron, 2012).
Furthermore, Barbudo et al. (2012) has performed more extensive
analysis using the 27 different types of recycled aggregate samples
collected from 11 recycling plants. The mean value of RMA was much
higher than the mean values of natural aggregates and RCA. Addition-
ally, LA abrasion value typically decreased as the mixed recycled con-
tent increased in C&D waste. Fig. 7 gives the LA abrasion values from
published literature, and the dotted straight line marks the mean value
(34.4%). Typically, waste rock and RCA samples have lower abrasion
value than crushed bricks samples due to higher strength (Barbudo et al.,
2012). In another study, (Rahman et al., 2014a) studied the LA abrasion
behavior of different types recycled aggregates for pavement layer ap-
plications. LA abrasion test showed that the RCA (30.5%) and CB
(34.5%) aggregates were durable and within the upper limit of 40%
Fig. 5. Percentage of particles shapes at different levels of compaction effort (Arulrajah et al., 2012b; Gabr and Cameron, 2012; Mohammadinia
(Leite et al., 2011). et al., 2015), which highway agencies commonly used for pavement

6
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Fig. 6. Typical variations in water absorption with coarse and fine fraction of recycled aggregates (CRCA- coarse recycled concrete aggregates, FRCA- fine recycled
concrete aggregates).

Fig. 7. Los Angeles abrasion values of different types recycled aggregates in various studies.

subbase or base layer materials. Abrasion value plays significant role in ratio, improve shear strength, and decrease settlement under load. The
pavement layer design and it should be within the maximum specified compaction properties of pavement materials were investigated using
limit given in the used country specific standards. standard and modified Proctor compaction test. The goal is to determine
the optimum water content (OMC) at which a material becomes the
Compaction characteristics densest and its density at this state, known as the maximum dry density
(MDD) (Dhir et al., 2019). Compaction behaviour of recycled aggregates
In pavement construction, materials are compacted by applying can significantly vary with types of aggregates. Jiménez et al. (2011)
mechanical energy to rearrange aggregates in order to reduce the void studied three different types of recycled aggregates, four mixed debris,

7
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

and one natural aggregates samples using the modified Proctor Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
compaction tests. The RCA and natural aggregates with sharp changes
in curves were more susceptible to moisture content changes than the UCS test is used to determine the compressive strength of materials in
mixed debris (MD) with flat curves. The crushed bricks samples showed an unconfined condition. Recycled aggregates can be stabilized with
lower MDD and higher OMC value than RCA (Jiménez et al., 2011). different additives to improve the strength and deformation character-
Fig. 8 shows the typical variation in compaction characteristics of istics. The UCS value typically depends on the additive content, curing
various types recycled C&D waste aggregates. RCA and CB materials period and degree of compaction or dry density of materials (Agrela
typically have lower MDD and higher OMC values than natural aggre- et al., 2012; Mohammadinia et al., 2015). Additionally, this test can
gate due to their higher porosity and lower strength. The presence of low assess the self-cementing characteristics of recycled C&D waste aggre-
strength materials in collected waste such as weathered bricks and tiles gates with time, particularly those of RCA, owing to the presence of
typically lower the strength of recycled aggregates. adhered mortar on its surface. UCS value of recycled aggregates also
Modified Proctor compaction investigations revealed that RCA had depends on the type of aggregates due to the difference in binding
higher MDD compared to crushed bricks (CB), and OMC of CB was properties. A study was conducted by Mohammadinia et al. (2015) to
higher than RCA due to the large pore space of CB materials used in the investigate the UCS behavior of cement-treated RCA and CB specimens.
study (Rahman et al., 2015). The compaction results of RCA and recy- The UCS tests were performed with 4% cement, and the UCS results were
cled clay masonry (RCM) blended specimens showed that the maximum compared to those without treatment. The RCA has higher UCS values
dry density was found in case of without RMC mixed sample due to than CB for an untreated test. Based on UCS results, RCA and CB needed
lower strength of RCM than RCA (Arisha et al., 2016). Recycled aggre- 4% cement content and 28 days of curing time to fulfill minimum UCS
gates are typically stabilized with additives to make them suitable for criteria in accordance with Australian road standards. Additionally, UCS
pavement layer applications. However, the compaction characteristics values showed to rise rapidly at the start of the curing time and became
can significantly vary due to the inclusion of additives. The addition of nearly flat after 28 days (Mohammadinia et al., 2015).
cement can increase the maximum dry density due to strong adherence Furthermore, Agrela et al. (2012) conducted UCS tests to evaluate
between particles. Additionally, cement treatment typically increases the compressive strength of two different recycled mixed aggregates
the optimum water content due to its higher water requirement for (MixRA-15 and MixRA-22) in the lab and field conditions. Initially, UCS
hydration process (Melbouci, 2009). Furthermore, Mohammadinia et al. tests were performed on laboratory scale at different curing days (3, 7,
(2015) evaluated the compressibility of non-treated and cement-treated 28 and 90 days). After that, six cores were drilled after 28 days after the
recycled C&D waste material using a modified Proctor compaction test. construction of the subbase layer in real filed conditions. The
The OMC and MDD values were evaluated for untreated and treated compressive strength of the cores was found to be higher than the lab-
waste material using 2% and 4% cement contents. The MDD value oratory specimens. MixRA-22 cement-treated specimen showed a
increased with increasing cement content in the sample. The MDD of 4% slightly higher UCS value (3.5 MPa) than MixRA-15 treated with cement
cement-treated crushed bricks (CB) was somewhat lower than that of (3.4 MPa). The UCS of cement-treated mixed aggregates must be larger
untreated CB. RCA showed 1% more water absorption value than CB. than 2.5 MPa according to Spain standards, and treated recycled
The RCA and CB showed nearly 1% difference in OMC values. Finally, aggregate was found satisfactory for subbase layer application (Agrela
they reported that the variation in OMC can be mostly attributed to the et al., 2012). Besides, Beja et al. (2020) studied the possibilities of using
changes in water absorption values of material (Mohammadinia et al., recycled materials in subbase layer of pavements having high traffic
2015). In general, the compaction characteristics of recycled aggregates volumes. The mixes contained 3% hydrated lime and 3% cement and
can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including particle size were found to be eligible for use as a subbase layer material since the
distribution, composition of collected C&D waste, moisture content, UCS values were found to be 3.6 and 4.6 MPa, respectively, exceeding
compaction method, and testing conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to the minimum required strength of 2.1 MPa after seven days of curing
carefully evaluate and compare the compaction characteristics of these period according to the Brazilian standard (Beja et al., 2020). Table 2
aggregates to ensure that they meet the required specification for the summarizes the major findings of UCS behavior of different types
intended road pavement applications. recycled aggregates from various studies.

Fig. 8. Typical variation in compaction characteristics of recycled C&D waste aggregates.

8
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) properties of recycled C&D waste ag- Reference Types of Findings
gregates with major findings. recycled
Reference Types of Findings aggregates
recycled (b) The UCS value of lime- and cement-
aggregates treated samples was more than 2.1
(Yang et al., 2010) RCA, NA (a) The optimum replacement of NA MPa for subbase application, satis-
with RCA was found to be 50 %. fying the Brazilian standards.
(b) A reduction in the 28-day UCS (Saberian and Li, RCA (a) UCS value of the mix was reduced
value of 29.3 % was reported when 2021) due to the reduction in surface
NA was replaced completely with roughness and load-bearing capac-
RCA. ity after crumb rubber blending.
(Agrela et al., 2012) MixRA-15, (a) UCS value increased with the (b) UCS value was reduced by 33.5 %
MixRA-22 degree of compaction and dry after including the 1 % crumb
density. rubber in a 100 % RCA sample.
(b) MixRA-22 (3.5 MPa) showed
(FRA- fine recycled aggregates, MixRA- mixed recycled aggregates).
higher compressive strength than
MixRA-15 (3.4 MPa) after 7 days of
curing. UCS behaviour of C&D waste aggregate can significantly change
(Disfani et al., 2014) RCA, CB (a) The average UCS value for the with the used materials gradation and fine content. A study investigated
cement-treated RCA/CB blends at
the impact of fine and coarse recycled aggregates on the UCS behavior of
7- days curing ranged between 4
to 4.6 MPa; this range satisfied the samples (Del Rey et al., 2016). The three specimens contained coarse
minimum 7-days UCS requirement aggregates (0 to 40 mm) and another three fine aggregate specimens (0
(4 MPa) according to Australian to 8 mm) range. Experimental results revealed that the compressive
standards. strength of fine aggregate samples was higher than that of samples
(b) The maximum UCS value after 28
days of curing was 7 MPa for the 85
containing coarse fraction due to the larger surface area for the hydra-
RCA/15 CB mixed sample. tion process in fine aggregates. Finally, they reported that the maximum
(Arulrajah et al., RCA, CB, WR (a) RCA has a maximum UCS value 31.1% increase in UCS was shown by fine aggregate sample for a curing
2014a) after 7-days of curing, followed by period of 7 to 28 days (Del Rey et al., 2016). In another investigations,
WR and CB.
dry density relation with UCS values also validated by the Jia et al.
(b) The UCS values varied from 0.31-
0.37 MPa, 0.08–0.13 MPa, and (2015) using the six different recycled C&D waste aggregate specimens
0.15–0.2 MPa for RCA, CB, and and UCS value correlated with the dry density. UCS tests were per-
WR, respectively, after seven days formed on samples with a 95% target compaction value. It was evident
of curing. that the targeted compaction degree will influence the compressive
(Mohammadinia RCA, CB (a) The UCS test performed with
et al., 2015) different cement contents (0, 2, and
strength results. The UCS increased as the target compaction value
4 % by weight) and curing periods increased. The UCS for concrete wastes was substantially greater than
(1,7 and 28 days) indicated that the for broken clay bricks. Finally, they reported that compressive strength
4 % cement and 28 days curing and MDD have strong correlation; UCS value increases with an increase
period were required to meet the
in dry density (Jia et al., 2015).
minimum 4 MPa requirement
according to Victorian road Further studies have been performed to determine the optimum
standards, Australia. partial replacement of virgin aggregates with recycled aggregate in
(Del Rey et al., Recycled C&D (a) UCS values of tested specimens designed mix. Behiry (2013) evaluated the UCS value of mixed samples
2016) waste aggregates fulfilled the minimum UCS with different replacement ratio of natural aggregates. The samples were
requirement of 2.5 to 4.5 MPa at 7
days as per the Spanish Road
denoted as MixRA-0 (100% lime stone), MixRA-25, MixRA-75 and
standards (2015). MixRA-100. The maximum UCS value at 28 days curing was found
(b) The mean UCS values at 7 days and corresponding for mixed sample MixRA-75 (Behiry, 2013). Fig. 9 shows
28 days were found to be 3.1 MPa the impact of natural aggregate replacement on UCS value and signifi-
days and 4.0 MPa for mixed FRA
cant improvement in UCS was observed for 50 and 75 RCA blended
specimens.
(Ahmed Shaikh RCA (a) UCS results of six different mixed
et al., 2019) combinations showed a drop in
UCS value at a higher mixing
percentage.
(b) 50 % replacement of RCA improves
the compressive strength of mixed
specimens at all ages.
(Mohammadinia RCA, CB (a) The non-treated UCS value was
et al., 2019b) higher for RCA (0.55 MPa)
compared to the CB (0.34 MPa)
aggregates.
(b) The higher calcium alkali-activated
RCA and CB aggregates were suit-
able for the construction of base
layers in pavements. In contrast,
low-calcium alkali-activated RCA
was suitable for sub base
construction.
(Beja et al., 2020) Recycled C&D (a) The optimum mixing content of
waste aggregates lime and cement was found to be 3
% to enhance the strength of the
mix.
Fig. 9. Effect of natural aggregates replacement with recycled aggregates on
the UCS behavior (Behiry, 2013).

9
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

specimens (Behiry, 2013). The compressive strength of different samples Table 3

prepared with distinct replacement percentages of RCA was reported by Typical variation in California bearing ratio (CBR) values of recycled C&D waste
various investigators, showing that strength growth rate of RCA mix was aggregates.
faster than natural aggregate sample, particularly at older ages (e.g., 28 Reference Types of recycled CBR value (soaked CBR value
days). This may be attributed to the presence of non-hydrated old mortar aggregates condition) % (unsoaked
attached to the surfaces of RCA, which reacts with water and increased condition) %

the strength development rate (Gesoglu et al., 2015; Verian et al., 2018). (Jiménez et al., RCA 97–138
Typically, the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete was 2011) MD 62–94
NA 152
lower than the conventional concrete, with replacement ratios of 30%,
(Arulrajah et al., RCA 118–160
50%, 70%, and 100%, respectively. Furthermore, increasing the recy- 2012b)
cled aggregates percentage in mix leads to decreasing strength of pre- (Barbudo et al., RCA 100 (mean value)
pared samples. The complete substitution of NA with recycled 2012) RMC 74 (mean value)
aggregates reduced the compressive strength of the mix (at 28-days) by NA 152 (maximum
value)
up to 29.3%. The optimum replacement of NA was found to be 50% with (Jiménez et al., Mixed RA 68
RCA based on compressive strength performance of designed mix (Yang 2012) RCA 138
et al., 2010). Recycled aggregate generally has inferior strength prop- NA 152
erties than conventional aggregates. Therefore, UCS behaviour of (Gabr and RCA-1 143–90
Cameron, RCA-2 215–120
treated recycled C&D waste aggregate is significantly critical to enhance
2012) VA 170–110
the strength, durability and service life of road pavement made of (Dondi et al., RCA-1 196 241
recycled aggregates. 2014) RCA-2 155 171
(Rahman et al., RCA 172
2014a) CB 135
California bearing ratio (CBR) tests
(Arisha et al., RCA/RMC
2016) 100/0 153
CBR test is one of the most common experiments to assess material 90/10 129
bearing factors in highway pavement construction. The CBR test has 80/20 114.5
been used to investigate the bearing pressure of material suited for 70/30 114.5
55/45 119.4
pavement layer material. The minimum value of CBR equal to 30% is
40/60 114.5
required to use in subbase layer of the pavement according to AASTHO T 20/80 69.5
193–13. The CBR values of recycled C&D waste significantly increased 0/100 77
with the modified compaction effort as compared to the CBR value ob- (Dhir et al., RCA 58 (mean value) 78 (mean value)
tained with the help of intermediate compaction. CBR value with 2019) MRA 55 (mean value) 64 (mean value)
(Akbas et al., RCA-1 133
modified compaction was nearly 60% higher than the intermediate 2021b) RCA-2 121
compaction (Leite et al., 2011). Additionally, the bearing pressure of
tested material is heavily influenced by its state properties (Melbouci,
2009). Jiménez et al. (2011) evaluated the CBR of three different RCA plant to investigate the variation in CBR behaviour. They performed
and four mixed recycled debris (MD) gathered from three distinct CBR tests for 27 types of C&D waste aggregates after immersing the
regional waste recycling plants in Córdoba (Spain) using varied recy- samples for 96 h of soaking period. The maximum CBR value was 152%
cling processes. Natural aggregates showed the greatest CBR values for natural aggregates and an average value of CBR of 100% for RCA was
(152%), while RCA had higher CBR values (97–138%) than MD reported. The strength of C&D waste highly varied from site to site;
(62–94%). After four days of soaking, the swelling was found to be less therefore, significant variation in CBR values was found within the same
than 0.06 percent, which can be assumed as negligible (Jiménez et al., type of recycled aggregates collected from another recycling plant
2011). They performed another study (Jiménez et al., 2012) with two (Barbudo et al., 2012).
different recycled aggregates from chosen C&D wastes in the field. Different types of C&D waste aggregate typically have distinct
Natural aggregate had a higher CBR index (152%) than recycled con- strength properties. Researchers performed the CBR tests for two
crete aggregate (138%), while mixed recycled aggregate (68%) had a different types of recycled aggregates, RCA and CB, and the CBR values
lower value among the three materials. Pavement base layer was pre- were found as 172% and 135%, respectively, for RCA and CB (Rahman
dicted to have a significant bearing capacity due to the higher CBR et al., 2014a). A study was performed to compare the soaked and
values of the recycled aggregates and the absence of swelling (Jiménez unsoaked CBR behavior of two different RCA used in the study (Dondi
et al., 2012). Table 3 presents the typical CBR values of the materials in et al., 2014). The maximum value was found 241% for the RCA-1 sample
soaked and unsoaked conditions reported in various studies. Overall, in unsoaked conditions. The specimen’s performance reduced in soaked
recycled aggregates typically has lower CBR value than virgin aggre- condition, and CBR value decreased by 20% for RCA-1 and 10% for the
gates (Barbudo et al., 2012; Jiménez et al., 2011). RCA-2 specimens (Dondi et al., 2014). Furthermore, study has been
Gabr and Cameron (2012) reported the relationship between target performed to investigate the impact of blending percentage of different
moisture content and CBR values and showed that with increasing target types of aggregates on the CBR values. The CBR value in RCA/RCM
moisture content, CBR values were increased (90 to 143% and 120 to blended samples typically decreased with increasing RCM content due
215%) for collected recycled aggregates from two distinct processing to lower strength of RCM compared to RCA. The maximum CBR value
units (Gabr and Cameron, 2012). In another study, Arulrajah et al. was 153% for without RCM mixed sample (Arisha et al., 2016). The
(2012b) determined the CBR values of RCA samples collected over many stabilized C&D waste aggregates typically showed much higher CBR
months. The CBR values varied from 118% to 160% for different sam- values due to the hydration of cementitious materials. Additionally,
ples of RCA and were found to meet the minimum requirement of 80% Kalantar Hormozi et al. (2021) established a correlation between
according to local road criterion in Australia as a subbase layer material. cement content percentage and CBR value for recycled C&D waste. The
The variation in CBR might be due to minor differences in aggregates CBR of treated samples increased from 65.8% to 88.6% when stabilized
composition and strength due to the measurements being made on with 12% cement content. The CBR value increased with increasing
distinct bulk samples many months apart (Arulrajah et al., 2012b). cement content in the mix (Kalantar Hormozi et al., 2021).
Furthermore, Barbudo et al. (2012) investigated the large number of
different types of recycled aggregates collected from different recycling

10
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Shear strength parameters Table 4

Shear strength parameters of recycled C&D waste aggregates.
Direct shear test has been used to investigate the shear strength Reference Types of recycled Apparent Friction
characteristics of materials. Typically, friction angle and cohesion values aggregates cohesion (kPa) angle (0)
are determined by the direct shear tests. The shear strength of specimens (Arulrajah et al., RCA 45 49
was not influenced by moisture if the sample had coarse aggregate free 2012b)
from fine fraction. The prescribed normal stress applied on the sample (Rahman et al., 2014b) RCA 66.4 52
are typically equal to 50, 100 and 150 kPa, covering rather lower to CB 59.9 51
(Soleimanbeigi and RCA 0 46
higher vertical stress in a soil specimen of the subbase layer of highways Edil, 2015) RPM 2 44
(Tavakoli Mehrjardi et al., 2020). However, (Arulrajah et al., 2013a; FSD 15 37
Arulrajah et al., 2014a; Melbouci, 2009; Sivakumar et al., 2004) inves- (Arisha et al., 2016) CDW/RCM
tigated the strength properties of the material using normal stresses of 100/0 12.4 58.4
90/10 25.8 55.6
50, 100, and 200 kPa, 30, 60, and 120 kPa, 100–400 kPa, and 60, 120,
80/20 56.8 52.7
and 240 kPa, respectively. A study was performed to evaluate the shear 70/30 89.2 48.8
strength parameter by consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial tests. Linear 55/45 80.3 53.2
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope showed that RCA has apparent cohesion 40/60 24.0 59.7
of 45 kPa and a drained friction angle of 49 degrees (Arulrajah et al., 20/80 50.9 50.4
0/100 43.1 52.1
2012b). (Tavakoli Mehrjardi RCA 12 43
The shear strength parameters of different types C&D waste aggre- et al., 2020) WS 4.3 42
gates were determined using the triaxial CD test or direct shear test. NA 23 50
Direct shear tests show that the shear strength parameters of RCA were (Akbas et al., 2021b) RCA-1 10 48
RCA-2 28 32
greater than the CB recycled aggregates. The cohesion value varied from
45 to 66 kPa, and the angle of friction ranges from 51◦ to 57◦ for three (RPM- Recycled pavement material, FSD- Foundry Sand, WS- waste soil).
different types of C&D waste aggregates (Rahman et al., 2014b). Fig. 10
shows the shear strength parameter variation with the increasing of the reference CB and RCA materials. According to the shear strength
blending percentage of RBA in RCA specimens (Sharma et al., 2023). properties, it was determined that 95% recycled C&D waste aggregates
The increasing blending percentage of recycled bricks aggregates (RBA) and 5% PET blends had the potential to be utilized as a replacement for
in RCA specimens typically reduced its shear strength properties. This is natural aggregate in pavement base and subbase applications.
because recycled bricks have lower compressive strength and higher
water absorption than concrete, which can weaken the interlocking
mechanism between the aggregate particles in the RCA. However, they Resilient modulus
found higher angle of friction for RBA compared to the 50RBA and
75RBA blended specimens (Sharma et al., 2023). Table 4 summarizes The resilient modulus measures stiffness under cyclic loads that
the shear strength parameters reported by various studies for different simulates highway traffic loads. Investigators have conducted tests on
types of recycled aggregates. Furthermore, (Perera et al., 2020) evalu- pavement materials in the laboratory using repetitive load triaxial (RLT)
ated the shear strength properties of RCA and CB with the help of the tests. However, falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and lightweight
direct shear test and CD testing. The RCA showed higher apparent deflectometer have been used for in situ testing of pavement materials. It
cohesion and lower friction angle than CB specimens. The results of the is generally acknowledged that the resilient modulus (Mr) is affected by
direct shear and triaxial CD testing showed that specimens mixed with various parameters such as grain-size distribution, moisture content,
5% PET might increase the apparent cohesion and friction angle values density, stresses, and temperature (Azam et al., 2013; Dhir et al., 2019;
Ghorbani et al., 2021a; Li et al., 2019). The repeated load test is

Fig. 10. Shear strength parameters corresponding to different blending percentages of RBA and RCA (Sharma et al., 2023) (RBA=recycled brick aggregates,
RCA=recycled concrete aggregates).

11
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

employed to investigate the resilient characteristics according to the Table 5

AASTHO TP-46 for soils and aggregates. AASTHO proposed a bulk stress Resilient modulus characteristics of recycled C&D waste aggregates with major
model to determine the modulus of resilient is described in Equations (1) findings.
and (2)- Reference Types of Findings
recycled
Mr = k1 θk2 (1) aggregates

(Leite et al., 2011) Recycled C&D (a) The recycled aggregates compacted
θ = σd + 3σ 3 (2) waste with modified compaction have 10%
aggregates lower permanent deformation than
where, k1 and k2 are the material parameters depending on the lab test compacted with intermediate
results, Mr is the resilient modulus (MPa), θ is the bulk stress (MPa), σd is compaction for a similar stress level
the deviatoric stress (MPa) and σ3 is confining stress (MPa) (Leite et al., after 180,000 cycles.
(b) The Mr values of samples varied
2011). Recycled C&D waste material showed a stress dependent from 200 to 500 MPa under
behavior and the Mr value of recycled aggregates was found to have a modified compaction effort and
positive correlation with compaction effort and stresses (bulk and ranged from 160 to 440 MPa under
deviatoric) (Zhang et al., 2021a). Additionally, resilient modulus value intermediate compaction effort,
based upon bulk stress conditions.
typically increased with increasing compaction effort (Arab et al.,
(Gabr and RCA (a) The Mr value of RCA from the
2020). Cameron, 2012) different sources ranged between
The resilient characteristics of aggregates significantly depends upon 490 to 1020 MPa, clearly meeting
the moisture content. The permanent strain of tested samples was the 300 MPa requirement according
affected by the different moisture content levels. The non-recoverable to the South Australian Standards.
(b) A significant decrement in
strain rate for RCA materials was satisfactory; however, the natural permanent strain was observed with
aggregates prepared at 80% and 90% of OMC did not meet the standards decreasing moisture content.
of department of transport, energy and infrastructure (DTEI), South (Arulrajah et al., RCA, CB and CR (a) Most of the mixed CB-RCA and CB-
Australia (Gabr and Cameron, 2012). Arulrajah et al. (2012b) investi- 2012c) blends CR blends have higher resilient
modulus and lower permanent
gated the Mr values of RCA and found that, samples prepared at relative
strain than granular subbase mate-
compaction of 98% as per the modified Proctor compaction and mois- rials due to the residual cementing
ture contents varied from 60% to 83% of the OMC. Recycled aggregate property of recycled C&D waste
samples had a much lower permanent strain value and much higher aggregate.
modulus value than natural aggregate subbase material. The Mr of RCA (b) Generally, most of the CB blends
with CR and RCA performed
was found to be up to 229% higher than that of a natural aggregate satisfactorily in terms of
subbase material and higher Mr values of RCA indicated that residual deformation properties at 70% of
cementing action is taking place in RCA samples (Arulrajah et al., OMC and 98% of MDD.
2012b). (Mohammadinia RCA, CB (a) The resilient modulus of the cement-
et al., 2015) treated specimen was increased with
The effectiveness of recycled aggregates in subbase layer was eval-
increasing cement content and
uated in a study using the large number of RLT tests at different water confining pressure.
contents and stresses. The results revealed that the recycled C&D waste (b) The RLT results revealed that the
materials work adequately at around 70% of their optimum water strength of recycled C&D waste
content. Recycled C&D aggregates produced relatively smaller non- aggregates increased with
increasing cement content.
recoverable strain and higher Mr than natural materials used for pave- However, high cement content may
ment subbase layer applications (Arulrajah et al., 2013b). Table 5 shows decrease resilient modulus due to
the major findings of resilient modulus characteristics from different the recoverable cracks generated in
studies. Furthermore, Diagne et al. (2015) evaluated the impact of the hydration process.
(Delongui et al., Recycled C&D (a) Repetitive load triaxial tests
blending on the resilient behaviour of mixed recycled aggregates. They
2018) waste indicated that the pavement layers
demonstrated that the blending percentage of recycled clay masonry aggregates responded nearly elastic and safe
(RCM) significantly affects the resilient modulus of RCA/RCM mixed under rutting criteria for σd < 210
specimens. Various RCM/RCA mix proportions were tested, designated kPa and σd/σ3 < 2. Hence, recycled
as 100/0, 30/70, 15/85, 5/95, and 0/100% by weight. The results material can be used in the base
layer of low to medium traffic-
showed that the Mr value decreased with the increasing RCM content volume urban highway pavements.
and moisture content (Diagne et al., 2015). (b) Mr values varied between 200 to
The recycled C&D waste aggregate stiffness increased with time, 300 MPa according to laboratory
most likely due to the pozzolanic reactions due to non-hydrated mortar tests.
(Aboutalebi Recycled C&D (a) The mixed sample of C&D/CS of 25/
adhered to the surface of aggregates. As a result, significant compaction
Esfahani, 2020) waste 75 did not meet the minimum
energy is required to induce aggregate breaking and interlocking. The aggregates resilient modulus (191 MPa) value
addition of additives significantly increased the resilience modulus of criteria for the base layer but can be
recycled C&D waste aggregates (Beja et al., 2020). The resilient used as a subbase layer material.
behaviour of cement treated samples of recycled aggregates were (b) The C&D/CS sample 10/90 meets
the minimum resilient modulus
investigated by the Mohammadinia et al. (2015) and they reported that
value requirement to use as a base
the cement treatment improved the resilient characteristics of C&D layer material.
waste materials. The strength of the recycled C&D waste aggregates (Ghorbani et al., RCA (a) The laboratory results indicated that
improved as the cement content was increased. However, swelling po- 2020) the temperature could affect the
cementing characteristics of RCA.
tential of mix with higher cement content may reduce the resilient
(b) The permanent strain was evaluated
modulus due to the recoverable cracks induced during the cement hy- after 30,000 cycles, and RCA
dration process (Mohammadinia et al., 2015). According to Beja et al. samples showed the plastic
(2020), cement or lime mixing significantly enhanced the Mr values of shakedown deformation behavior.
C&D waste aggregates. Additionally, it reduced the pavement deflection (continued on next page)

12
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 5 (continued ) aggregates in pavement base/subbase layer. The physical and mechan-
Reference Types of Findings ical properties of these aggregates can vary significantly due to the
recycled variability in the parent materials, demolition process, and used recy-
aggregates cling methods. The recycling methods, such as the separation of unde-
(Beja et al., 2020) (a) The resilient modulus (Mr) values sired materials, number of crushers, and washing units, significantly
considerably increased by adding affect the grain-size distribution and quality of collected recycled ag-
3% cement or 3% lime to the gregates. Grain-size distribution significantly influence the physical and
recycled waste aggregates.
mechanical properties of recycled aggregates (Huang et al., 2021).
Laboratory testing also reported that
recycled C&D waste aggregates with Poorly graded materials typically have higher void spaces than well
stabilizers were less reliant on bulk graded materials resulting in low shear strength. The size distribution of
stress than recycled C&D recycled aggregates also depends on the compaction process. Particles
waste without cement or lime. that are flaky and of low strength tend to break and alter the grain-size
(b) The specimens stabilized with
Portland cement in the laboratory
distribution by increasing the percentage of fines (Leite et al., 2011).
demonstrated better structural However, the fines produced during the compaction process can reduce
performance at the early stages than further crushing of recycled aggregates.
lime-treated recycled C&D waste Recycled aggregates typically have higher crushing, abrasion,
aggregates based on the Mr values.
impact, and water absorption values compared to the natural aggregates
(Saberian and Li, RCA (a) Rubber inclusion in RCA blends
2021) reduced the stiffness and surface (Dhir et al., 2019; Tavakoli Mehrjardi et al., 2020). The higher water
roughness. absorption value of these aggregates creates serious concern about using
(b) The Mr value for RCA specimens these materials in pavement base and subbase layers, while sometimes
ranged from 57-238 MPa and crushing and aggregate impact value also exceeds the standard limits
17–174 MPa without rubber and
with 1 % rubber content,
due to the lower quality of recycled C&D waste aggregates. Additionally,
respectively. these materials typically have lower compressive strength than natural
(Ghorbani et al., RCA (a) Mr values of recycled aggregates at aggregate (Yang et al., 2010). However, the compressive strength of
2021b) various water contents were recycled C&D waste aggregates can be improved through mechanical
evaluated, and results showed that
and chemical stabilizing agents. The strength and deformation charac-
RCA has the highest Mr value,
followed by CB and WR. teristics of recycled aggregates significantly depend on the compaction
(b) The mean value of Mr was found to process, curing duration, and confining pressure (Dhir et al., 2019;
be 381, 182, and 144 MPa, Ghorbani et al., 2021a; Li et al., 2019). Recycled aggregates typically
respectively, for RCA, CB, and WR, show high CBR values commensurate with the CBR of conventional
when prepared at the OMC.
pavement base/subbase layers. Many studies have reported CBR of RCA
(Akbas et al., Recycled C&D (a) The laboratory results revealed that
2021b) waste the pavement layers constructed greater than 80 % (Arulrajah et al., 2012b; Dondi et al., 2014; Rahman
aggregates using 100% recycled C&D waste et al., 2014a). According to the published literature, recycled aggregates
showed a typical non-linear may have lower or higher CBR values than natural aggregates (Aytekin
response.
et al., 2023; Barbudo et al., 2012; Jiménez et al., 2011). The presence of
(b) Mr values ranged from 65 to 430
MPa and 60 to 410 MPa for base/ mortar and other contaminants can lower the CBR of recycled aggre-
subbase layer applications. gates. However, proper processing and treatment of these aggregates,
such as removing impurities and ensuring adequate compaction, can
(CS- control sample).
significantly enhance its CBR values. Higher CBR values of recycled
aggregates make it a viable option for use in pavement base/subbase
and variations in deflection. The laboratory results indicated that the
layer applications prompting their sustainable use in pavement con-
performance of cement-treated recycled aggregates was superior at the struction projects.
early stages than the lime treated C&D waste material (Beja et al., 2020).
Recycled C&D waste aggregates has shown good shear strength
A study was determined the resilient characteristics of RCA and CB characteristics for pavement layer applications. The shear strength
with geogrid and compared with unreinforced results (Rahman et al.,
parameter of is highly dependent on the grading, size, and composition
2014a). Mr values increased with an increase in the deviatoric stress, and of used aggregates (Arulrajah et al., 2013a, Arulrajah et al., 2014b).
a decrease in the voids of the material. For the different confining
Furthermore, resilient modulus is a significant input parameter in
stresses, the Mr value for geogrid reinforced and unreinforced RCA was mechanistic pavement design method. Some studies have found that
consistently greater than corresponding CB materials, demonstrating
recycled C&D waste aggregates have lower resilient moduli compared to
that RCA was a better-quality material than CB. Mr value was greater for natural aggregates, while others have found that C&D waste aggregate
geogrid reinforced RCA than the unreinforced RCA. RCA stabilized with
can have similar or even higher resilient moduli (Aboutalebi Esfahani,
triaxial geogrid has the maximum Mr value, followed by RCA stabilized 2020; Tataranni et al., 2018). Measurement of the resilient behaviour of
with biaxial geogrid, mostly due to triaxial geogrid’s larger tension ca-
recycled aggregates is a challenging process that can be influenced by a
pacity compared to biaxial geogrid (Rahman et al., 2014a). In another variety of factors such as moisture content, confining pressure, curing
study, Saberian et al. (2021) reported that the RCA had the maximum Mr
duration temperature, presence of contaminants, and so forth, making it
value without rubber content. The inclusion of rubber in mix reduced Mr important to carefully consider these factors when interpreting the re-
value significantly. The presence of rubber intercepted interparticle
sults (Arulrajah et al., 2013b; Diagne et al., 2015; Mohammadinia et al.,
contacts between aggregates and reduced the surface roughness. Mr 2015). Additionally, recycled C&D waste aggregates generally exhibited
values of RCA samples ranged between 57 to 238 MPa and 17 to 174
self-cementing characteristics (Poon et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2023b).
MPa for without and 1% rubber content mixed samples respectively. The The self-cementing properties of these aggregate due to un-hydrated
inclusion of crumb rubber with RCA also reduced the strength, stiffness,
mortar on the surface of the fine particles that can improve the
and rigidity of mixed blends. The used recycled materials should have
strength and stiffness (Poon et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2023a). The
minimum resilient value specified by the road standards to be employ in
physical and mechanical properties of recycled aggregates play a crucial
road pavement layers (Saberian and Li, 2021).
role in determining the longevity and durability of pavement base and
In summary, the physical and mechanical properties are crucial for
subbase layers. Recycled C&D waste aggregates with strong physical and
understanding the durability and performance of recycled C&D waste
mechanical properties are essential to resist the wear and tear caused by

13
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

vehicle traffic and weather conditions. treated pavement base and subbase layers along with major findings.
Furthermore, Bestgen et al. (2016) conducted laboratory testing to
Use of recycled C&D waste aggregates in pavement base/subbase assess the feasibility of RCA for construction of road pavement. The
layers based on laboratory testing resilient modulus values of RCA were found to be higher than natural
aggregates. Additionally, resilient modulus values of RCA samples
The feasibility and effectiveness of recycled C&D waste aggregates increased with increasing freeze and thaw cycles, possibly due to the
were investigated by various researchers for pavement base and subbase continuation of hydration reaction during the moisture variation.
layers. Initially, recycled C&D waste aggregates application in non- Additionally, no leaching of metals was observed from RCA highlighting
treated pavement layer were assessed after that number of laboratory that the use of RCA in construction of base/subbase layers does not
studies evaluated the performance of treated recycled C&D waste ag- adversely affect the environment.
gregates for pavement base and subbase layer applications. Recycled aggregates can show significant self-cementing behaviour
due to the un-hydrated mortar attached on the surface of recycled ag-
Use of recycled C&D waste aggregates in non-treated pavement base/ gregates and affected the strength properties of these aggregates. The
subbase layers results revealed that the impact of material treatment, specifically the
crushing process and fresh compaction, improves the shear strength of
The recycled C&D waste aggregates can be used in pavement base recycled aggregates considerably (Martinez-Echevarria et al., 2020).
and subbase layers. Experimental characterization and study of one type Furthermore, Wang et al. (2023a) studied the detailed self-cementing
of construction recycled C&D waste aggreagtes does not apply to all characteristics of recycled wastes using long-term studies mechanical
C&D waste materials because waste composition changes from place to behaviour of these aggregates. The deformation behaviour was studied
place; therefore, various authors studied the behavior of different types using monotonic triaxial testing under different confining pressure (20,
of rccycled C&D waste aggreagtes for application in pavements. 40, 70 kPa) at different curing days (1, 28, 360 days). The self-
Gradation is a key parameter to influence the materials properties. Poon cementing, curing time, and confining pressure were found to affect
and Chan, (2006) studied the RCA application in subbase layer of the mechanical behavior of RCA samples. Further, the self-cementing
pavements. They reported that the fine grade aggregate and RCA fulfill behaviour of RCA was found to significantly reduce due to the long-
the gradation requirements of the highway subbase layer. CBR results of term material storage, whereas recently crushed RCA showed high
4 days soaking condition showed negligible swelling behavior of RCA. self-cementing properties (Wang et al., 2023a). Additionally, long-term
Their results also confirm that the fine RCA has higher hydraulic con- performance of recycled aggregates significantly important for real field
ductivity as compared to natural aggregates (Poon and Chan, 2006). In applications. Authors used RCA in the non-treated pavement layer as
another study, authors showed that aggregate sizes significantly affected aggregate and reported long-term behaviour in terms of physical and
the physical and mechanical properties of used materials and reported mechanical properties. They concluded that the use of RCA was possible
that a large size of aggregate resulted in the better aggregate quality. The in the base/subbase layers, and the properties of RCA were influenced by
smaller quantity of cement is attached with the larger size recycling the number of parameters such as material gradation, composition and
concrete aggregates obtained from the recycling unit (Tam and Tam, curing period (Wang et al., 2023b).
2007). Various authors used blended samples of recycled waste material for
The feasibility of recycled aggregates in pavement base/subbase potential applications in road pavement layers (Arisha et al., 2016;
layer significantly depends on the type of recycled aggregates. Extensive Sharma et al., 2023). The physical and mechanical properties of blends
material characterization was performed by the (Arulrajah et al., 2011, of RCA and natural aggregates was investigated for use as a pavement
Arulrajah et al., 2013a) to investigate the geotechnical and geo- base/subbase layer. RCA specimens (100%) indicated a high average
environmental properties of distinct types of recycled waste CBR value (126%) compared to the 100% natural aggregate (NA) sam-
aggreagtes as a subbase layer material. Geotechnical investigation of ples (75.1%). Additionally, RCA specimens also showed higher average
these materials included sieve analysis, compaction test, CBR test, water permeability coefficient values (9.973 × 10− 6 m/s). Natural aggregates
absorption, Los Angeles abrasion, and flakiness testing. The geo- (NA) replacement (50%) with RCA was found to be feasible for pave-
environmental investigation was carried out by determining the pH, ment base/subbase layer construction. Finally, authors suggested that
leachate concentration, and organic content. Based on CD triaxial tests, partial replacement was found to be more suitable than the complete
the recycled material resulted in a drained cohesion value in the range of replacement of NA with RCA (Toka and Olgun, 2021). In another study,
41 kPa to 46 kPa. The RCA and waste rock (WR) were found to be Sharma et al. (2023) investigated the geotechnical and geo-
feasible for subbase layer application, and other materials also can be environmental properties of RCA, recycled brick aggregates (RBA),
used in subbase after stabilizing with some additives. The properties of and their blended specimens (25RCA-75RBA, 50RCA-50RBA, and 75
recycled aggregates can significantly vary with type of C&D waste such RCA-25RBA). The large-scale direct shear apparatus was used to deter-
as RCA, CB and WR. Typically crushed bricks has very different prop- mine the shear strength parameters of used materials. The RCA, RBA,
erties as compared to the recycled concrete aggregates (Chidiroglou and their mixed samples showed suitable compaction and shear strength
et al., 2008). Furthermore, Aatheesan et al. (2010) conducted a study on characteristics for pavement applications. The cohesion and friction
crushed rock and crushed bricks mix and their suitability and applica- angle values varied from 53 kPa to 63 kPa and 55 to 71 degrees,
tion as a highway subbase or low-volume base material based on respectively. The crushing values of mixed specimens increased with
experimental testing conducted in Victoria, Australia. They showed that increasing brick content in the specimen due to the lower strength of
smaller aggregates are well packed between larger aggregates voids, crushed brick material than recycled concrete aggregates (Sharma et al.,
resulting in dense packing. During the compaction, breaking down of 2023).
some aggregates occurred mainly on crushed bricks. The results showed
that up to a maximum limit of 30% CB could be mixed in crushed rocks Use of recycled C&D waste aggregates in treated pavement base/subbase
without a significant loss of their performance, and that the gradation layers
satisfied the Australian road standards (Aatheesan et al., 2010). Authors
also determined the resilient characteristics of RCA, CB, and WR for Treated pavement layer materials enhance the durability, strength,
pavement base layer applications. RLT results indicated that RCA had and longevity of road structures by treating base and sub-base layer
the highest resilient modulus values, followed by crushed bricks materials. Recycled aggregate typically has lower strength than virgin
(Yaghoubi et al., 2021). Table 6 shows the potential application of waste aggregates. These lower strength recycled aggregates can be stabilized
materials derived from construction and demolition wastes in non- using mechanical and chemical methods to use in construction of

14
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 6
Recycled C&D waste aggregates application in non-treated base/subbase layers and major findings based on laboratory testing.
Reference Types of Pavement layer Properties Tests performed Material properties Findings
recycled particulars where studied
aggregates C&D waste is used
considered

(Leite et al., Recycled C&D Base and subbase Strength and Gradation, LAA, WA, CBR, LAA=51%. This study suggested that recycled C&D
2011) waste layers deformation and resilient modulus WA=3.8–11.5% waste can be utilized as a coarse aggregate
aggregates CBR=73–117% in low-volume roads.
Mr = 160–500 MPa
(Arulrajah CB Subbase layer Physical and Gradation, LAA, WA, LAA=36% The CB samples has shown good CBR
et al., 2011) strength and Proctor compaction, pH, WA=6.1% (Coarse values (123–138%) and found to be
deformation CBR, and resilient fraction) suitable for subbase layer construction.
modulus CBR=123–138%
pH=9.1
Mr = 301–519 MPa
(Barbudo et al., RCA Subbase layer Physical and Gradation, LAA, WA, CBR, LAA=17–45% RCA showed better abrasion resistance,
2012) MRA mechanical Proctor compaction WA=1.6–15.2% and the properties of materials are highly
CBR=36–157% dependent upon the source of materials.
(Arulrajah Waste rock Subbase layer Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, CBR, LAA=21% WR samples has lower abrasion values than
et al., 2012a) (WR) strength and Proctor compaction, pH, WA=3.3% (Coarse maximum permissible for subbase layer
deformation CBR and resilient modulus fraction) (<40%) and higher CBR values than
CBR=121–204% minimum required for subbase (minimum
pH=10.9 CBR=80%) layer construction according to
Mr = 121–274 MPa Australian standards.
(Arulrajah RCA, CB, WR Base subbase Physical and Gradation, LAA, WA, CBR, LAA=21–36% RCA, WR, and CB have been found to fulfill
et al., 2014a) applications mechanical Proctor compaction, and WA=3.3–4.7% the criteria for shear strength and
direct shear tests (Coarse fraction) mechanical properties of recycled
CBR=118–204% aggregates in pavement base and subbase
applications.
(Bestgen et al., RCA Base layer Physical, Gradation, WA, Proctor WA=4.1–4.2% RCA typically has higher permanent
2016) mechanical and compaction and leaching (Coarse fraction) deformation than granular aggregate. The
leachate analysis MDD=2010–2020 pH of RCA generally decreased as the
kg/m3 curing time increased due to the
OMC=9.5% rehydration of cement.

(Morafa et al., Recycled C&D Base and subbase Physical and Gradation, WA, LAA, LAA=25.4–28.3% Recycled C&D waste aggregates have
2017) waste layers mechanical Proctor compaction, CBR, WA=4–6.3% higher particle breakage potential than
aggregates and UCS CBR=72.3–85.4% virgin aggregates during compaction.
However, the sand fraction showed
insignificant changes after the compaction
process.
(Tavira et al., Recycled C&D Base and subbase Physical, Gradation, LAA, CBR, LAA=42% The use of recycled aggregates showed an
2018) waste layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, and CBR=56–65.5% acceptable performance in terms of surface
aggregates deformation roughness test MDD=1760–1860 roughness and mechanical properties.
kg/m3
OMC=10.5–14.5%
(Martinez- Recycled C&D Base and subbase Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=4.1% The bearing capacity increased due to the
Echevarria waste layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, CBR, LAA=36.3% self-cementing property of recycled C&D
et al., 2020) aggregates self-cementing XRD, and SEM CBR=158–242% aggregates after the crushing and
compaction process.
(Toka and RCA, NA Base and subbase Physical and Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=2.8–4.6% The permeability coefficient of RCA was
Olgun, 2021) layers mechanical Proctor compaction, CBR, LAA=40.3–46.6 found to be much higher than the natural
permeability, and resilient CBR=114–133.7% aggregates. The permeant deformation was
modulus Mr = 208 MPa increased with a higher RCA percentage in
the blended mix, and 100% NA showed the
lowest permanent deformation.
(Nguyen et al., RCA, RCB Base and subbase Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=5.2–13% The saturated hydraulic conductivity was
2022) layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, CBR, (Coarse fraction) affected due to the maximum size,
hydraulic and hydraulic properties LAA=34–46% aggregate gradation, RCB and RCA mixing
MDD=2020 kg/m3 ratios, and compaction process. As per
OMC=9.9% Vietnam standards, the maximum amount
CBR=248–291% of RCB was limited to 30% in mixed RCA
samples for utilization in pavement layers.
(Wang et al., RCA Base and subbase Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=4.3–4.6% The long-term storage of RCA can
2023a) layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, and LAA=30.8–32.2% significantly reduce the self-cementing
self-cementing monotonic triaxial tests MDD=1930–1950 properties of RCA with much lower pH
kg/m3 values. The cementation effect of RCA was
OMC=10.5–11.9% less effective than cement-treated materials
with the same un-hydrated cement content
because only un-hydrated cement inside
the fine RCA can improve the stiffness and
strength.
(Sharma et al., RCA, RBA Base and subbase Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=6.4–8.5% Higher recycled brick aggregates (RBA)
2023) layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, (Coarse fraction) content in the blend increases the impact,
chemical impact value, and direct LAA=41.2–42.8% crushing, and abrasion values. The
shear tests Impact value = maximum permissible limits of RBA in the
(continued on next page)

15
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 6 (continued )
Reference Types of Pavement layer Properties Tests performed Material properties Findings
recycled particulars where studied
aggregates C&D waste is used
considered

38.8–65.5% mix were found to be 50% for use in

Friction angle = pavement base and subbase layers as per
68–710 Indian standards.
Cohesion = 56–61
kPa

(RCMA- recycled crushed masonry aggregates, RCB- recycled clay bricks, RBA- recycled brick aggregates).

Table 7
Recycled C&D waste aggregates application in treated base/subbase layers and major findings based on laboratory testing.
Reference Type of Pavement layers Properties studied Tests performed Material properties Findings
recycled and treatment
aggregates method
considered

(Disfani et al., RCA and CB Base/subbase Physical, Graduation, pH, MDD=2039 kg/m3 3 % cement-treated RCA sample satisfied
2014) layers mechanical and Proctor compaction, OMC=11.7% the UCS strength criteria for road
(Cement) flexural UCS, resilient modulus pH=11.3–12 pavement up to 50% inclusion of CB
and flexural testing materials. Additionally, treated samples
showed good flexural characteristics for
pavement layer applications.
(Rahman et al., RCA, CB Base layer Physical and Gradation, WA, Proctor WA=6.7–13.8% RCA typically showed high maximum dry
2015) (Geotextile) hydraulic compaction, and MDD=2060–1970 density compared to the CB aggregates.
hydraulic conductivity kg/m3 Additionally, RCA showed higher
OMC=12.5–12.8% hydraulic conductivity than CB and can
be used in permeable pavements.
(Mohammadinia RCA and CB Base/subbase Strength, Gradation, LAA, pH, LAA=30.8–35.5% UCS and resilient modulus values of fly
et al., 2016) layers deformation and Proctor compaction, MDD=1960–1991 ash geopolymer treated samples were
(Fly ash microstructure UCS, resilient modulus kg/m3 found to increase with increasing fly ash
geopolymer) and SEM OMC=11.4–12.5% (4 to 16%) and curing temperature (room
pH=10.9–11.8 temperature to 40 ◦ C).
(Mohammadinia RCA and CB Base/subbase Strength, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=6–7% (for RCA and CB samples satisfied UCS
et al., 2017) Layers deformation and pH, Proctor coarse fraction) requirements for base/subbase layer
(Lime) microstructure compaction, UCS, LAA=36.4–29.1% criteria at 3–5% lime treatment. Lime
resilient modulus and MDD=2009–2039 percentage and curing days has positive
SEM kg/m3 impact on stiffness of tested materials.
OMC=10.7–11.1%
pH=9.2–11.1
(Mohammadinia Recycled C&D Base layer Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=6% Cement-treated RCA base layer (350 mm
et al., 2019a) waste (Cement) mechanical and Proctor compaction, LAA=30.8% thick) was found to perform well based
aggregates deformation UCS and resilient MDD=1920 kg/m3 on strains and vertical deformations
modulus OMC=12.5% under cyclic loading conditions

(Tavakoli Recycled C&D Subbase layer Physical, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=6.6–7.1% Recycled C&D waste aggregates have
Mehrjardi et al., waste (Geocell) mechanical and Proctor compaction, LAA=26–34.4% 40% lower bearing capacity than virgin
2020) aggregates deformation and direct shear tests CBR=73–83% aggregates under repeated plate load
Friction angle = 42- tests.
43o
Cohesion = 4.3–12
kPa
(Poltue et al., RCA Base layer Physical and Gradation, LAA, LAA=38.9% Fly ash geopolymer stabilized RCA
2020) (Fly ash strength properties Proctor compaction, MDD=1770 kg/m3 materials can be used in low traffic
geopolymer) CBR and UCS OMC=11.7% volume roads in accordance with
CBR=190% Thailand road standards.
(Kalantar Hormozi Recycled C&D Base and Physical and Gradation, LAA, LAA=27% CBR value increased from 65.8% to
et al., 2021) waste subbase layers mechanical Proctor compaction, MDD=1790 kg/m3 88.6% with cement stabilization and
aggregates (Cement) and CBR OMC=13.4% fulfilled the requirement for pavement
CBR=49.5–88.6% applications.
(Arulrajah et al., Recycled C&D Base layer Physical and Gradation, Proctor pH=11.3–12 7-day UCS value of a 100% crushed
2022) waste (Cement) mechanical compaction, CBR, and CBR=370–531% concrete sample was found to be 4 MPa,
aggregates UCS satisfying the Victoria Road standards.
(Doan et al., 2024) RCA and CB Base layer Strength, Gradation, LAA, WA, WA=4.6–5.6% (for Slag geopolymer-treated RCA and CB
(Slag and fly ash deformation and pH, Proctor coarse fraction) samples showed more than 9 MPa
geopolymer) microstructure compaction, UCS, WA=5.8–10.8% (for strength at 10% inclusion of slag in
resilient modulus and fine fraction) geopolymer mix design and met the base
SEM MDD=1880–2020 layer criteria.
kg/m3
OMC=9.5–12.1%
pH=7.2–10.1

16
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

pavement base/subbase layer materials. Rahman et al. (2015) investi- Researcher further investigated sustainable alternatives of cement
gated the geotechnical and hydraulic properties of recycled C&D waste treatment for the construction of road pavement. Geopolymer-treatment
aggregates with geosynthetic materials. RCA and CB samples were sta- can be a suitable alternative of cement stabilization of recycled aggre-
bilized with non-woven geotextiles for pavement layer applications. The gates. Mohammadinia et al. (2016) studied the strength, deformation
presence of fine particles has significantly influenced the hydraulic and microstructural characteristics of recycled aggregates stabilized
conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity of material typically decreased with fly ash geopolymer. The strength of fly ash geopolymer treated
with increasing fines in the material. RCA samples showed higher hy- samples has increased with increasing fly ash content (4 to 16%). RCA
draulic conductivity than CB samples. RCA and CB have similar or and CB samples has resilient values more than 200 MPa for all fly ash
improved hydraulic properties than virgin aggregates for the construc- percentages. Curing temperature has enhanced the reactivity between
tion of road pavements (Rahman et al., 2015). Another study revealed fly ash and alkali activation solution and formed more geopolymer
that geocell reinforcement have significant impacts on the mechanical products. Curing temperature has positive impact on UCS and resilient
properties of recycled C&D waste aggregates. The results revealed that modulus values of fly ash geopolymer treated RCA and CB samples.
the mechanical and physical properties of the recycled C&D waste ag- Further research investigations were performed to evaluate the effec-
gregates satisfied the desired specifications for use as subbase aggregates tiveness of other waste materials such as rice husk and slag in geo-
in pavement construction. Plate load tests on recycled C&D waste ag- polymer stabilization of recycled C&D waste aggregates
gregates showed a 20–40 % lower bearing capacity under cyclic plate (Mohammadinia et al., 2016). Poltue et al. (2020) used geopolymers
load test as compared to the natural aggregates. However, the geocell based on rice husk ash (RHA) and fly ash (FA) to enhance the strength
reinforced recycled aggregates exhibited higher bearing capacity properties of RCA as a lightweight base material for pavement con-
(Tavakoli Mehrjardi et al., 2020). Table 7 shows the treated recycled struction. This investigation utilized several ratios (between 100/0 and
materials feasibility for pavement base/subbase layer applications based 50/50) of sodium hydroxide to sodium silicate (NaOH/Na2SiO3) and
on laboratory testing. RHA/FA (0/100 and 100/0). The UCS tests were performed after 7, 28
Cement and lime are common chemical stabilization methods used in and 60 days of curing. The test findings showed that the UCS value of
road construction, which improves load-bearing capacity and durability. RCA stabilized with FA-RHA geopolymer increased with a decrease in
Low quality recycled aggregates can be stabilized with additives to the NaOH/Na2SiO3 and RHA/FA ratios and an increase in the curing
improve the stiffness and deformation properties of these aggregates, period. The 60/40 NaOH/Na2SiO3 and 60/40 RHA/FA compositions are
making them suitable for pavement layer applications. Lime treatment suggested for both heavy and low traffic volume roads. This investiga-
of recycled aggregates can make them suitable for pavement base/sub- tion indicated the possibility of RCA stabilized with FA-RHA geopolymer
base layer application. The feasibility of lime-treated RCA and CB were as an innovative road base material (Poltue et al., 2020).
investigated by Mohammadinia et al. (2017) for road pavement layers Furthermore, Doan et al. (2024) investigated the effectiveness of fly
based on strength and deformation characteristics. Authors used 3 to 5% ash and slag based geopolymer treated RCA and CB samples for pave-
lime (optimum content) as an additive to enhance the engineering ment base layer construction based on strength, deformation and
properties of recycled waste for base and subbase applications microstructural investigations. Slag geopolymer-treated samples has
(Mohammadinia et al., 2017). Furthermore, Mohammadinia et al. shown much higher strength than fly ash geopolymer-treated RCA and
(2019a) investigated the performance of cement-treated RCA using large CB samples. Geopolymer-treated samples have higher resilient modulus
scale pavement model experiments. RCA stabilized base layer (350 mm) values (>300 MPa) at 7 days of curing. Geopolymer-treated RCA and CB
with 4% cement content placed over the 450 mm subgrade layer. The has shown potential to use in pavement base layer applications (Doan
interface of base and subgrade layer has shown lower strain acceptable et al., 2024).
behaviour for pavement layer applications (Mohammadinia et al., In summary, various researchers have investigated the physical and
2019a). The impact of cement content on CBR values were studied by mechanical properties of C&D waste materials for use in pavement
the Kalantar Hormozi et al. (2021). They evaluated the physical and layers as recycled material. Most of the researchers have carried out
mechanical characteristics of recycled combined C&D waste aggregates laboratory testing on recycled C&D waste materials to assess their
for base and subbase layers and reported that the CBR and compressive strength, deformation, and durability (Arulrajah et al., 2012a; Arulrajah
strength are below the standard limits. The results revealed that the et al., 2017; Perera et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2015). A number of
MDD and CBR values increased from 1.83 to 2.10 g/cm3 and 65.8% to studies reported that recycled waste could be used in base/subbase
88.6% respectively when cement was used as an additive (Kalantar layers as an sustainable alternative of natural aggregate after proper
Hormozi et al., 2021). quality checks in terms of required properties as per various standards
In another study, Arulrajah et al. (2022) used four-point beam (Arulrajah et al., 2012b; Azam et al., 2013; Azam and Cameron, 2013;
experiments to characterize the impact of moisture content on the Rahman et al., 2014a; Yaghoubi et al., 2017). Most of the researchers
effectiveness of cemented gel for flexural and tensile loadings. The UCS evaluated the physical and mechanical properties of these aggregates in
of 7-days cured crushed concrete samples was found to be 4 MPa laboratory and compared them with country-specific guidelines to use in
(Arulrajah et al., 2022). Additionally, authors also evaluated the per- field applications. Recycled C&D waste aggregate typically has inferior
formance of cement-treated mix granulates with crushed masonry or strength and higher deformation characteristics than virgin aggregates.
concrete for base layer applications. The indirect tensile strength, elastic Therefore, low-quality recycled C&D waste is typically stabilized with
modulus, and UCS values increased with the increasing cement content lime, cement, geosynthetic and geopolymer to meet the minimum
and compaction effort. The UCS and indirect tensile strength (ITS) strength criteria of different standard provisions for pavement layer
reduced with increasing masonry content. The mechanical properties of applications. In order to stabilize recycled aggregates for base/subbase
cement treated mixed granulate with crushed masonry or concrete are layers applications, the majority of researchers used low cement per-
mainly affected by masonry content (Xuan et al., 2015). Furthermore, centages, typically 2 to 6%, to provide stable and economical pavement
studies have been conducted to evaluate the performance of RCA and CB design (Chakravarthi et al., 2019; Mohammadinia et al., 2015; Xuan
blends modified with cement. Disfani et al. (2014) studied the effect of et al., 2015). Recycled aggregates from C&D wastes can be a sustainable
3% cement stabilization to RCA and CB mixes with CB contents up to alternative for construction of pavement base/subbase layer by saving
50% to evaluate the unconfined compressive strength, resilient the natural aggregate and reducing the landfilling of generated C&D
modulus, and flexural modulus of the prepared specimens Based on the waste.
findings, authors concluded that 3% cement treated blends with 50%
RCA+50% CB performed satisfactorily as a pavement material (Disfani
et al., 2014).

17
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Case studies on the use of recycled C&D waste aggregates in non- Spanish legislation (Agrela et al., 2012).
treated and treated pavement base/subbase layers
80 m-long linking highway, Spain
The recycled C&D waste has been efficiently used in various field
projects around the world and become a sustainable choice for highway The road selected for investigation was the one connecting highway
pavements. A range of laboratory tests were performed to evaluate the A-367 from the Venta del Cordobés to highway A-357. This highway
strength and deformation properties before the application in the field. section was situated in the municipal town of Ardales, Malaga, Spain. A
Its field-scale applications required high-quality control. The followings road pavement section of 80 m length was built with recycled C&D
are various successful case studies based on recycled C&D waste waste aggregate. The RCA has average optimum water content of 9.4%
aggreagtes application in non-treated and treated granular base/subbase and a dry density of 2260 kg/m3. The flakiness index and LA abrasion
layer along with the major findings, which are also summarized in value of used RCA were 12 and 34%, respectively. The recycled aggre-
Table 8. gate was less dense and had a higher water requirement than quarry
aggregate. Therefore, when it was spread, it required a longer time be-
Base layer of low-volume roads in Shanghai, China tween the compaction procedure and the water spraying process than
quarry aggregate. This prolonged time allowed for more uniform
In China, major cities were connected by link roads for smooth moisture absorption and distribution. Compaction of the recycled C&D
connectivity between rural and urban areas. These are the low-traffic waste aggregate on site is more complicated since more water is required
volume roads. Therefore, they required low strength criteria, locally in the case of recycled C&D waste. They used Auscultación Dinámica de
available C&D waste considered for the construction of low-volume Alto Rendimiento (ADAR) testing technique (high-performance dy-
roads near Shanghai, China. Even though masonry debris was more namic monitoring) on-site to collect structural data on the surface
prevalent in the C&D waste in those places and therefore more likely to course. The ADAR test, like the traditional plate load test, determined
be the predominant ingredient in the generated recycled aggregates. the load-bearing capacity of highway materials.
Authors evaluated several combinations of cement-treated CB and RCA The load bearing performance of C&D waste aggregate was found to
in pavement layers (refer to Fig. 11). In this study, 5 to 7% cement be adequate. This study showed that the recycled C&D aggregates in the
contents were considered in the construction of low-volume road. proportions used in this study (75 % concrete waste, 20 % asphalt, and
Treatment with cement improved the strength development mainly due 5% ceramic material) performed better than natural quarry aggregates
to the formation of hydration products such as calcium silicate hydrate as long as recycled C&D waste aggregate was free of contaminants and
(C-S-H) in cement-treated recycled aggregate layers. only contained concrete. A falling weight deflectometer named as
Designed pavement base layer (200 mm) of RCA treated with 7% dynatest heavy weight deflectometer-8081 (DYNATEST HWD 8081)
cement designated as Layer A, and a subbase layer (200 mm) made of CB was used to determine the pavement’s load-bearing capacity. This fall-
and RCA with 6% cement designated as Layer B. Fig. 11 shows the ing weight deflectometer has at least seven geophones installed along
schematic diagram of tested rural road section. All layers were about the longitudinal axis of the test vehicle. The deflection assessed the
95% compacted using a roller, and dry bulk densities were around 2090 resilient modulus of materials at a particular load. Majority of the
kg/m3 and 1910 kg/m3 for layers A and B, respectively. The optimum observed deflection was less than the calculated theoretical deflection.
moisture content was reported as 13.5% and 13% for Layers A and B, These findings indicate that the recycled aggregate performed consid-
respectively. All the treated layers exhibited sufficient strength and erably better than natural aggregates (Herrador et al., 2011).
structural integrity for the low-volume traffic roads (Jia et al., 2015).
Heavy traffic volume road, Spain
Subbase layer in Malaga, Spain
This was a long-term performance evaluation of an experimental
In this field study, the subbase layer of a highway was constructed pavement section made using recycled aggregates derived from the
using mixed recycled aggregates supplied from a C&D waste recycling demolition of 105 residential buildings. The destruction of the resi-
unit. Three pavement test sections (each 300 m long) were created as dences was due to the enlargement of the runway at Cordoba Airport,
part of an access road to a highway in Malaga, utilizing natural aggre- Spain. The main purpose of this investigation was to assess the structural
gates and two different types of mixed recycled aggregate (MRA) with and functional aspects of a heavy traffic volume road pavement con-
3% cement as an additive used in subbase layers. The mixed recycled structed with RCA and recycled mixed aggregates (RMA). Two test
aggregate (RA) designated as RA-15 has 85% RCA and 15% recycled sections of 170 m and 180 m in length of a two-lane road of total width 8
masonry aggregates (RMA) and another mixed recycled aggregates, RA- m was considered. The long-term performance in terms of deflection and
22 contained 78% RCA and 22% RMA. The pavement section has a international roughness index (IRI) was evaluated under an experi-
stabilized (200 mm) subbase, subgrade (300 mm), and two asphalt mental heavy traffic volume road considered as T-2 as per the Spanish
layers each of 150 mm. Fig. 12 shows the cross section of the tested road. standards (799–200 heavy vehicles/day per lane). RCA and RMA
The MRA has compacted to a density that was 98% of the density employed in this investigation satisfied the non-hazardous standards of
obtained by the modified Proctor compaction. The modified Proctor test the EU landfill directive limits, hence its application in pavement layers
results revealed that the MRA had a lower MDD values because of the did not cause any environmental risk. The experimental pavement sec-
larger percentage of less dense MRA (2220 kg/m3, 1950 kg/m3, and tion has satisfactory structural performance for a T-2 traffic volume
1950 kg/m3 for the natural aggregate, RA-15, and RA-22, respectively). road.
Furthermore, its increased water absorption property required more The recycled aggregate employed in the study have a higher bearing
water to reach optimum compaction (6.4%, 10.4%, and 12.4% for NA, capacity than those of natural aggregates. Because of the larger per-
RA-15, and RA-22, respectively). Cement-treated in-situ MRA demon- centage of finer fraction, the mean moduli of MRA (674 MPa) were
strated suitable performance in terms of 28 days compressive strength higher than that of RCA (476 MPa). Long-term (seven years) monitoring
(4.2 MPa for the NA, 4.5 MPa for RA-15, and 4.3 MPa for the RA-22, indicated an increase in the mechanical performance and equivalent
respectively) and found low deflection under impact load, and moduli of recycled aggregate. The recycled aggregates exhibited
adequate pavement roughness values. The roughness test findings acceptable structural performance and stability over time as per the
showed that the pavement section with NA, RA-15, and RA-22 had pavement surface roughness determination. This research provided
average international roughness index (IRI) of 1, 0.88, and 0.54, sustainability aspects in the construction industry by reducing trans-
respectively, all of which were less than the 1.5 m/km limit allowed by portation distances from sites to stationary waste recycling plants with

18
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 8
Case studies listing the use of recycled C&D waste aggregates in non-treated and treated pavement base and subbase layers along with major findings.
Reference Location Types of Pavement Pavement Traffic volume Type of Properties Findings
recycled layer section details pavement studied
aggregates particulars (non-treated or
considered where C&D treated)
waste is used

(Agrela et al., Spain MRA Subbase layer 300 m length, Traffic category 3% cement- Mechanical, The roughness test
2012) 200 mm thick T2, 200–799 treated deflection and observations showed that
subbase heavy goods roughness the test section with NA, RA-
vehicles per day 15, and RA-22 had average
as per Spanish international roughness
standards index (IRI) readings of 1,
0.88, and 0.54, respectively.
IRI values of recycled
aggregates were within the
limits allowed by Spanish
legislation.
(Pérez et al., Malaga, RCA Base layer 150 m length Mean intensity of 3.5% cement- Strength and RCA performed satisfactorily
2013) Spain and 210 mm vehicle traffic treated deformation as per results obtained by the
thick base layer was 100–199 falling weight deflectometer.
vehicles per day RCA has a lower density
as per Spanish than NA aggregates;
standards therefore, the same volume
weight of aggregates is
reduced.
(Dondi et al., Bologna, Recycled Subbase layer 30 m length, − Non-treated Mechanical and The light weight
2014) Italy C&D waste 300 mm thick and 1.25% deformation deflectometer results
aggregates subbase cement-treated demonstrated that these
layers achieved the desired
moduli as per standards even
two hours after the
compaction process.
(Jia et al., Low RCA Base and 200 mm base Low-volume road 7% and 6% Mechanical and RCA stabilized with 7% of
2015) volume MRA subbase layers and 200 mm as per China cement-treated stiffness cement content performed
rural subbase standards base, subbase, satisfactorily as a base layer
roads, respectively aggregate.
China
(Tavira et al., Cordob, RCA Base and 170 m length, T2 (heavy Non-treated Mechanical, The long-term mechanical
2020) Spain MRA subbase layers 300 mm base volume) deformation and and surface roughness
and 100 mm according to the leaching results were acceptable and
subbase layer Spanish standard satisfied the standards.
(799–200 heavy
vehicles/day per
lane)

(Agrela et al., Spain RCA and Base and 250 mm thick − Non-treated Physical, They reported an increase in
2020) MRA subbase layer base and mechanical and the elastic modulus value of
subbase layer, environmental MRA (subbase layer) and
respectively RCA (base layer) over the
time of 6 months by 6.7%
and 17.3%, respectively.
The application of MRA (25
cm subbase layer) and RCA
(25 cm base layer) in the
pavement section reduced
the CO2 emission by about
52.6% compared to the same
section constructed using
artificial gravel from
crushed stones as per life
cycle assessment studies.
(Pourkhorshidi Italy Recycled Subbase layer 9 m length and Low-volume Non-treated Physical and Recycled materials
et al., 2022) C&D waste 300 mm thick roads as per Italy and 3% mechanical containing weak
aggregates base layer standards. cement-treated constituents like masonry
However, at least pavement and crushed bricks could
5 to 10 heavy section gain stiffness during the
lorries passed initial passes of the vibrating
each day roller. However, stronger
components like high-
strength recycled concrete
aggregates cause persisting
stiffness increase rate until
the later passes of vibrating
compaction.
The number of optimum
compaction passes changes
(continued on next page)

19
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Table 8 (continued )
Reference Location Types of Pavement Pavement Traffic volume Type of Properties Findings
recycled layer section details pavement studied
aggregates particulars (non-treated or
considered where C&D treated)
waste is used

with the materials due to the

variation in strength and
brittleness of different types
of recycled aggregates.
(Coban et al., USA Recycled Base layer 61 m length, − Non-treated Physical and The pavement base sections
2022) C&D waste 300 mm thick mechanical made of coarse RCA and fine
aggregates base layer RCA showed higher modulus
values than crushed
limestone pavement base
sections of similar thickness.
RCA could have a higher
modulus value due to the
remaining cementation of
un-hydrated cement on the
surface of RCA.

Fig. 11. Scheme of tested section of rural roads, Shanghai, China (RCA-recycled concrete aggregates, CB- crushed bricks, LS- lime stone) (Jia et al., 2015).

the use of mobile recycling plants, which provides environmental and field cement-treated recycled aggregates specimens demonstrated high
economic benefits (Tavira et al., 2020). indirect tensile strength modulus as compared to virgin aggregates. The
field section constructed with recycled C&D waste aggregates contain-
Base layer made of recycled C&D waste aggregates, Italy ing concrete have a light weight deflectometer modulus of 1180 MPa
compared to deflector modulus of 840 MPa for a section built with virgin
Tataranni et al. (2018) evaluated the performance of pavement base aggregates after 365 days of traffic. Light weight deflectometer results
layers constructed using recycled C&D waste aggregate. Recycled C&D also reflected the high indirect tensile strength modulus value results for
waste aggregate was treated with cement to stabilize the pavement base cement-treated recycled material and virgin aggregates (Tataranni et al.,
layers. The cement content was taken as 3.5% by weight of aggregates 2018).
for materials stabilization. This study was initially conducted at a lab
scale to evaluate the strength and deformation properties of different Long-term seasonal performance of base layer, USA
mixes and the suitable mix was adopted for large-scale real field appli-
cation. The test section was an unsurfaced road near a quarry in Zhang et al. (2021b) investigated the seasonal performance of
Bologna, Italy, which was made up of 60 cm-thick non-treated granular pavement base layers constructed using the recycled C&D waste ag-
materials categorized as class A-1 as per the AASTHO M 145 (AASHTO gregates. The base layer thickness of the pavement was 305 mm, con-
M145, 2008). The tested road section was 12 long and 8 m wide, con- structed with 100% recycled concrete aggregates. Fig. 13 shows the
structed with virgin aggregate and recycled aggregates. cross section of pavement layers considered in their study. The changes
The foundation material of the test section was compacted by heavy in modulus over the seasonal variation and pavement riding quality
traffic over the years, with the mean light weight deflectometer modulus were reported using the falling weight deflectometer and international
(ELWD) of 70 MPa. The field sections were made of 15 cm-thick recycled roughness index (IRI) value, respectively. The pavement surface
C&D waste or virgin aggregates covered with hot mix asphalt surface deflection values in each season were measured using falling weight
coarse of thickness equal to 4 cm. The samples were collected after the deflectometer (FWD) tests and back-calculated modulus values were
traffic plied on the road sections for 0, 60, 180, and 365 days to inves- obtained from the recorded data. The rutting depth and IRI values were
tigate the performance and mechanical strength of constructed road found to increase with time, but changes in IRI value were found to be
sections. After 365 days of traffic, traffic data showed cumulative traffic smaller as compared to the rutting value. IRI value (1 m/km) nearly
equivalent of 5000 passes of 42 tonnes of dumpers. After 365 days, the remained the same for the tested sections. However, rutting depth

20
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

performance more critically than traffic loading as per the long-term

monitoring data (Zhang et al., 2021b).
In summary, it is necessary to assess the performance of recycled
C&D waste aggreagtes in pavement layer using field testing to evaluate
the actual performance of these aggregates under traffic and environ-
mental conditions. Most of the published literature discussed the labo-
ratory characterization of recycled C&D waste materials in terms of
gradation, abrasion, compaction, unconfined compressive strength, and
resilient modulus characteristics. Long-term behavior and field perfor-
mance of employed recycled waste materials in pavement can be
assessed through field tests of actual roads. Recycled C&D waste
aggregate can be a sustainable alternative of virgin aggregate as per the
positive outcomes of difffrent case studies in terms of strength and long-
term performance (Tataranni et al., 2018; Natarajan et al., 2019;
Jiménez et al., 2012). Additionally, recycled materials have shown
excellent performance in low-volume roads (Jia et al., 2015) as well as in
few studies of heavy traffic roads (Tavira et al., 2020). These studies help
prioritize maintenance and rehabilitation activities based on the iden-
tified cause of failures and improve the design of new road pavement
base/subbase layers by incorporating lessons learned from previous
failures. The case study provides a complete understanding of various
factors contributing to the failure of pavement base/subbase layers. Case
studies can be used to benchmark the performance of different types of
recycled aggregates in pavement design, construction and help to
identify the most effective approaches. A successful case study based on
recycled aggregates in pavement base/subbase layers plays a vital role
Fig. 12. Cement stabilized subbase layer cross section made of recycled C&D
in providing confidence to the contractors in the utilization of these
wastes in Malaga, Spain (Agrela et al., 2012).
aggregates for the construction of sustainable road pavements.

increased from 1.5 mm to about 6.6 mm over the monitoring period of Potential challenges, research gaps and future insights
6.5 years for 100% RCA base section.
The riding quality was nearly the same for pavement sections made C&D waste is generated in large volumes resulting in overflowing
up of 100% RCA and natural aggregates. The changes in falling weight landfills and environmental problems. Fig. 14 shows the typical current
deflectometer modulus (EFWD) value were determined due to the sea- practices and future scope of C&D wastes in road pavements. Various
sonal variations for each calendar year. The results of FWD revealed that authors studied the feasibility of these aggregates based on laboratory or
the maximum EFWD value was obtained when tests were performed in field tests and reported that it could be used as a sustainable replacement
summer and minimum EFWD values were found by FWD tests in fall or for natural aggregates in pavement base/subbase layers. However,
spring months. The lower value of EFWD in spring was likely due to practical field-scale applications of recycled aggregates still face
spring thawing; in spring, thawed water was trapped in base layers, numerous barriers and complications including:
which may be a major cause of the reduction in the stiffness of the
pavement layer. 100% RCA base section improved the long-term per- (a) Recycled C&D waste aggregate has a higher breakage potential
formance and showed enhanced modulus value compared to the natural during the compaction process. Additionally, controlling the
aggregate sections. The seasonal variations affected the pavement compaction of these aggregates in field applications can be

Fig. 13. Cross sections of two pavement sections constructed using 100% recycled aggregates and natural aggregates (NA) in base layers (Zhang et al., 2021b).

21
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Fig. 14. Current practices and possible future scope in utilization of generated C&D wastes.

difficult due to heterogeneity in used materials. Additionally, properties of these aggregates to effectively utilize them in base/
these aggregates require high water content as compared to the subbase layers. The long-term curing time and curing methods
natural aggregates. impact on the physical and mechanical properties of these ag-
(b) The optimum additive content for recycled C&D waste aggregate gregates is not well understood and requires further research.
stabilization in base/subbase layer varies from place to place due (g) There is a need for more robust models to predict the behavior of
to presence different mineralogical constituents at different lo- recycled C&D wastes using large data. Models based on artificial
cations and recycling units. Hence, the establishment of fixed intelligence (AI) techniques can be a potential candidate that will
optimum content of additive for recycled aggregates is make use of large laboratory and field data of the materials. Also,
complicated. advanced AI models may incorporate different types of data such
(c) The current scope of LCA in road pavement evaluates environ- as climatic and traffic conditions.
mental impacts across materials, construction, maintenance, and
end-of-life stages, focusing on energy use, emissions, and Conclusions
resource depletion. Future insights dealing with increased inte-
gration of real-time monitoring and inclusion of broader sus- This article presents a detailed review of the application of recycled
tainability metrics, such as social and economic factors of C&D waste aggregates in pavement base and subbase layers. The use of
employing the recycled waste material in pavement base/subbase recycled C&D waste aggregates can be a cost-effective solution for road
layers over their whole service life may be considered. pavement base/subbase layer construction. Recycled waste material
(d) Large-scale model pavement experiments or field studies are employed in a project should be homogenous throughout the project,
required to investigate the mechanical response and economic but it is a complicated task due to uneven distribution around the C&D
viability of recycled C&D waste aggregates in the pavement base/ waste disposal and source of waste generation. Better quality control of
subbase layer under the actual traffic loading conditions. Most these aggregates are hence needed to enable their applications in
existing research studies deal with only laboratory characteriza- pavement base/subbase layers. In addition, key remarks regarding the
tion of recycled C&D waste aggregates for base and subbase layer material properties, practicality and challenges in using recycled C&D
applications according to various countries road standards. waste aggregates for pavement construction are summarized as below:
(e) Recycled C&D waste aggregates can be used in emerging appli-
cations such as in the construction of permeable pavements, solar (a) The recycled aggregates typically have higher abrasion, impact,
pavements, and cool pavements. Recycled aggregates can have crushing, and water absorption values compared to the natural
superior or equivalent hydraulic and thermal properties, making aggregates. The physical and mechanical properties of these ag-
them suitable for such applications. Additionally, this will reduce gregates are highly variable and depend on the composition of
waste and conserve natural resources by reusing existing waste recycled wastes, recycling techniques, and aggregate sizes.
materials. The stated applications are emerging technologies in (b) Recycled C&D waste aggregates typically possess good CBR
road infrastructure to encounter the influence of climate change values to use in pavement base/subbase layers. Despite the lower
and improve the sustainability of constructed pavements. quality of recycled materials than virgin aggregates, large num-
(f) Further research is needed to understand the impact of different ber of studies reported that these aggregates could be utilized as
novel additives and treatments on the physical and mechanical the base/subbase material in highway pavements after extensive

22
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

material testing to satisfy the pavement layer specifications. Aboutalebi Esfahani, M., 2020. Evaluating the feasibility, usability, and strength of
recycled construction and demolition waste in base and subbase courses. Road
Material characterization is the initial step to determine the
Mater. Pavement Des. 21, 156–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/
strength and deformation properties of recycled aggregates 14680629.2018.1483259.
before being used for pavement base/subbase layers, and mate- Afshar, T., Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Narsilio, G.A., Emam, S., 2017. Impact of particle
rial properties must satisfy the used road standards. shape on breakage of recycled construction and demolition aggregates. Powder
Technol. 308, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2016.11.043.
(c) The strength and deformation properties of these aggregates can Afshar, T., Disfani, M.M., Narsilio, G.A., Arulrajah, A., 2018. Post-breakage changes in
be influenced by the compaction methods, moisture content, and particle properties using synchrotron tomography. Powder Technol. 325, 530–544.
confining pressure. Recycled C&D waste aggregate typically has https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2017.11.039.
Agrela, F., Barbudo, A., Ramírez, A., Ayuso, J., Carvajal, M.D., Jiménez, J.R., 2012.
lower strength and higher deformation than natural aggregates. Construction of road sections using mixed recycled aggregates treated with cement
However, different stabilization methods improved the strength in Malaga. Spain. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 58, 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
and deformation properties of recycled wastes. resconrec.2011.11.003.
Agrela, F., González-Gallardo, F., Rosales, J., Tavira, J., Ayuso, J., Cabrera, M., 2020.
(d) Low-quality recycled C&D waste aggregates may be used after the Complete real-scale application of recycled aggregates in a port loading platform in
addition of proper additives to enhance the strength of these Huelva, Spain. Materials (basel) 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13112651.
aggregates. The stiffness of recycled aggregates typically in- Ahmed Shaikh, F.U., Nath, P., Hosan, A., John, M., Biswas, W.K., 2019. Sustainability
assessment of recycled aggregates concrete mixes containing industrial by-products.
creases with increasing percentage of stabilizer, confining pres- Mater. Today Sustain. 5, 100013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2019.100013.
sure, and curing duration. The strength behaviour of these Akbas, M., Iyisan, R., Dayioglu, A.Y., Hatipoglu, M., 2021a. Stiffness Properties of
aggregates can change over time, particularly when exposed to Recycled Concrete Aggregates as Unbound Base and Subbase Materials Under Freeze
and Thaw Cycles. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 46, 10569–10584. https://doi.org/10.1007/
weathering and other environmental factors, which can impact
s13369-021-05344-w.
their long-term performance. Akbas, M., Özaslan, B., Khanbabazadeh, H., İyisan, R., 2021b. Numerical study using
(e) Long-term performance and environmental impacts of recycled stiffness parameters on the nonlinear behavior of RCA pavements under heavy traffic
C&D waste aggreagtes utilization in the base/subbase layer were loads. Transp. Geotech. 29, 100582 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
TRGEO.2021.100582.
still not well understood; therefore, some researchers and com- Akhtar, A., Sarmah, A.K., 2018. Construction and demolition waste generation and
panies avoided using waste materials in lieu of virgin aggregates properties of recycled aggregate concrete: A global perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 186,
for granular base/subbase layer applications. The absence of code 262–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.085.
Arab, M.G., Alzara, M., Zeiada, W., Omar, M., Azam, A., 2020. Combined effect of
or guidelines for waste material utilization is also one of the compaction level and matric suction conditions on flexible pavement performance
major problems in promoting the use of recycled aggregates in using construction and demolition waste. Constr. Build. Mater. 261, 119792 https://
pavements base/subbase layers. doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119792.
Arezoumandi, M., Smith, A., Volz, J.S., Khayat, K.H., 2015. An experimental study on
(f) Field studies can highlight innovative approaches to utilize the flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams with 100% recycled concrete
proposed recycled aggregates in pavement base/subbase through aggregate. Eng. Struct. 88, 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sustainable design, construction, and maintenance. However, engstruct.2015.01.043.
Arisha, A., Gabr, A., El-Badawy, S., Shwally, S., 2016. Using Blends of Construction &
there is still a need for further research leading to establishing Demolition Waste Materials and Recycled Clay Masonry Brick in Pavement. Procedia
rigorous guidelines on sustainable use of recycled C&D waste Eng. 143, 1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.148.
aggregates for various application. Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Aatheesan, T., Bo, M.W., 2011. Geotechnical Properties of
Recycled Crushed Brick in Pavement Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23,
1444–1452. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000319.
CRediT authorship contribution statement Arulrajah, A., Ali, M.M.Y., Piratheepan, J., Bo, M.W., 2012a. Geotechnical Properties of
Waste Excavation Rock in Pavement Subbase Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24,
924–932. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000419.
Zainul Abedin Khan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Ali, M.M.Y., Bo, M.W., 2012b. Geotechnical properties of
draft, Methodology, Conceptualization, Validation. Umashankar recycled concrete aggregate in pavement sub-base applications. Geotech. Test. J. 35,
Balunaini: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103402.
Conceptualization, Validation. Susanga Costa: Writing – review & Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Bo, M.W., Sivakugan, N., 2012c. Geotechnical
characteristics of recycled crushed brick blends for pavement sub-base applications.
editing, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization, Validation. Nhu Can. Geotech. J. 49, 796–811. https://doi.org/10.1139/T2012-041.
H.T. Nguyen: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Disfani, M.M., Bo, M.W., 2013a. Geotechnical and
Conceptualization, Validation. Geoenvironmental Properties of Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in
Pavement Subbase Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25, 1077–1088. https://doi.org/
10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000652.
Declaration of competing interest Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Disfani, M.M., Bo, M.W., 2013b. Resilient Moduli
Response of Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in Pavement Subbase
Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25, 1920–1928. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial mt.1943-5533.0000766.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Arulrajah, A., Disfani, M.M., Horpibulsuk, S., Suksiripattanapong, C., Prongmanee, N.,
the work reported in this paper. 2014a. Physical properties and shear strength responses of recycled construction and
demolition materials in unbound pavement base/subbase applications. Constr.
Build. Mater. 58, 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
Data availability CONBUILDMAT.2014.02.025.
Arulrajah, A., Disfani, M.M., Horpibulsuk, S., 2017. Sustainable Usage of Construction
and Demolition Materials in Roads and Footpaths 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/
No data was used for the research described in the article. 978-981-10-1930-2_1.
Arulrajah, A., Rahman, M.A., Piratheepan, J., Bo, M.W., Imteaz, M.A., 2014b. Evaluation
References of Interface Shear Strength Properties of Geogrid-Reinforced Construction and
Demolition Materials Using a Modified Large-Scale Direct Shear Testing Apparatus.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26, 974–982. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-
AASHTO M145, 2008. Standard Specification for Classification of Soils and Soil-
5533.0000897.
Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes, American Association of
Arulrajah, A., Mohammadinia, A., Haghighi, H., Horpibulsuk, S., 2022. Effect of moisture
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASTHO).
sensitivity on the light stabilisation of demolition materials in pavement bases. Road
Aatheesan, T., Arulrajah, A., Bo, M.W., Vuong, B., Wilson, J., 2010. Crushed brick blends
Mater. Pavement Des. 23, 787–801. https://doi.org/10.1080/
with crushed rock for pavement systems. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Waste Resour. Manag.
14680629.2020.1843525.
163, 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1680/warm.2010.163.1.29.
Asadi, M., Ashtiani, R.S., 2018. Stability analysis of anisotropic granular base layers in
Abdollahnejad, Z., Mastali, M., Falah, M., Luukkonen, T., Mazari, M., Illikainen, M.,
flexible pavements. Transp. Geotech. 14, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2019. Construction and demolition waste as recycled aggregates in alkali-activated
trgeo.2018.01.001.
concretes. Materials (basel) 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12234016.
Aslam, M.S., Huang, B., Cui, L., 2020. Review of construction and demolition waste
Abedin Khan, Z., Balunaini, U., Costa, S., 2024. Environmental feasibility and
management in China and USA. J. Environ. Manage. 264, 110445 https://doi.org/
implications in using recycled construction and demolition waste aggregates in road
10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110445.
construction based on leaching and life cycle assessment – A state-of-the-art review.
Clean. Mater. 12, 100239 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2024.100239.

23
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Ayan, V., Limbachiya, M.C., Azadani, S.M.N., 2011. Investigation of Water Absorption in Ding, L., Zhang, J., Zhou, C., Han, S., Du, Q., 2022. Particle breakage investigation of
Recycled Aggregates for Application in Subbase Layer of Highway 223–230. https:// construction waste recycled aggregates in subgrade application scenario. Powder
doi.org/10.1061/47629(408)28. Technol. 404, 117448 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2022.117448.
Aytekin, B., Mardani, A., Ünsever, Y.S., 2023. Performance assessment of recycled waste Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Bo, M.W., Hankour, R., 2011. Recycled crushed glass in
materials for use in unbound pavement Layers: A case study from Turkey. Constr. road work applications. Waste Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Build. Mater. 402 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133004. wasman.2011.07.003.
Azam, A.M., Cameron, D.A., 2013. Geotechnical Properties of Blends of Recycled Clay Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Bo, M.W., Sivakugan, N., 2012. Environmental risks of using
Masonry and Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Unbound Pavement Construction. recycled crushed glass in road applications. J. Clean. Prod. 20, 170–179. https://doi.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25, 788–798. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943- org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.07.020.
5533.0000634. Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Haghighi, H., Mohammadinia, A., Horpibulsuk, S., 2014.
Azam, A.M., Cameron, D.A., Rahman, M.M., 2013. Model for prediction of resilient Flexural beam fatigue strength evaluation of crushed brick as a supplementary
modulus incorporating matric suction for recycled unbound granular materials. Can. material in cement stabilized recycled concrete aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 68,
Geotech. J. 50, 1143–1158. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-0406. 667–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.007.
Azarijafari, H., Yahia, A., Ben Amor, M., 2016. Life cycle assessment of pavements: Djerbi Tegguer, A., 2012. Determining the water absorption of recycled aggregates
Reviewing research challenges and opportunities. J. Clean. Prod. 112, 2187–2197. utilizing hydrostatic weighing approach. Constr. Build. Mater. 27, 112–116. https://
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.080. doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.08.018.
Bamigboye, G.O., Bassey, D.E., Olukanni, D.O., Ngene, B.U., Adegoke, D., Odetoyan, A. Doan, T., Arulrajah, A., Lin, Y., Horpibulsuk, S., Chu, J., Darmawan, S., 2024. Chemical
O., Kareem, M.A., Enabulele, D.O., Nworgu, A.T., 2021. Waste materials in highway stabilization of demolition wastes in pavement bases using one–part fly ash and slag
applications: An overview on generation and utilization implications on based geopolymers. Transp. Geotech. 45, 101192 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sustainability. J. Clean. Prod. 283, 124581 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. trgeo.2024.101192.
jclepro.2020.124581. Dondi, G., Sangiorgi, C., Lantieri, C., Simone, A., Vignali, V., Lamperti, R., 2014.
Barbudo, A., Agrela, F., Ayuso, J., Jiménez, J.R., Poon, C.S., 2012. Statistical analysis of Performance evaluation of Construction and Demolition and other waste materials.
recycled aggregates derived from different sources for sub-base applications. Constr. Sustain. Eco-Efficiency Conserv. Transp. Infrastruct. Asset Manag. - Proc. 3rd Int.
Build. Mater. 28, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Conf. Tranportation Infrastructure, ICTI 2014, 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1201/
CONBUILDMAT.2011.07.035. b16730-34.
Behiry, E.-M.A., 2013. Utilization of cement treated recycled concrete aggregates as base Eckert, M., Oliveira, M., 2017. Mitigation of the negative effects of recycled aggregate
or subbase layer in Egypt. Ain Shams Eng. J. 4, 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. water absorption in concrete technology. Constr. Build. Mater. 133, 416–424.
asej.2013.02.005. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2016.12.132.
Beja, I.A., Motta, R., Bernucci, L.B., 2020. Application of recycled aggregates from European Commission (EC), 2017. Resource Efficient Use of Mixed Wastes. https://op.eu
construction and demolition waste with Portland cement and hydrated lime as ropa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/78e42e6c-d8a6-11e7-a506-01aa75ed7
pavement subbase in Brazil. Constr. Build. Mater. 258, 119520 https://doi.org/ 1a1/language-en.
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119520. Ferreira, L., De Brito, J., Barra, M., 2011. Influence of the pre-saturation of recycled
Bestgen, J.O., Hatipoglu, M., Cetin, B., Aydilek, A.H., 2016. Mechanical and coarse concrete aggregates on concrete properties. Mag. Concr. Res. 63, 617–627.
Environmental Suitability of Recycled Concrete Aggregate as a Highway Base https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2011.63.8.617.
Material. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 28, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943- FHWA-RD-97-148, 1997. User Guidelines for Waste and Byproduct Materials in
5533.0001564. Pavement Construction. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/
Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), 2018. Utilisation of infrastructure/structures/97148/rcc1.cfm.
Recycled Produce of Construction & Demolition Waste. https://www.bmtpc.org/D Fonseca, N., De Brito, J., Evangelista, L., 2011. The influence of curing conditions on the
ataFiles/CMS/file/PDF_Files/C&D_Ready_Reckoner_BMTPC_web.pdf. mechanical performance of concrete made with recycled concrete waste. Cem.
Butera, S., Christensen, T.H., Astrup, T.F., 2014. Composition and leaching of Concr. Compos. 33, 637–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.04.002.
construction and demolition waste: Inorganic elements and organic compounds. Gabr, A.R., Cameron, D.A., 2012. Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate for
J. Hazard. Mater. 276, 302–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.05.033. Unbound Pavement Construction. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24, 754–764. https://doi.org/
Central Pollution Control Board, 2017. Guidelines on Environmental Management of 10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000447.
C&D Waste Management in India. Prep. compliance Rule 10 sub-rule 1(a) C D Waste Gesoglu, M., Güneyisi, E., Öz, H.Ö., Taha, I., Yasemin, M.T., 2015. Failure characteristics
Manag. Rules, 2016 1, 1–39. https://clip.cpcb.gov.in/index.php/resources/ of self-compacting concretes made with recycled aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater.
guidelines-on-environmental-management-of-construction-demolition-c-d-wastes/. 98, 334–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2015.08.036.
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), 2020. India recycles only 1% of its Ghorbani, B., Arulrajah, A., Narsilio, G., Horpibulsuk, S., 2020. Experimental and ANN
construction and demolition wastes. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/waste/india- analysis of temperature effects on the permanent deformation properties of
recycles-only-1-of-its-construction-and-demolition-waste-cse-73027. demolition wastes. Transp. Geotech. 24, 100365 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Chakravarthi, S., Boyina, A., Singh, A.K., Shankar, S., 2019. Evaluation of cement treated trgeo.2020.100365.
reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled concrete pavement bases. Int. J. Pavement Ghorbani, B., Arulrajah, A., Narsilio, G., Horpibulsuk, S., Bo, M.W., 2021a. Dynamic
Res. Technol. 12, 581–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42947-019-0069-1. characterization of recycled glass-recycled concrete blends using experimental
Chidiroglou, I., Goodwin, A.K., Laycock, E., O’Flaherty, F., 2008. Physical properties of analysis and artificial neural network modeling. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 142, 106544
demolition waste material. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Constr. Mater. 161, 97–103. https:// https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106544.
doi.org/10.1680/coma.2008.161.3.97. Ghorbani, B., Arulrajah, A., Narsilio, G., Horpibulsuk, S., Leong, M., 2021b. Resilient
Coban, H.S., Cetin, B., Ceylan, H., Likos, W., Edil, T.B., 2022. Effects of Using Recycled moduli of demolition wastes in geothermal pavements: Experimental testing and
Aggregates and Large Stones for Base and Subbase Layers on Modulus Properties of ANFIS modelling. Transp. Geotech. 29, 100592 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Pavements, in: Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV: Proceedings of the 4th trgeo.2021.100592.
International Conference on Transportation Geotechnics. Springer International Gomes, G.J.C., Magalhães, A.J., Rocha, F.L.L., Fonseca, A., 2021. A sustainability-
Publishing, pp. 363–372. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- oriented framework for the application of industrial byproducts to the base layers of
77230-7_28. low-volume roads. J. Clean. Prod. 295 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Coelho, A., De Brito, J., 2013. Economic viability analysis of a construction and jclepro.2021.126440.
demolition waste recycling plant in Portugal - Part I: Location, materials, technology Güneyisi, E., Gesoǧlu, M., Algin, Z., Yazici, H., 2014. Effect of surface treatment methods
and economic analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 39, 338–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. on the properties of self-compacting concrete with recycled aggregates. Constr.
jclepro.2012.08.024. Build. Mater. 64, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.090.
Dahlbo, H., Bachér, J., Lähtinen, K., Jouttijärvi, T., Suoheimo, P., Mattila, T., Sironen, S., Herrador, R., Pérez, P., Garach, L., Ordóñez, J., 2011. Use of recycled construction and
Myllymaa, T., Saramäki, K., 2015. Construction and demolition waste management - demolition waste aggregate for road course surfacing. J. Transp. Eng. 138, 182–190.
A holistic evaluation of environmental performance. J. Clean. Prod. 107, 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000320.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.073. Hossain, M.U., Poon, C.S., Lo, I.M.C., Cheng, J.C.P., 2016. Comparative environmental
Del Rey, I., Ayuso, J., Barbudo, A., Galvín, A.P., Agrela, F., de Brito, J., 2016. Feasibility evaluation of aggregate production from recycled waste materials and virgin sources
study of cement-treated 0–8 mm recycled aggregates from construction and by LCA. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 109, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
demolition waste as road base layer. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 17, 678–692. resconrec.2016.02.009.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2015.1108221. Huang, Y., Wang, J., Ying, M., Ni, J., Li, M., 2021. Effect of particle-size gradation on
Delongui, L., Matuella, M., Núñez, W.P., Fedrigo, W., da Silva Filho, L.C.P., Ceratti, J.A. cyclic shear properties of recycled concrete aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 301,
P., 2018. Construction and demolition waste parameters for rational pavement 124143 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124143.
design. Constr. Build. Mater. 168, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Ibrahim, M., 2016. Estimating the sustainability returns of recycling construction waste
conbuildmat.2018.02.086. from building projects. Sustain. Cities Soc. 23, 78–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Dhir, R.K., de Brito, J., Silva, R.V., Lye, C.Q., 2019. Use of Recycled Aggregates in Road scs.2016.03.005.
Pavement Applications. Sustain. Constr. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08- Ikhlayel, M., 2018. Indicators for establishing and assessing waste management systems
100985-7.00012-1. in developing countries: A holistic approach to sustainability and business
Diagne, M., Tinjum, J.M., Nokkaew, K., 2015. The effects of recycled clay brick content opportunities. Bus. Strateg. Dev. 1, 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsd2.7.
on the engineering properties, weathering durability, and resilient modulus of Islam, R., Nazifa, T.H., Yuniarto, A., Shanawaz Uddin, A.S.M., Salmiati, S., Shahid, S.,
recycled concrete aggregate. Transp. Geotech. 3, 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2019. An empirical study of construction and demolition waste generation and
trgeo.2014.12.003. implication of recycling. Waste Manag. 95, 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2019.05.049.

24
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Jia, X., Ye, F., Huang, B., 2015. Utilization of construction and demolition wastes in low- with Clay Brick Aggregates and Particle Breakage Characteristics for Unbound Road
volume roads for rural areas in China. Transp. Res. Rec. 2474, 39–47. https://doi. Base and Subbase Materials in Vietnam. Sustain. 14 https://doi.org/10.3390/
org/10.3141/2474-05. su14084854.
Jiménez, J.R., Agrela, F., Ayuso, J., López, M., 2011. Estudio comparativo de los áridos Noor-Ul-Amin, 2012. Use of clay as a cement replacement in mortar and its chemical
reciclados de hormigón y mixtos como material para sub-bases de carreteras. Mater. activation to reduce the cost and emission of greenhouse gases. Constr. Build. Mater.
Constr. 61, 289–302. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2010.54009. 34, 381–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.022.
Jiménez, J.R., Ayuso, J., Agrela, F., López, M., Galvín, A.P., 2012. Utilisation of unbound Ortiz, O., Pasqualino, J.C., Castells, F., 2010. Environmental performance of construction
recycled aggregates from selected CDW in unpaved rural roads. Resour. Conserv. waste: Comparing three scenarios from a case study in Catalonia. Spain. Waste
Recycl. 58, 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.10.012. Manag. 30, 646–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.11.013.
Junak, J., Sicakova, A., 2017. Effect of surface modifications of recycled concrete Ossa, A., García, J.L., Botero, E., 2016. Use of recycled construction and demolition
aggregate on concrete properties. Buildings 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/ waste (CDW) aggregates: A sustainable alternative for the pavement construction
buildings8010002. industry. J. Clean. Prod. 135, 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Kalantar Hormozi, M.J., Jorkesh, Z., Ajalloeian, R., Mortazavi Gelsefidi, S.A., 2021. jclepro.2016.06.088.
Feasibility of Using Recycled Combined Construction and Demolition Waste for Road Peng, G.F., Huang, Y.Z., Wang, H.S., Zhang, J.F., Liu, Q.B., 2013. Mechanical properties
Base and Subbase in Fooladshahr, Isfahan Province, Iran: A Case Study. J. Transp. of recycled aggregate concrete at low and high water/binder ratios. Adv. Mater. Sci.
Eng. Part B Pavements 147, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/jpeodx.0000267. Eng. 2013 https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/842929.
Kofoworola, O.F., Gheewala, S.H., 2009. Estimation of construction waste generation Perera, S., Arulrajah, A., Wong, Y., Maghool, F., Horpibulsuk, S., 2020. Evaluation of
and management in Thailand. Waste Manag. 29, 731–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/ shear strength properties of unbound PET plastic in blends with demolition wastes.
j.wasman.2008.07.004. Constr. Build. Mater. 262, 120545 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Kurad, R., Silvestre, J.D., de Brito, J., Ahmed, H., 2017. Effect of incorporation of high conbuildmat.2020.120545.
volume of recycled concrete aggregates and fly ash on the strength and global Pérez, P., Agrela, F., Herrador, R., Ordoñez, J., 2013. Application of cement-treated
warming potential of concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 166, 485–502. https://doi.org/ recycled materials in the construction of a section of road in Malaga. Spain. Constr.
10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2017.07.236. Build. Mater. 44, 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.02.034.
Leite, F.D.C., Motta, R.D.S., Vasconcelos, K.L., Bernucci, L., 2011. Laboratory evaluation Pickin, J., Wardle, C., O’Farrell, K., Nyunt, P., Donovan, S., 2020. National Waste Report
of recycled construction and demolition waste for pavements. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020. Blue Environ. Pty Ltd 1–126.
25, 2972–2979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.105. Poltue, T., Suddeepong, A., Horpibulsuk, S., Samingthong, W., Arulrajah, A., Rashid, A.S.
Li, Z., Liu, L., Yan, S., Zhang, M., Xia, J., Xie, Y., 2019. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on A., 2020. Strength development of recycled concrete aggregate stabilized with fly
mechanical and porosity properties of recycled construction waste mixtures. Constr. ash-rice husk ash based geopolymer as pavement base material. Road Mater.
Build. Mater. 210, 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.184. Pavement Des. 21, 2344–2355. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2019.1593884.
Li, J., Saberian, M., Nguyen, B.T., 2018. Effect of crumb rubber on the mechanical Poon, C.S., Chan, D., 2006. Feasible use of recycled concrete aggregates and crushed clay
properties of crushed recycled pavement materials. J. Environ. Manage. 218, brick as unbound road sub-base. Constr. Build. Mater. 20, 578–585. https://doi.org/
291–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.062. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.045.
Liikanen, M., Havukainen, J., Grönman, K., Horttanainen, M., 2019. Construction and Poon, C.S., Yu, A.T.W., Ng, L.H., 2001. On-site sorting of construction and demolition
demolition waste streams from the material recovery point of view: A case study of waste in Hong Kong. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 32, 157–172. https://doi.org/
the South Karelia region. Finland. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 231, 171–181. https:// 10.1016/S0921-3449(01)00052-0.
doi.org/10.2495/WM180161. Poon, C.S., Qiao, X.C., Chan, D., 2006. The cause and influence of self-cementing
Mália, M., De Brito, J., Pinheiro, M.D., Bravo, M., 2013. Construction and demolition properties of fine recycled concrete aggregates on the properties of unbound sub-
waste indicators. Waste Manag. Res. 31, 241–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/ base. Waste Manag. 26, 1166–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
0734242X12471707. wasman.2005.12.013.
Marinković, S., Radonjanin, V., Malešev, M., Ignjatović, I., 2010. Comparative Pourkhorshidi, S., Sangiorgi, C., Torreggiani, D., Tassinari, P., 2022. Assessment of
environmental assessment of natural and recycled aggregate concrete. Waste Manag. construction and demolition waste materials for sublayers of low traffic rural roads.
30, 2255–2264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.04.012. Elev. Int. Conf. Bear. Capacit. Roads, Railw. Airfields Vol. 3 3, 480–490. https://doi.
Martinez-Echevarria, M.J., Lopez-Alonso, M., Garach, L., Alegre, J., Poon, C.S., org/10.1201/9781003222910-50.
Agrela, F., Cabrera, M., 2020. Crushing treatment on recycled aggregates to improve Rahman, M.A., Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Bo, M.W., Imteaz, M.A., 2014a. Resilient
their mechanical behaviour for use in unbound road layers. Constr. Build. Mater. Modulus and Permanent Deformation Responses of Geogrid-Reinforced Construction
263, 120517 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120517. and Demolition Materials. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26, 512–519. https://doi.org/
Melbouci, B., 2009. Compaction and shearing behaviour study of recycled aggregates. 10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000824.
Constr. Build. Mater. 23, 2723–2730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Rahman, M.A., Imteaz, M., Arulrajah, A., Disfani, M.M., 2014b. Suitability of recycled
conbuildmat.2009.03.004. construction and demolition aggregates as alternative pipe backfilling materials.
Menegaki, M., Damigos, D., 2018. A review on current situation and challenges of J. Clean. Prod. 66, 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.005.
construction and demolition waste management. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. Rahman, M.A., Imteaz, M.A., Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Disfani, M.M., 2015.
13, 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.010. Recycled construction and demolition materials in permeable pavement systems:
Mohammadinia, A., Arulrajah, A., Sanjayan, J., Disfani, M.M., Bo, M.W., Darmawan, S., Geotechnical and hydraulic characteristics. J. Clean. Prod. 90, 183–194. https://doi.
2015. Laboratory Evaluation of the Use of Cement-Treated Construction and org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.042.
Demolition Materials in Pavement Base and Subbase Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Ram, V.G., Kalidindi, S.N., 2017. Estimation of construction and demolition waste using
Eng. 27, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001148. waste generation rates in Chennai. India. Waste Manag. Res. 35, 610–617. https://
Mohammadinia, A., Arulrajah, A., Sanjayan, J., Disfani, M.M., Bo, M.W., Darmawan, S., doi.org/10.1177/0734242X17693297.
2016. Strength Development and Microfabric Structure of Construction and Saberian, M., Li, J., 2021. Effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the resilient moduli and
Demolition Aggregates Stabilized with Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers. J. Mater. Civ. unconfined compressive strength of rubberized recycled concrete aggregate as
Eng. 28, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001652. pavement base/subbase. Transp. Geotech. 27, 100477 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Mohammadinia, A., Arulrajah, A., Haghighi, H., Horpibulsuk, S., 2017. Effect of lime trgeo.2020.100477.
stabilization on the mechanical and micro-scale properties of recycled demolition Saberian, M., Li, J., Setunge, S., 2019. Evaluation of permanent deformation of a new
materials. Sustain. Cities Soc. 30, 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pavement base and subbase containing unbound granular materials, crumb rubber
scs.2017.01.004. and crushed glass. J. Clean. Prod. 230, 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Mohammadinia, A., Arulrajah, A., Disfani, M.M., Darmawan, S., 2019a. Small-Strain jclepro.2019.05.100.
Behavior of Cement-Stabilized Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Pavement Base Saberian, M., Li, J., Perera, S.T.A.M., Zhou, A., Roychand, R., Ren, G., 2021. Large-scale
Layers. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943- direct shear testing of waste crushed rock reinforced with waste rubber as pavement
5533.0002671. base/subbase materials. Transp. Geotech. 28, 100546 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Mohammadinia, A., Arulrajah, A., Horpibulsuk, S., Tabatabaie Shourijeh, P., 2019b. trgeo.2021.100546.
Impact of potassium cations on the light chemical stabilization of construction and Safiuddin, M.D., Salam, M.A., Jumaat, M.Z., 2011. Effects of recycled concrete aggregate
demolition wastes. Constr. Build. Mater. 203, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. on the fresh properties of self-consolidating concrete. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 11,
conbuildmat.2019.01.083. 1023–1041. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1644-9665(12)60093-4.
Morafa, S.H., Saesaei, A.H., Mahdizadeh Gohari, O., Heidari Afshar, M.J., 2017. An Sharma, A., Shrivastava, N., Lohar, J., 2023. Assessment of geotechnical and geo-
experimental investigation on applying the recycled aggregates obtained from oil environmental behaviour of recycled concrete aggregates, recycled brick aggregates
contaminated concrete exposed to seawater as road unbound pavement materials. and their blends. Clean. Mater. 7, 100171 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Constr. Build. Mater. 157, 292–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. clema.2023.100171.
conbuildmat.2017.09.084. Silva, R.V., De Brito, J., Dhir, R.K., 2014. Properties and composition of recycled
Muduli, R., Mukharjee, B.B., 2019. Effect of incorporation of metakaolin and recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production.
coarse aggregate on properties of concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 209, 398–414. https:// Constr. Build. Mater. 65, 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.221. conbuildmat.2014.04.117.
Natarajan, B.M., Kanavas, Z., Sanger, M., Rudolph, J., Chen, J., Edil, T., Ginder- Sivakumar, V., McKinley, J.D., Ferguson, D., 2004. Reuse of construction waste:
Vogel, M., 2019. Characterization of Recycled Concrete Aggregate after Eight Years Performance under repeated loading. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng. 157, 91–96.
of Field Deployment. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce) https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2004.157.2.91.
mt.1943-5533.0002708. Soleimanbeigi, A., Edil, T.B., 2015. Compressibility of Recycled Materials for Use As
Nguyen, T.L., Nguyen, V.T., Nguyen, H.G., Matsuno, A., Sakanakura, H., Kawamoto, K., Highway Embankment Fill. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 141, 1–14. https://
2022. Mechanical and Hydraulic Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates Mixed doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0001285.

25
Z. Abedin Khan et al. Cleaner Materials 13 (2024) 100266

Sun, P., Zhang, N., Zuo, J., Mao, R., Gao, X., Duan, H., 2020. Characterizing the Wang, F., Hoff, I., Yang, F., Wu, S., Xie, J., Li, N., Zhang, L., 2021. Comparative
generation and flows of building interior decoration and renovation waste: A case assessments for environmental impacts from three advanced asphalt pavement
study in Shenzhen City. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. construction cases. J. Clean. Prod. 297 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2020.121077. jclepro.2021.126659.
Surya, M., VVL, K.R., Lakshmy, P., 2013. Recycled Aggregate Concrete for Wang, L., Wang, J., Qian, X., Chen, P., Xu, Y., Guo, J., 2017. An environmentally friendly
Transportation Infrastructure. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 104, 1158–1167. https:// method to improve the quality of recycled concrete aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater.
doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.212. 144, 432–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.191.
Swarna, S.K., T.P., T., Siva, S.K., 2022. Implementing construction waste management in Wu, H., Duan, H., Zheng, L., Wang, J., Niu, Y., Zhang, G., 2016. Demolition waste
India: an extended theory of planned behaviour approach. Environ. Technol. Innov., generation and recycling potentials in a rapidly developing flagship megacity of
27, 102401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2022.102401. South China: Prospective scenarios and implications. Constr. Build. Mater. 113,
Tam, V.W.Y., Le, K.N., Wang, J.Y., Illankoon, I.M.C.S., 2018. Practitioners recycling 1007–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.130.
attitude and behaviour in the Australian construction industry. Sustain. 10, 1–23. Wu, H., Zuo, J., Yuan, H., Zillante, G., Wang, J., 2020. Cross-regional mobility of
https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041212. construction and demolition waste in Australia: An exploratory study. Resour.
Tam, V.W.Y., Tam, C.M., 2007. Crushed aggregate production from centralized Conserv. Recycl. 156, 104710 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104710.
combined and individual waste sources in Hong Kong. Constr. Build. Mater. 21, Wu, H., Zuo, J., Zillante, G., Wang, J., Duan, H., 2021. Environmental impacts of cross-
879–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2005.12.016. regional mobility of construction and demolition waste: An Australia Study. Resour.
Tataranni, P., Sangiorgi, C., Simone, A., Vignali, V., Lantieri, C., Dondi, G., 2018. Conserv. Recycl. 174, 105805 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105805.
A laboratory and field study on 100% Recycled Cement Bound Mixture for base Xuan, D.X., Molenaar, A.A.A., Houben, L.J.M., 2015. Evaluation of cement treatment of
layers. Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 11, 427–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. reclaimed construction and demolition waste as road bases. J. Clean. Prod. 100,
ijprt.2017.11.005. 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.033.
Tavakoli Mehrjardi, G., Azizi, A., Haji-Azizi, A., Asdollafardi, G., 2020. Evaluating and Yaghoubi, E., Arulrajah, A., Wong, Y.C., Horpibulsuk, S., 2017. Stiffness Properties of
improving the construction and demolition waste technical properties to use in road Recycled Concrete Aggregate with Polyethylene Plastic Granules in Unbound
construction. Transp. Geotech. 23, 100349 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Pavement Applications. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)
trgeo.2020.100349. mt.1943-5533.0001821.
Tavira, J., Jiménez, J.R., Ayuso, J., Sierra, M.J., Ledesma, E.F., 2018. Functional and Yaghoubi, E., Sudarsanan, N., Arulrajah, A., 2021. Stress-strain response analysis of
structural parameters of a paved road section constructed with mixed recycled demolition wastes as aggregate base course of pavements. Transp. Geotech. 30,
aggregates from non-selected construction and demolition waste with excavation 100599 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100599.
soil. Constr. Build. Mater. 164, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Yang, D.J., Hao, Y.H., Wang, T.C., 2010. Experimental research on recycled aggregate
conbuildmat.2017.12.195. concrete for highway pavement. ICCTP 2010 Integr. Transp. Syst. Green, Intelligent,
Tavira, J., Jiménez, J.R., Ledesma, E.F., López-Uceda, A., Ayuso, J., 2020. Real-scale Reliab. - Proc. 10th Int. Conf. Chinese Transp. Prof. 382, 2913–2919. https://doi.
study of a heavy traffic road built with in situ recycled demolition waste. J. Clean. org/10.1061/41127(382)309.
Prod. 248 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119219. Yap, S.P., Chen, P.Z.C., Goh, Y., Ibrahim, H.A., Mo, K.H., Yuen, C.W., 2018.
Toka, E.B., Olgun, M., 2021. Performance of granular road base and sub-base layers Characterization of pervious concrete with blended natural aggregate and recycled
containing recycled concrete aggregate in different ratios. Int. J. Pavement Eng. concrete aggregates. J. Clean. Prod. 181, 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2021.1916819. jclepro.2018.01.205.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2016. Advancing sustainable Yazdani, M., Kabirifar, K., Frimpong, B.E., Shariati, M., Mirmozaffari, M., Boskabadi, A.,
materials management: 2014 Fact Sheet. United States Environmental Protection 2021. Improving construction and demolition waste collection service in an urban
Agency, Office of Land and Emergency Management, Washington, DC, p. 20460. area using a simheuristic approach: A case study in Sydney. Australia. J. Clean. Prod.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-11/documents/2014_s 280, 124138 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124138.
mmfactsheet_508.pdf. Zhang, Y., Cetin, B., Edil, T.B., 2021b. Seasonal performance evaluation of pavement
Verian, K.P., Ashraf, W., Cao, Y., 2018. Properties of recycled concrete aggregate and base using recycled materials. Sustain. 13, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/
their influence in new concrete production. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 133, 30–49. su132212714.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.005. Zhang, J., Ding, L., Li, F., Peng, J., 2020. Recycled aggregates from construction and
Wang, C., Chazallon, C., Braymand, S., Hornych, P., 2023a. Influence of self-cementing demolition wastes as alternative filling materials for highway subgrades in China.
properties on the mechanical behaviour of recycled concrete aggregates under J. Clean. Prod. 255, 120223 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120223.
monotonic loading. Constr. Build. Mater. 367, 101054 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Zhang, R., Panesar, D.K., 2018. Water absorption of carbonated reactive MgO concrete
conbuildmat.2022.130259. and its correlation with the pore structure. J. CO2 Util. 24, 350–360. https://doi.
Wang, C., Chazallon, C., Jing, P., Hornych, P., Latour, B., 2023b. Effect of self-cementing org/10.1016/j.jcou.2018.01.026.
properties on the mechanical behaviour of recycled concrete aggregates in unbound Zhang, J., Zhang, A., Huang, C., Yu, H., Zhou, C., 2021a. Characterising the resilient
pavement layers. Transp. Geotech. 42, 101054 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. behaviour of pavement subgrade with construction and demolition waste under
trgeo.2023.101054. Freeze-Thaw cycles. J. Clean. Prod. 300, 126702 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2021.126702.

26