Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

 describe briefly who is Jean Jacque Rousseau
 explain Rousseau‘s views on education
 briefly describe who is John Locke
 evaluate Locke‘s views on education

Chapter 1:
Introduction
Chapter Outline
Chapter 2:
Who is Rousseau? Early Perspectives on Curriculum
His works
Goals of education Chapter 3:
Curriculum Confucius & Mencius
Who is Locke?
Goals of education Chapter 4:
Al-Farabi & Ibnu Sina
Curriculum
Chapter 5:
Socrates & Plato
References
Chapter 6:
Jean Rousseau &, John Locke

Chapter 7:
Paulo Freire & Ivan Illich

Chapter 8:
Rabindranath Tagore & Vivekananda

Chapter 9:
21st Century Skills

Preamble
This chapter focuses on the views of two European philosophers: Jean Rousseau and
John Locke. Rousseau emphasised the need for the child to be close to the
environment and this is reflected in his book Emile. John Locke has his views on
education and emphasised the need for health education and proper nutrition.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

WHO IS ROUSSEAU?

Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland

on June, 28, 1712 and nine days after his birth his
mother died of birth complications. He was brought
up by his father, a clockmaker who taught him
ancient Greek and Roman literature. His father got
into a quarrel with a French captain, and at the risk
of imprisonment, he fled from Geneva and left
Rousseau abandoned when he was ten. He was cared
by his uncle and an apprentice and then an engraver.
Although he did not detest the work, he thought his
master to be violent and tyrannical.
At the age of 16, he left Geneva for Annecy
where he met a French baroness named Francoise-
Louise de Warens who was thirteen years older than
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Rousseau. The baroness, who became his lover,
(1712-78) made it possible for Rousseau to receive the
education of a nobleman. He studied the works of
Aristotle, learned Latin and the dramatic arts. During this time he earned money
through secretarial work, teaching and musical jobs.
In 1742, he went to Paris to become a musician and composer and from there
went to Venice to serve in the French Embassy. He returned to Paris and met a linen-
maid named Therese Levasseur whom he married later. From the 1750s onwards,
Rousseau published many works touching on politics, arts, sciences, economy and
education. In 1756, Rousseau and Therese Levasseur left Paris after being invited to a
house in the country by Mme. D‘Epinay. His stay here lasted only a year and involved
an affair with a woman named Sophie d‘Houdetot, the mistress of his friend Saint-
Lambert. In 1757, after repeated quarrels with Mme. D‘Epinay and her other guests,
Rousseau moved to lodgings near the country home of the Duke of Luxemburg at
Montmorency.
It was during this time that Rousseau wrote some of his most important works.
In 1761 he published a novel, Julie or the New Heloise, which was one of the best
selling of the century. Then, just a year later in 1762, he published two major
philosophical treatises: The Social Contract and Emile. Paris authorities condemned
both of these books, primarily for claims Rousseau made in them about religion,
which forced him to flee France. He settled in Switzerland and in 1764 he began
writing his autobiography, his Confessions. A year later, after encountering
difficulties with Swiss authorities, he spent time in Berlin and Paris, and eventually
moved to England at the invitation of David Hume. However, due to quarrels with
Hume, his stay in England lasted only a year, and in 1767 he returned to the southeast
of France incognito.
After spending three years in the southeast, Rousseau returned to Paris in 1770
and copied music for a living. It was during this time that he wrote Rousseau: Judge
of Jean-Jacques and the Reveries of the Solitary Walker, which would turn out to be
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

his final works. He died on July 3, 1778. His Confessions were published several
years after his death; and his later political writings, in the nineteenth century.

ACTIVITY
Trace the life of Rousseau from his birth in 1712 until
his death in 1778.

HIS WORKS

In 1750 he published the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, a response to

the question, “Has the restoration of the sciences and arts tended to purify
morals?” The writing consisted of two parts called First Discourse and Second
Discourse. The following is a summary of his answer to the question:

 He argued that in societies where the arts and science flourished, morality and
virtue declined. For example, in ancient Egypt and Greece, the flourishing of
arts and science led to luxury and leisure which led to the downfall of these
societies. Similarly, China, acknowledged for its high level of learning
suffered terribly from its vices.

 He argued that while the sciences have made our lives easier and more
pleasurable, it fails to contribute anything positive to morality. Scientific
knowledge such as the relationship between the body and the mind, the orbit
of the planets and the law of physics fail to provide any guidance for making
people more virtuous citizens.

 With regards to the arts, he argued that the creators of the arts were more
interested in wanting to be praised and acknowledge as superior to others.
Hence, society tended to emphasise talents rather than virtues such as courage,
generosity and temperance (self-control or restraint).

 However, Rousseau praised the writer Bacon, the philosopher Descartes and
the scientist Newton. Despite being men of genius, they were able to avoid
corruption.

In 1753 he published the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men

in response to the question “What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it
authorized by the natural law?” The following is a summary of his answer to the
question:

 He argued that to understand human nature, one will have to examine ―man in
his natural state‖, uncorrupted by civilisation and the socialisation process.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

 He described ―natural man‖ as isolated, timid, peaceful, mute and without

foresight to worry about what the future will bring.
 The two principles that guide human actions are: Self-Interest and Pity.
o Self-interest motivates human to do certain things such as kill animals
for food
o Pity is an innate dislike to see his fellowman suffer.

 Rousseau was criticised for depicting humans as similar to animals. He argued

that humans are different because they have the power of reasoning. However,
the power of reasoning is not yet developed in man in the natural state.

 Rousseau was also criticised for suggesting that we humans should return to
the state of nature. He replied that he is not advocating a return the natural
state. He is not suggesting that humans in the natural states are good and
humans in civil society are bad. Human beings in the natural state are amoral
individual, neither virtuous nor vicious (brutal or violent). Even after leaving
the natural state and moving towards the civilised society, humans can express
goodness and morality.

 Stages in the progressions from a natural state to present day civil society:
o Pure State of Nature – Humans organise themselves into temporary
groups to perform specific tasks such as hunting an animal. Language
is basic in the form of grunts and gestures. The groups that were
formed long enough for the specific task and broke up when it was
over.
o Permanent Relationships – This stage sees the formation of the
family unit, ownership of property and competition. According to
Rousseau, the development of man at this stage does not lead to the
level of causing pain and inequality, like that found in present day
society. He argued that if human remained in this state, they would
have been happy as most of the tasks can be done individually.
o Division of Labour – At this stage, agriculture and metallurgy were
introduced which required a division of labour. Some people were
better suited to do certain types of physical tasks while others assigned
the task of making tools. Still others became supervisors and the task
of governing society. Soon strict class distinctions developed,
ownership of property and wealth which created conflict. Those in
power, to keep their power convinced those with less power that it was
in their self-interest to accept the status quo.

 Conclusion: Rousseau‘s basic argument is that humans are by nature

peaceful, contented and equal. It is socialisation and the progression to a civil
society that has produced inequality, competition and the egoistic mentality.

 1761 he published a novel, Julie or the New Heloise, which was one of the best
selling of the century.
 In April, 1762, he published a definitive work on political philosophy, The Social
Contract
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

 In May, 1762 he published Emile, a book detailing his views on education [which
we will discuss in more detail]
 In 1764 he began writing his autobiography, his Confessions.
 In he wrote Rousseau: Judge of Jean-Jacques and the Reveries of the Solitary
Walker, which would turn out to be his final works.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What was Rousseau‘s main criticism of the arts and the
sciences?
b) What did Rousseau mean by the ―natural state of man‖?
c) How did Rousseau argue for the origin of inequality of
humans?

ROUSSEAU’S VIEWS ON EDUCATION

A) EMILE
On May, 1762, Rousseau published Emile which is part fiction and part
philosophical description of his philosophy or views on education (see Figure 6.1).
The book was banned by Paris authorities because it contained information which was
alleged to challenge traditional views of religion. The book is written in the first
person and tells the story of a young boy named Emile growing up and tutored by
Rousseau.

Figure 6.1 Emile by Rousseau

Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

He brings him up in the countryside, where, he believes, humans are most

naturally suited, rather than in a city, where we only learn bad habits, both physical
and intellectual. He wants Emile to learn how to live righteously guided by him
through various contrived learning experiences, such as being a gardener (see Figure
6.2). The educational philosophy underlying the development of Emile is the belief
that human beings are good by nature. It is not possible for a person to return to nature
once that person has become civilised. Hence, it is better that the person is properly
educated so that he or she will relate to others in a natural way.
Emile begins learning important moral lessons from infancy, through
childhood and into early adulthood. It is the role of the tutor to supervise and
manipulate the environment in such a way to teach difficult moral lessons about
humility, chastity and honesty. Rousseau believed that a student‘s character should be
developed in such as way as to ensure he or she has a healthy sense of self-worth and
morality. This will ensure the student will remain virtuous even in the unnatural and
imperfect society in which he or she lives later.

Figure 6.2 Emile as a gardener

B) GROWTH OF A CHILD
The growth of a child is divided into five stages and refers to the male:
 Stage 1: Infancy (birth to two years). From birth children should be given the
liberty to do more for themselves and demand less of others. They should be
taught to confine their wishes within the limits of their powers. This will make
them not to want something that is not in their power to have. The child should
allow his body its natural habits and to be his own master and follow the
dictates of his will as soon as he has a will of his own.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

 Stage 2: Nature (two to 12 years). During this time, the child receives no
moral instruction or verbal learning. The child‘s mind is left undisturbed and
focus is on the development of his physical abilities especially the five senses.
 Stage 3: Pre-adolescence (12-15 years). The individual at this stage of his life
is described by Rousseau as 'noble savage' in The Social Contract when his
physical strength increases far more rapidly than his needs. The urge for
activity now takes a mental form; there is greater capacity for sustained
attention (Boyd 1956). The educator has to respond accordingly. Our real
teachers are experience and emotion, and man will never learn what
befits a man except under its own conditions. A child knows he must
become a man; all the ideas he may have as to man's estate are so many
opportunities for his instruction, but he should remain in complete ignorance
of those ideas which are beyond his grasp. My whole book is one continued
argument in support of this fundamental principle of education. (Everyman
edn: 141; Boyd: 81). The only book Émile is allowed is Robinson Crusoe - an
expression of the solitary, self-sufficient man that Rousseau seeks to form
(Boyd 1956: 69).
 Stage 4: Puberty (15-20 years). Rousseau believes that by the time Émile is
fifteen, his reason will be well developed, and he will then be able to deal with
he sees as the dangerous emotions of adolescence, and with moral issues and
religion. The second paragraph of the book contains the famous lines: 'We are
born, so to speak, twice over; born into existence, and born into life; born a
human being, and born a man' (Everyman edn: 172). As before, he is still
wanting to hold back societal pressures and influences so that the 'natural
inclinations' of the person may emerge without undue corruption. There is to
be a gradual entry into community life (Boyd 1956: 95). Most of Book IV
deals with Émile's moral development. (It also contains the the statement of
Rousseau's' his own religious principles, written as 'The creed of a Savoyard
priest', which caused him so much trouble with the religious authorities of the
day).
 Stage 5: Adulthood (20-25 years). In Book V, the adult Émile is introduced to
his ideal partner, Sophie. He learns about love, and is ready to return to
society, proof, Rousseau hopes, after such a lengthy preparation, against its
corrupting influences. The final task of the tutor is to 'instruct the the young
couple in their marital rights and duties' (Boyd 1956: 130).

Sophie. This last book includes a substantial section concerning the education of
woman. Rousseau subscribes to a view that sex differences go deep (and are
complementary) - and that education must take account of this. 'The man should be
strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive; he one must have both the
power and the will; it is enough that the other should offer little resistance' (Everyman
edn: 322). Sophie's training for womanhood up to the age of ten involves physical
training for grace; the dressing of dolls leading to drawing, writing, counting and
reading; and the prevention of idleness and indocility. After the age of ten there is a
concern with adornment and the arts of pleasing; religion; and the training of reason.
'She has been trained careful rather than strictly, and her taste has been followed
rather than thwarted' (Everyman edn: 356). Rousseau then goes on to sum her
qualities as a result of this schooling (356-362).
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

C) IMPLICATIONS
 The book is based on Rousseau's ideals of healthy living. The boy must work
out how to follow his social instincts and be protected from the vices of urban
individualism and self-consciousness.
 Emile is representative of the ideal man and is educated to be self-governing.
 Sophie is representative of ideal womanhood and is educated to be governed
by her husband.

D) REACTIONS TO THE BOOK

 The education proposed in Emile has been criticised for being impractical, and
the topic itself, the education of children has led the text to be ignored.
 In the letter, Rousseau answers the criticism of impracticability: ―You say
quite correctly that it is impossible to produce an Emile. But I cannot believe
that you take the book that carries this name for a true treatise on education. It
is rather a philosophical work on this principle advanced by the author in other
writings that man is naturally good‖.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What was Rousseau‘s main argument in his book Emile?
b) Discuss the stages of human development proposed by
Rousseau
c) What are the implications for education?

WHO IS JOHN LOCKE?

John Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in

Wrington, in Somerset, where his mother's family
resided. She died during his infancy, and Locke was
raised by his father, a small-town attorney. His father
was a strict man who did not believe in indulging his
son as a child, but in keeping him in awe of his
father and at some distance. John was tutored at
home because of his delicate health.
At the age of 15, in 1647, that he was sent to
Westminster School in London. Locke‘s studies at
Westminster were centred upon the classical
languages of Latin and Greek, and he also began to
study Hebrew. He was clearly a hardworking boy
and in 1652 earned a scholarship to study at Christ
Church, Oxford. In 1656 he graduated with a
JOHN LOCKE Bachelor of Arts degree and two years later obtained
(1632–1704) a Master of Arts degree.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

Other subjects of study with which he was concerned were mathematics,

astronomy, history, Hebrew, Arabic, natural philosophy, botany, chemistry and
medicine. From the beginning of his time at Oxford he kept a medical notebook,
which began, simply enough, with family medical recipes collected by his mother.
This progressed to the reading of the latest medical textbooks and to simple
experimentation. In 1660 he was appointed Lecturer in Greek, and in 1662 Lecturer in
Rhetoric. In 1663 he was elected to the office of Censor of Moral Philosophy, one of
the senior disciplinary roles in the college. By that time both his parents and two
brothers had died. In 1675 he received the degree of Bachelor of Medicine from the
University of Oxford).
Locke‘s final years from 1691 were spent at Oates, a small Tudor manor house
in Essex, just north of Epping Forest, some twenty miles from London. There he lived
as a paying guest of Sir Francis and Lady Masham: writing further works on
educational, philosophical and political subjects, publishing replies to his critics,
visited by his friends. His final years were painful. He suffered from asthma and
swelling of the legs and deafness, but his mind and pen remained as active as ever.
Despite some female attachments, he died at Oates on 28 October 1704 as a bachelor.
He was buried in the churchyard of the nearby parish church at High Laver. His
epitaph written by himself:

EPITAPH
Near this place lies John
Locke. If you wonder what
kind of man he was, the
answer is that he was one
contented with his modest
lot. A scholar by training,
he devoted his studies
wholly to the pursuit of
truth. Such you may learn
from his writings.

Figure 6.3 John Locke‟s grave

HIS WRITINGS
None of Locke's major writings were published until he was nearly sixty. His
major works were (see Figure 6.3):
 Two Treatises of Government which dealt with politics published in 1690. He
wrote about legitimate and illegitimate civil governments, and argued for the
legitimacy of revolt against tyrannical governments.
 Essay Concerning Human Understanding (thereafter called the Essay) which
was published in 1690 and was composed of four books which was the
culmination of twenty years of intellectual labour. In two of the books he
developed his theory of knowledge.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

 Some Thoughts Concerning Education (thereafter called Thoughts) was

published in 1693. His ideas on education and children were based on his
considerable experience as a tutor to the children of the nobility and his
friends (see Figure 6.4).

Although the Thoughts was most immediately concerned with education, by far the
most important of Locke‘s writings, and one which had great significance for
education, was the Essay concerning human understanding.

Figure 6.4 Prominent writings of John Locke

John Locke has been considered a great educator and in his publications he
expressed his theory of knowledge, his advice to parents on the upbringing of their
children, and his educational priorities with specific reference to the curriculum.

LOCKE’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Theory of knowledge means how knowledge is acquired by a human being.

Locke began by rejecting the doctrine of innate ideas, associated with Plato.
According to Locke, the term ―idea‖ relates to whatsoever a person understands when
he or she thinks. Hence, this broad definition of idea includes sensation, memories,
imaginings and feeling. He rejected the notion of ―innatism‖ which suggests that
humans are born with innate ideas and which are universally acknowledged. In other
words, because of these innate ideas, the mind possesses a disposition to think in
terms of certain ideas. If innatism were true, all humans would start as equals. One
only needs to observe children to realise that they not equal and there no
acknowledged universal ideas to which everyone agrees.

If there exists no innate idea; our intellect, at the first moment of its being,
is a tabula rasa, a clean sheet of paper on which nothing has yet been written. All
impressions or ideas we later find thereon come from experience.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

He argued that the differences in personalities, mental and physical

capabilities of individuals were to some extent a product of nature rather than of
nurture (i.e. innateness). If we had innate ideas, says Locke, we would be conscious of
having them. But it is an undeniable fact that children and the unlearned, are not
conscious of having innate ideas; they acquire knowledge during the course of a
lifetime. It is impossible that anyone should have knowledge of something of which
he is not conscious. Locke‘s rejection of innateness of ideas was extended to moral
principles. For example, the idea of justice does not have a universal concept. All
human knowledge is acquired from everyday experience or sensation. However,
Locke also admitted the existence of some innate powers or qualities, recognising that
some children seem to be from birth innately more adept than others in certain
respects.

ACTIVITY
a) Trace the life of John Locke.
b) Describe Locke‘s theory of knowledge or how a person
acquires knowledge?
c) To what extent do you agree with tabula rasa concept?

PARENTS AND CHILDREN

On the mental, spiritual and physical well-being of children, Locke based his
ideas on his knowledge of philosophy, psychology, Christianity and medicine. He
believed in the importance of observing children, and of tailoring education to
their needs and capacities. Above all, though he was aware of innate differences
between individuals, he was a firm believer in the power of education. As he stated in
the first paragraph of the Thoughts: ‗Of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten
are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education‟ (Thoughts, s. 1).
The following are some of his ideas on children:

A) HEALTH AND NUTRITION

 Children should have ‗plenty of open air, exercise and sleep; plain diet, no
wine or strong drink‘ (Thoughts, s. 30).
 He advises that children from rich families should wear thin and leaky
shoes or go barefoot to toughen their feet so as to feel what it is like to be
poor without footwear.
 Locke‘s advocacy of the benefits of cold water extended to teaching children
to swim, both for the general promotion of their health and for the preservation
of life (Thoughts, s. 8).
 Food for children, according to Locke, should be plain and wholesome, with
sugar, salt and spices used sparingly.
 Locke was generally in favour of fruits such as apples, pears, strawberries,
cherries, gooseberries and currants but he was less keen on melons, peaches,
plums and grapes.
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

 Clothes should not be too tight, neither for boys nor girls.
 To accustom children to cope with minor physical adversity were that beds
should not be excessively comfortable, nor mealtimes necessarily regular.
 Interestingly, he emphasised the importance of regular bowel actions.

B) CHILD REARING
 Locke believed that parents should personally exercise firm and close
authority over their children from an early age, with a view to relaxing it as
they grew older: „Fear and awe ought to give you the first power over their
minds, and love and friendship in riper years to hold it‟ (Thoughts, s. 42).
Locke that parents should be strict with their children. ―For, liberty and
indulgence can do no good to children: their want of judgement makes them
stand in need of restraint and discipline‖ (Thoughts, s. 40).
 He criticised the over-indulgence of little children, and abhorred obstinate
crying on their part.
 He did not advocate physical punishment but instead recommended the
careful application of ‗esteem‘ and ‗disgrace‘ (Thoughts, s. 56), enjoined
parents to set a good example, and warned against the interventions of
servants who ‗by their flatteries take off the edge and force of the parents‘
rebukes and so lessen their authority‘ (Thoughts, s. 68).
 He advised parents and tutors to study their children and to note their
dispositions and dislikes: ‗for a child will learn three times as much when he is
in tune, as he will with double the time and pains, when he goes awkwardly, or
is dragged unwillingly to it‘ (Thoughts, s. 74).
 Toys should be simple and sturdy, possibly fashioned by the children
themselves, rather than expensive and fragile.
 Locke suggested that students should be educated by a tutor rather than go to
school. The best means of education was that ‗children should from their first
beginning to talk, have some discreet, sober, nay wise person about, whose
care it should be to fashion them aright, and keep them from all ill, especially
the infection of bad company‘ (Thoughts, s. 90), and he advised parents to
spare no care nor cost to get a tutor.
 A good tutor, or indeed a good parent, would be able to encourage and to
satisfy the proper and persistent questions of children, to guide them away
from cruelty towards animals or other children, and to teach them the value of
truth.

It should be noted that Locke was writing for a small population of well-to-do
families or the ‗gentry‘. However, his views on education have universal application.
It is possible to argue that much of the advice to parents such as good habits at an
early age, paying attention to the child‘s real needs, the use of esteem and disgrace
rather than of corporal punishment to discipline children, the importance of good
parental example may be applicable to all ranks in society.

ACTIVITY
a) Do you agree with John Locke‘s opinions on how
children should be brought up?
b) List Locke‘s suggestions on health and nutrition. Do you
agree?
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

CURRICULUM

A) TEACHING STRATEGY
 He believed that when teaching one should begin with plain and the simple
and build on children‟s existing knowledge.
 Teachers should emphasise the interconnections between topics and between
subjects.

B) ENGLISH LANGUAGE
 Children should be taught to read at the earliest possible age—as soon as they
can talk. But the learning should not be the learning should not be
exasperating. It is better to lose a whole year rather than have children hate
learning at an early stage.
 Learning should be fun, and suggested the use of play to learn the alphabets. ‘
 Books should contain pictures, especially animals (Thoughts, s. 156).
 Writing should begin with correct holding of the pen and the copying of large
letters from a sheet. Writing would lead naturally to drawing, with due
attention to perspective, a most useful skill for those who would engage in
travel, so that buildings, machines and other interesting phenomena might be
quickly sketched. Locke believed that a good drawing was more useful in
conveying an idea to the mind than several pages of written description.
 Locke also urged the value of shorthand for the purpose of making quick
notes.

C) FRENCH AND LATIN

 As soon as children could speak English they should begin French, by the
conversational method. Once children could speak and read French well, a
task which Locke envisaged would take but a year or two, they should begin
Latin. Latin, Locke declared, was ‗absolutely necessary to a gentleman‘
(Thoughts, s. 164), and once again he advised that it should be taught by the
conversational method.
 Locke was against plunging children into a mass of grammatical rules,
observing that if English could be learned naturally then the same must be
true of other languages.
 He was also against the common practice of writing elaborate themes and
verses in Latin. If there was a difficulty in securing a tutor who could teach
through conversation, then Locke recommended the use of easy and
interesting books in Latin, with the literal English translation written between
the lines of Latin. Latin, of course, was still essential for certain professions
and for attendance at the universities, for many lectures and books were
provided only in Latin.
 But Locke also recognized that Latin (and Greek) occupied too large a part in
the curricula of his day, particularly for boys who were intended for trade or
farming. These would be better employed in learning to write a good hand and
to maintain accounts, skills not generally taught in seventeenth century
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

grammar schools. Locke was also doubtful about the value of memory
training, particularly the practice of learning pages of Latin by heart to
promote this faculty. If children were to learn by heart it should be the
learning of maxims, rules and other knowledge which had a direct utility in
itself.

D) GEOGRAPHY, ARITHMETIC, ASTRONOMY, GEOMETRY,

SCIENCE AND HISTORY
 Other subjects which Locke commended for a gentleman‘s son included
geography, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and history, and generally in that
order.
 Locke was particularly keen on this last: ‗as nothing teaches, so nothing
delights more than history‘ (Thoughts, s. 184). History would naturally lead on
to a study of law and government, subjects of importance for future gentlemen
who might be required to assume public office, either locally as Justices of the
Peace, or as Members of Parliament. Reasoning and eloquence, other skills
necessary for public life, Locke urged, were best gained by practice and not by
formal studies in rhetoric and logic.
 In respect of science, which in the seventeenth century was usually referred to
as natural philosophy and lacked disciplinary organization as such, Locke
urged the study of the several manifestations of nature even though ‗all the
knowledge we have […] cannot be brought into a science‘ (Thoughts, s. 193).

E) DANCING, MUSIC, FENCING, TRADE AND GARDENING

 The curriculum should also include other types of accomplishment. Dancing
was recommended from an early age, though learning to play a musical
instrument was not encouraged as ‗it wastes so much of a young man‘s time‘
(Thoughts, s. 197).
 The two military exercises of fencing and riding the ‗great horse‘ or charger
were commended, though Locke feared that fencing might lead to duelling and
on that ground suggested wrestling as an alternative.
 Locke also advised that every gentleman‟s son should learn at least one
manual trade, and preferably two or three. Such a skill might be useful in
itself, should the gentleman fall on hard times, but also promoted physical
well-being and was a useful antidote to too much bookish study.
 Locke, who was himself a keen gardener, recommended ‗gardening or
husbandry in general, and working in wood, as a carpenter, joiner or turner,
these being fit and healthy recreations for a man of study, or business‘
(Thoughts, s. 204).
 Other recommended pursuits included varnishing, engraving and working in
base and precious metals. Locke advised all gentlemen and their sons to learn
merchants‘ accounts.
 Though Locke emphasised the role of recreation, he warned against such
sedentary and potentially ruinous pastimes as cards and dice. On the other
hand, he was a keen advocate of foreign travel, though he thought that this
usually took place at the wrong age; between 16 and 21.
 Locke urged that children should either go abroad, with a tutor, between the
ages of 7 and 14, so that they might learn foreign languages quickly and
Chapter 6: Jean Rousseau and John Locke

effectively, or after the age of 21 when, as young men of some maturity and
experience, they might travel without supervision.

ACTIVITY
a) Discuss the curriculum proposed by Locke.
b) Relate it to the Malaysian school curriculum
c) To what extent do you agree with the suggestions of
Locke?

REFERENCES

 Michel Soëtard. Jean Rousseau. PROSPECTS: quarterly review of

comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education),
vol. XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 423-38.

 Richard Aldrich. John Locke PROSPECTS: the quarterly review of education

(Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. 24, no. 1/2, 1994,
p. 61–76. ©UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, 1999