GRADE-9

Chapters 3 and 4 Combined notes

Atom
The building blocks of all types of matter are called atoms.
Atomic Size
Atoms are so tiny. The radius of an atom is measured in nanometers. 1nano metre
= 10-9metre
Mass of atom is measured in atomic mass unit (amu or u).
One atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12thmass of one atom of carbon-12.
The relative atomic masses of all elements have been found with respect to an
atom of Carbon-12 .
Atomic Symbols
Symbols of atoms are abbreviations of the full name of each element.
Some names are from Latin and Greek words. IUPAC (international Union Of
Pure and Applied Chemistry) approves names of elements. Many of the symbols
are the first one or two letters of the elements name in English. The first letter of a
symbol is always written as capital letter, second letter as a small letter .
Eg: Symbol of Iron is Fe, from its Latin name Ferrum Sodium is Na .Its taken from
Natrium and Potassium is K. Its taken from Kalium.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory –Postulates
1.All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms.
2.atomsare indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
3.Atoms of a given element are identical in their mass and chemical properties
4.Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
5.atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
6.The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Subatomic Particles
The particles present inside the atom are called subatomic particles.
The centre of the atom is called the nucleus.
The nucleus contains two types of subatomic particles- protons and neutrons.
The protons have a positive electrical charge and the neutrons have no electrical
charge.
The electrons, move around the nucleus. The electrons have a negative electrical
charge. An atom usually contains an equal number of positively charged protons
and negatively charged electrons. This makes the atom itself electrically neutral.

The electrons exist at different energy levels, called shells, around the nucleus. The
shell can only accommodate a limited number of electrons that can be calculated
using the formula 2n2 where ‘n’ denotes the number of the shell.
Atomic Number
Atomic number of an element is either the number of protons or the number of
electrons present in the atom of the element. It is denoted by the letter Z.
Mass Number/Atomic Mass
Mass number or atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons present in
an atom of an element. It is denoted by the letter A.
Atomic mass = Total number of protons + Total number of neutrons.
Atomic mass = Atomic number + Total number of neutrons.
Notation of an Atom of an Element
It’s the symbolic representation of an atom of an element. Eg: Sodium atom can be

represented as
23 is its mass number/atomic mass, 11 is its atomic number.
Electronic Configuration of Atoms of Elements
It means the distribution of electrons in various shells/orbits of an atom.
Bohr –Bury Rules for Distribution of Electrons in Various Energy Levels
(i)Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in an orbit is given by
2n2 Where n is the shell/orbit number. First shell-K No: of electrons=2x(1)2=2
Second shell-L No: of electrons = 2x(2)2=2x4=8
Third shell-M No: of electrons=2x(3)2=2x9=18and so on
(ii)Outermost shell can accommodate a maximum number of 8 electrons.
(iii)Electrons will not be accomodated in a given shell , unless the inner shells are
filled .
Octet Rule
Octet rule states that atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to have a full
valence shell of 8 electrons.
Valency ,Valence electrons and Significance of Valence Electrons
*Combining capacity of an atom is called its valency.
*Outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell.
*Electrons present in a valence shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
*If the outermost shell of an atom is completely filled , its valency is 0.
*Valency of elements having 1 to 4 electrons in the outermost shell are equal to
number of electrons in the valence shell.ie,the same number.(Metals)
* Valency of elements having number of electrons in the outermost shell close to 8
and 8(ie; 5,6,7,8)is equal to (8-number of electrons in the valence shell).
(Non-metals)
Significance of valence electrons
(i)Valence electrons are responsible for chemical properties of the atom
(ii)Elements having same number of valence electrons in their atoms possess
similar chemical properties, because chemical properties of elements are
determined by the number of valence electrons.
(iii) Elements having different number of valence electrons in their atoms possess
different chemical properties .
Ions
Charged species are called ions.
There are three types of ions: cation(positively charged ion), anion(negatively
charged ion), polyatomic ion.
Atom is electrically neutral. When an atom loses electron/electrons, it becomes a
cation (positively charged ion)Eg: Na+, Ca2+
When an atom gains electron/electrons, it becomes an anion (negative ion).
Eg: Cl-, S2-
A group of atoms carrying a charge is called a polyatomic ion. Eg: (SO4)2- , (CO3)2-
Isotopes
Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same atomic
number but different mass number.

Isobars
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but the same
mass number are called isobars. Isobars have different numbers of protons as well
as electrons (different atomic numbers)but have the same mass number.
Applications of isotopes:
1.Nuclear medicine uses small amounts of radiation to provide information about a
person's body and the functioning of specific organs, ongoing biological processes,
or the disease state of a specific illness.
2.Carbon dating-A scientific method that can accurately determine the age of
organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years.
3.Rock dating-Determines how much time has passed since rocks formed by
measuring the radioactive decay of isotopes or the effects of radiation on the
crystal structure of minerals

Molecules
A molecule is in general , a group of two or more atoms that are chemically
bonded together by attractive forces.
There are two types of molecules: molecules of elements and molecules of
compounds.
.Atoms of same element join together to form molecules of elements.Eg: H2, O3,
O2, Cl2etc .
Atoms of different elements join together in fixed proportions to form molecules of
compounds.Eg: CO2, H2O etc
Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called atomicity of a molecule.Eg:
Atomicity of , H2O = 2+1=3 (triatomic)
H2 = 2 (diatomic), S8= 8 (poly atomic)
**What is the difference between 2O and O2?
Ans: 2O means 2 atoms of Oxygen and O2means one molecule of Oxygen.
Problems:
Calculate the atomicity of the following molecules:
(a)H2S= 2+1=3
(b)(PO4)-3= 1+4= 5
(c)CaCO3= 1+1+3= 5
Chemical Formula/Molecular Formula of a Compound
Chemical formula /molecular formula of a compound is a symbolic representation
of its composition. “A chemical formula of a molecular compound represents the
actual number of atoms present in one molecule of the compound” Eg: The
chemical formula of Sodium chloride is NaCl.
Rules for writing Chemical Formula
*The valencies of elements / charges of ions must balance.
*When a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal part, the metal part should
be written first and then the non-metal part.Eg: In sodium chloride, sodium is a
metal and chlorine is a non-metal, So we write its chemical name as sodium
chloride and its chemical formula is NaCl (Na –symbol of sodium, Cl-symbol of
chlorine)
*In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the symbol of ion should be enclosed
in a bracket before writing the number to indicate the ratio in which it appears in
the molecule.Eg:Al2(SO4)3is the formula of aluminium sulphate.
*In case , the polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not required .Eg: NaOH.
***Refer notebook for practice work.
Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in
a molecule of the substance. It is the relative mass of a molecule expressed in
atomic mass units(u).
Eg: Molecular mass of water is 18u.Molecular formula of water is H2O.There are 2
hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom in a molecule of water. Atomic mass of H is
1u,atomic mass of O is 16u. Therefore, the molecular mass of water is equal to
(2 x 1u +1x 16u= 2u+16u=18u)
***Refer notebook for Problems.
Formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a
formula unit of a compound. We use the term formula unit mass for those
molecules whose constituent particles are ions. Eg: sodium chloride.
e.g., Na+ + Cl–→ NaCl(1×23u) + (1× 35.5u )=58.5 u
Percentage composition of a Compound
Mass percentage of each element in a compound needs to be calculated to get the
percentage composition of a compound. There are two equations to calculate the
mass percentage of elements present in a compound.
(a)When mass of the compound and each element’s masses are given, Mass% of
an element= (Given mass of the element in the compound/ Given mass of the
compound)x100
(b)When the formula of the compound and atomic masses of the constituent
elements are given, Mass% of an element= (Total mass of the element in one
molecule of the compound/ Molecular mass of the compound )x 100
***LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS:
Antoine .L. Lavoisier laid the foundation of Chemical sciences by establishing two
important laws of chemical combination.
1.Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor be
destroyed in a chemical reaction. Mathematical expression for this statement is that
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
Problems
1.In a reaction, 5.3g of sodium carbonated reacted with 6g of ethanoic acid. The
products were 2.2g of carbon dioxide, 0.9g of water and 8.2g of sodium ethanoate.
Show that these observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of
mass. Sodium carbonate+ ethanoic acid = sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide +
water.
Ans: Total mass of reactants = 5.3g + 6g = 11.3gTotal mass of products= 2.2g +
0.9g + 8.2g = 11.3gTherefore , Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
2.Law of Definite Proportion/Constant Proportion
The law of definite proportion states that ina chemical substance/ compound, the
elements are always present in a definite proportion by mass.Eg: Chemical formula
of water is H2O.
2 Hydrogen atoms are combined with 1 Oxygen atom to form one molecule of
water. Atomic mass of Hydrogen atom=1u and atomic mass of one oxygen atom=
16u,therefore 2u of hydrogen combines with 16u of oxygen. Therefore , their mass
ratio is 2:16= 1:8.This will be always fixed wherever it gets formed.
Problems
1.Hydrogen and oxygen combine in a ratio of 1:8 by mass to form water. What
mass of Oxygen gas would be required to react completely with 3g of Hydrogen
gas ?
Ans: Let Y be the mass of Oxygen required for 3g of Hydrogen.
So, 1:8 = 3: Y
1 x Y = 8 x 3Y=24g
24g of Oxygen is required for 3g of Hydrogen to react completely to form water.