ABSTRACT

This study investigate the production and quality Evaluation of chin-chin produced

form blends of Wheat-Cassava Flour. The cassava flour is substituted with wheat

blend at 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% and 40%. This is followed by the

determination of the proximate composition of the chin-chin produced and also

evaluate the acceptability of the chin-chin produced using healonic scale. The result

shows that the moisture content increase from 12.52% to 13.67%. Protein range from

5.25% to 10.05%, Fat 1.21% to 2.01%, Fiber 2.34% to 3.55%, Carbohydrate 73.35%

to 68.27%, Ash 2.92% to 2.45% the quality evaluation shows that all the parameters

where acceptable to the consumer with sample C been the most preferred in terms of

overall acceptability, While sample D is preferred in terms of taste aroma and

crispness. Hence Chin-chin can be produced from wheat and cassava blends up to

30%.

1
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour is the major raw material employed in many baking

processes (Okpala & Egwu, 2015). The suitability of wheat in the production of many

confectionary products is as a result of good intrinsic viscoelastic properties of the wheat

protein (gluten; Ibitoye et al 2013). It also contains 78.10% carbohydrates, 14.7% protein,

2.10% fat, 2.10% minerals, and significant amounts of vitamins such as thiamine and vitamin

B (Okpala & Egwu, 2015).

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important perpetual root crop that provides food for

over 500 million people in the world [Chisenga et al., 2019; Bouniol et al., 2021]. It is a

consistent and inexpensive food source assuring the global food security by providing the

carbohydrate dietary requirement of the people especially, in the low-income countries (Ajani

et al., 2020). Cassava has many applications in the product diversification, varying from food

to nonfood products (Dudu et al., 2020). Being a rich source of carbohydrate, cassava

facilitates the utilization of its flour in the applications such as manufacturing cassava strips

(Dada et al., 2018), short biscuits , pasta , porridges , instant flour , and starch films (Otondi

et al., 2020).

Chin-chin and tidbits are snacks popular in West Africa. While chin-chin is originally made

with wheat flour, tidbits is a relatively new recipe developed from cassava flour and cowpea

or soy paste mixed in equal proportions . Bread, cookies and confectioneries have been

successfully produced using 100% cassava flour with good acceptability (Maziya-Dixon et

al., 2017). The increasing rate of urbanization has given rise to the consumption of

convenient foods known as ―snacks‖ (Fisher et al., 2015). Snacks are a small portion of food

consumed in between traditional meals such as breakfast, lunch and dinner (Hess et al.,

2
2016). Snacking could be a habit of both the young and old because it supplies the quick

calories needed at some point during an active day, or it is just eaten for pleasure (Crofton et

al., 2013). In a view to enforcing consumption standards, some countries have policy

interventions to promote the consumption of healthy snack and guide against what could be

detrimental to people‘s health (Beets et al., 2011).

1.1 JUSTIFICATION

There is a need to diversify the use of wheats and cassava for foods other than the traditional

ones. The use of blends of wheat and cassava in food products will encourage a wider

utilization of the crops. Also wheat/cassava blends will provide a nutritionally balanced food

for adults because of the expected improved nutritional quality as well as the abundant energy

content. Such blends are also likely to be less expensive than 100% wheat flour. The

extended use of wheat-cassava blends will depend on the knowledge of their chemical and

functional properties. The effect of wheat/cassava blends on the structure, texture, flavor and

color of a formulated food product needs to be evaluated.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To produce Chin-chin from blends of cassava and wheat flour

1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the proximate analysis of the chin-chin produced from the composite

flour

2. To determine the sensory evaluation of the chin-chin

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CASSAVA

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a root and tuber crop that has been identified as

important food, especially in Africa. In areas where cassava is a main staple, people have

developed ways for its processing into storable products such as tapioca, starch, dough and

gari. It plays a major role in efforts to alleviate the African food crisis because of its efficient

production of food, year round availability and tolerance to extreme stress conditions (Hahn,

2017). Cassava has some inherent characteristics which makes it attractive, especially to the

smallholder farmers in Ghana (Bokanga, 2012). Cassava is the third most important food in

the tropics, after rice and maize. Its importance derives from the fact that its starchy, tuberous

roots are a valuable source of cheap calories, especially in developing countries where calorie

deficiency and malnutrition are widespread. Cassava alone provides the major source of

dietary calories for about 500 million people, many of them in Africa (Yeoh et al., 2018). Of

all the tropical root crops, cassava is the most widely distributed and cultivated root crop in

different parts of Africa (Onwueme, 2021). It is particularly important in those areas where

food supply is constantly threatened by environmental constraints such as drought and pest

outbreaks, because of its ability to grow under conditions considered as suboptimal for the

majority of food crops. It can be harvested any time from 6 to 24 months after planting and

can be left in the ground as a food reserve for household food security in times of famine,

drought and war. Currently, cassava is the largest source of carbohydrates for human food in

the world, and it has a high growth rate under optimal conditions and the tuberous roots as

well as the leaves are used as human food, animal feed and industrial products (Shefield et

al., 2016). Cassava roots contain high energy and high levels of some vitamins, minerals and

4
dietary fiber, and contain no trypsin inhibitor, but create a problem due to presence of

cyanide which is removed by postharvest treatments and cooking (Gbadegesin et al., 2018).

The edible green leaves of cassava are a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals and

are often used to augment the rural diet (Bradbury and Holloway, 2008). Despite its

importance, the research to improve cassava has lagged behind than that of other crops such

as rice, wheat, maize, and potatoes. Its use as a potential food crop in Ethiopia has increased

during and after the 1984 famine (Amsalu, 2016). In Ethiopia, cassava grows in vast areas

mainly in Southern Region (Mulualem, 2012). The average total coverage and production of

cassava per annum in Southern region of Ethiopia is 4942 hectares with the yield of 53036.2

tones (Tesfaye et al., 2013). Although its first introduction into the country is not yet known,

the crop had been growing in south, south west and western part of Ethiopia for several years

(Teshome, 2014). It is increasingly becoming a source of industrial raw material for

production of starch, ethanol, waxy starch, bio-plastics, glucose, bakery and confectionery

products, glue among others. Despite its great potential to make different food recipes, in

Ethiopia most of the cassava produced is consumed only by boiling the tuber and supplied

with sauce of hot pepper/chili (personal observation). Currently, some cassava collection,

introduction and evaluation works have been initiated by the Ethiopian Institute of

Agricultural Research (EIAR). The nutritional value of the roots is important because, they

are the main part of the plant consumed in developing countries. Cassava roots and leaves

which constitute 50% and 6% of the mature plant, respectively, are the nutritionally valuable

parts of the plant (Tewe and Lutaladio, 2014). The edible starchy flesh comprises some 80%

to 90% total weight of the root with water forming the major components. The water content

of cassava ranges from 60.3% to 87.1%, moisture content for cassava flour varies from 9.2%

to 12.3% and 11% to 16.5% (Shittu et al., 2017). Water is an important parameter in the

storage of cassava flour; very high levels greater than 12% allow for microbial growth and

5
thus low levels are favorable and give relatively longer shelf life (Padonou et al., 2015).

Cassava contains about 1-2% protein which makes it a predominantly starchy food. The

protein content is low at 1% to 3% on a dry matter basis and between 0.4 and 1.5 g/100 g

fresh weight (Charles et al., 2015). In contrast, maize and sorghum have about 10 g

protein/100 g fresh weights (Motagnac et al., 2019). As human food, it has been criticized for

its low and poor quality protein content, but the plant produces more weight of carbohydrate

per unit area than other staple food crop under comparable agro-climatic conditions.

Cassava is an energy dense food and therefore ranked high for its calorific value of 250×103

cal/ ha/day as compared to 176×103 for rice, 110×103 for wheat, 200×103 for maize, and

114×103 for sorghum (Okigbo, 2015). The root is a physiological energy reserve with high

carbohydrate content, which ranges from 32% to 35% on a FW basis, and from 80% to 90%

on a dry matter basis (Zvinavashe et al., 2015). Raw cassava root has more carbohydrate than

potatoes and less carbohydrate than wheat, rice, yellow corn, and sorghum on a 100 g basis

(Montagnac et al., 2019). The lipid content in cassava roots ranges from 0.1% to 0.3% on a

fresh weight basis, it ranges 0.1% to 0.4% and 0.65% on a dry weight basis (Padonou et al.,

2015). This content is relatively low compared to maize and sorghum, but higher than potato

and comparable to rice. The lipids are either nonpolar (45%) or contain different types of

glycolipids (52%). The glycolipids are mainly galactose diglyceride. The predominant fatty

acids are palmitate and oleate (Hudson and Ogunsua, 2014). Cyanide is the most toxic factor

restricting the consumption of cassava roots and leaves. There are three different forms of

cyanogens present in cassava root and leaves, these are linamarin, acetonehydrin

(lotaustralin) and free HCN. The linamarin and lotaustralin undergo a sequential enzymatic

breakdown and the final form is toxic free cyanide. The total of these three forms is called

Cyanogenic potential. Cyanogenic glycosides are effective defense agents against generalist

herbivores including humans (Gleadow and Woodrow, 2009). Cassava leaves have a cyanide

6
content ranging from 53 to 1,300 mg/kg of DW (Wobeto et al., 2017) and cassava root

parenchyma has a range of 10 to 500 mg/kg dry matter, both of these are much higher than

what is recommended . Bitter cassava varieties, have cyanide levels higher than the FAO/

WHO (2019) recommendations, < 10 mg/kg dry matter, to prevent acute toxicity in humans.

Several health disorders and diseases have been reported in cassava eating populations.

Consumption of 50 to 100 mg of cyanide has been associated with acute poisoning and has

been reported to be lethal in adults (Yeoh and Sun, 2011). The consumption of lower cyanide

amounts are not lethal but long term intake could cause severe health problems such as

tropical neuropathy, glucose intolerance, and, when combined with low iodine intake, goiter

and cretinism (Harris and Koomson, 2011). The nutritional composition of cassava is

dependent of specific tissue and on several factors like geographic location, variety, age of

the plant and environmental conditions. The roots nutritional value is important because, they

are the main part of the plant consumed in developing countries.

2.1.1 MACRONUTRIENTS OF CASSAVA

Cassava root is an energy dense food and it produces about 250,000 calories/hectare/d, which

ranks it before maize, rice, sorghum, and wheat (Okigbo, 2015). Roots contain small

quantities of sucrose, glucose, fructose, and maltose (Tewe and Lutaludo, 2014). It has two

varieties, bitter and sweet. The sweet variety contains up to 17% sucrose and small amounts

of dextrose and fructose (Okigbo, 2015). The cassava variety and age determines its fiber

content in the root. Usually its content does not exceed 1.5% in fresh root and 4% in root

flour. Essential amino acids, such as methionine, cysteine, and tryptophan, are very low in the

root and arginine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid are found in abundant (Gil et al., 2012).

About 50% of the crude protein in the roots consists of whole protein and the other 50% is

free amino acids (predominantly glutamic and aspartic acids) and nonprotein components

such as nitrite, nitrate, and cyanogenic compounds.

7
2.1.2 MINERALS AND VITAMINS OF CASSAVA

Cassava roots have high calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, copper, zinc, and manganese

contents comparable to those of many legumes, with the exception of soybeans. The calcium

content is relatively high compared to that of other staple crops and ranges between 15 and 35

mg/100 g edible portion. The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content is also high and between 15

to 45 mg/100 g edible portions (Okigbo, 2015). Cassava roots contain low amounts of the

vitamin B, that is, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. The mineral and vitamin contents are lower

in cassava roots than in sorghum and maize. Protein, fat, fiber, and minerals are found in

larger quantities in the root peel than in the peeled root. But the carbohydrates, determined by

the nitrogen free extract, are more concentrated in the peeled root (central cylinder or pulp)

(Gil et al.,2012). The highest concentration of iron, calcium and magnesium are found in

cassava. Zinc is highest in Irish potato and manganese in cocoyam. Cassava and cocoyam are

good sources of minerals, and African yam and Irish potato is the second. Except magnesium,

water yam contains the least concentration of minerals.

2.1.3 PROCESSING EFFECT ON NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF CASSAVA

Cassava processing can affect its nutritional value through modification and losses in

nutrients of high value. Boiled roots are more efficient than Gari and other products obtained

after retting of roots of cassava in keeping nutrients of high value. Raw and boiled cassava

root keep the majority of high value nutrients except riboflavin and iron, but products

obtained after retting of shucked cassava roots are richer in riboflavin. Fufu, is a mashed

cassava root product which is fermented with Lactobacillus bacteria (Sanni et al., 2012).

Medua-me-mbongis cassava's root which can be prepared only by boiling and prolonged

washing and it is poorest than other cassava products except in calcium content. Processed

cassava root loses a major part of its dry matter, carbohydrates, protein than the boiled one.

8
Raw cassava root contains significant vitamin C, but sensitive to heat and leaches into water;

most of cassava processing techniques affect its content (Favier, 2017).

2.1.4 PROCESSING TECHNIQUE OF CASSAVA ROOT

Storing fresh cassava roots for long period of time is forbidden because, they rot within 48

hours of harvest and it should be processed to increase its shelf life of the product, reduce

cyanide content and palatability. Its nutritional value can be improved through fortification

with other protein rich crops (Han, 2014). The processing methods include peeling, boiling,

steaming, slicing, grating, soaking or seeping, fermenting, pounding, roasting, pressing,

drying, and milling.

2.1.5 PROTEIN AND CARBOHYDRATE OF CASSAVA

Depending on the variety of cassava, the age of the plant, and the proportional size of the

leaves and stems, nutrient composition of cassava leaves vary both in quality and quantity.

They are rich sources of protein, minerals, vitamins B1, B2, and C, and carotenoids. The

crude protein content is comparable to that of fresh egg (10.9 g/100 g) and the amino acid

profile of cassava leaf protein is well balanced compared to that of the egg. Cassava leaves

have higher essential amino acid content than soybean protein and they are sources of

minerals like Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn and Zn (Okigbo, 2015). The carbohydrates in cassava leaves

are mainly starch, with amylose content varying from 19% to 24% (Gil et al., 2012).

2.1.6 CASSAVA AND SELECTED ANTINUTRIENTS

On analysis of nutritional value of cassava, its roots are good in carbohydrate and its leaves

are good in minerals, vitamins and fiber sources for humans. Even though it is good in

nutrients, it contains anti-nutrients that are toxic and interfere with the digestibility and

uptake of some nutrients. The most toxic substance restricting consumption of cassava roots

9
and leaves is cyanide. The cyanide level contained in cassava leaves ranges from 53 to 1300

mg/kg dry matter (Siritunga and Sayre, 2013). Consumption of 50 to 100 mg of cyanide is

acute, poisonous and lethal to adults. Lower consumption of cyanide is not lethal but long

term intake can cause severe health problem like tropical neuropathy . People ingesting

cyanide and high amounts of nitrates and nitrites have the risk of developing stomach cancer.

Cassava eating individuals have a high amount of thiocyanate in the stomach due to cyanide

detoxification by the body, which may catalyze the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines

(Wobeto et al., 2017). Phytate is another anti-nutrient found in cassava, (624 mg/100 g) roots

which binds cations like Mg, Fe, Ca, Zn, Mo interfering with mineral absorption, utilization

which may affect its requirement and bind proteins preventing their enzymatic digestion

(Marfa et al., 2015). Oxalates are anti-nutrients affecting Ca and Mg bioavailability and form

complexes with proteins, which inhibit peptic digestion. Oxalate ranges from 1.35 to 2.88

g/100 g dry matter for cassava leaf meal (Wobeto et al., 2017).

2.1.7 Bio-fortification and Processing Methods to Improve the Nutritional Value of

Cassava

Fortification is the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient

that is vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food, so as to improve the

nutritional quality of the food supply and provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to

health (Nassar et al.,2004). Bio-fortification is the process by which the nutritional quality of

food crops is improved through agronomic practices, conventional plant breeding, or modern

biotechnology. It differs from conventional fortification in that bio-fortification aims to

increase nutrient levels in crops during plant growth rather than through manual means

during processing of the crops. Bio-fortification may therefore present a way to reach

populations where supplementation and conventional fortification activities may be difficult

to implement and/or limited (Hahn, 2014).

10
2.1.8 Bio-fortified Cassava, Vitamin A and Protein Value

Cassava roots, containing crude protein about 1.5%, are low in protein and some essential

amino acids. Many strategies have been proposed to improve the protein content of and the

composition of amino acids that can be used for consumption purposes. Researchers have

tried to improve the nutritional value of cassava by crossbreeding wild type varieties. Hybrids

showed promising outcome regarding protein content compared to typical cassava cultivars

(Nassar et al., 2014). Bio-fortification as a necessary vitamin A deficiency intervention,

vitamin A malnutrition is widespread in the tropics, leading to irreversible blindness and

severely exacerbating infectious diseases due to its essential role in the immune response.

According to the WHO, an estimated million preschool children are affected by vitamin A

deficiency, with 250,000 – 500,000 children becoming blind every year, half of whom die

within a year (WHO, 2016). Roots of commercial cassava cultivars are rich in starch, but low

in proteins and micronutrients, including provitamin A carotenoids; thus bio-fortified

cultivars with elevated levels of provitamin A are desirable. Vitamin A is a fat soluble

vitamin playing an important role in vision, bone growth, reproduction, and in the

maintenance of healthy skin, hair, and mucous membranes. Bio-fortification of staple crops

with provitamin A carotenoids is an emerging strategy to address the vitamin A status of the

poor. β-caroteneis contained in cassava root in small amounts, a provitamin A carotenoid,

which can be converted as needed into retinal, reduced to retinol, and stored in the liver

esterified to fatty acids. β-carotene bioconversion to vitamin A in the body is naturally

regulated and therefore βcarotene has little potential for toxicity compared with high intake of

vitamin A fortified foods (Tanumihardjo, 2018)

11
2.2 WHEAT

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple

food (James, 2014) The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the

most widely grown is common wheat (T. aestivum). The archaeological record suggests that

wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE.

Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis. Wheat is grown on more

land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares or 545 million acres, 2014) World

trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined (Curtis et al., 2012) In 2020, world

production of wheat was 761 million tonnes (1.7 trillion pounds), making it the second most-

produced cereal after maize (FAO, 2016). Since 1960, world production of wheat and other

grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century

(Godfray et al., 2010). Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the

unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the production

of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide

industrialization process and the westernization of the diet (Day et al., 2006). Wheat is an

important source of carbohydrates. Globally, it is the leading source of vegetable protein in

human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to

other major cereals but relatively low in protein quality for supplying essential amino

acids. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber

(Shewry et al., 2015). In a small part of the general population, gluten – the major part of

wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia,

and dermatitis herpetiformis (Ludvigsson et al., 2013).

12
2.2.1 ORIGIN OF WHEAT

Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the

creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms ('sports') of wheat were preferentially chosen by

farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain

attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting (Hughes et al., 2019). In wild

strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the

spikelets. Selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but

simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such

'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that improve

wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms,

highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild.

Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the

southern Levant, with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE (Feldmann et al., 2007). Genetic

analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadaǧ Mountains in

southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near

this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn

near the Karacadag Mountain Range (Micheal, 2013) With the anomalous exception of two

grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu

Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE

Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to

between 8600 (at Cayonu) and 8400 BCE (Abu Hureyra), that is, in the Neolithic period.

With the exception of Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 dated remains of domesticated

emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad, in the Damascus basin,

near Mount Hermon in Syria. These remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his

13
assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell

Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains

with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere (Ozcan et al., 2012).

The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and Indian subcontinent by 6500 BCE,

Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. "The early Egyptians

were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first

large-scale food production industries." By 4000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles

and Scandinavia. Wheat likely appeared in China's lower Yellow River around 2600 Before

Common Era (BCE) (Long et al., 2018)

The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat

seeds, dating to around 6400–6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable

bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified

using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 BCE

at Assiros in Macedonia (Bilgic et al., 2016).

From Asia, wheat continued to spread across Europe and to the Americas in the Columbian

exchange. In the British Isles, wheat straw (thatch) was used for roofing in the Bronze Age,

and was in common use until the late 19th century (Cauvin, 2013)

White wheat bread was historically a high status food, but during the nineteenth century it

became in Britain an item of mass consumption, displacing oats, barley and rye from diets in

the North of the country. It became a symbol of British global power and "a sign of a high

degree of culture" (Otter, 2020)

2.2.2 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT

In 2020, world wheat production was 761 million tonnes, led by China, India, and Russia

collectively providing 38% of the world total. As of 2019, the largest exporters were Russia

14
(32 million tonnes), United States (27), Canada (23) and France (20), while the largest

importers were Indonesia (11 million tonnes), Egypt (10.4) and Turkey (10.0) (FAO, 2021)

2.2.3 COMMERCIAL USE OF WHEAT

Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the

purposes of the international trade markets. Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to

buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat

was most profitable to cultivate. Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it

produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a

moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used

in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the

other grains they contain, for example, most rye and oat breads. The popularity of foods made

from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant

food surpluses.

In recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the United

States to change to more profitable crops. In 1998, the price at harvest of a 60 pounds

(27 kg) bushel was $2.68 per. Some information providers, following CBOT practice, quote

the wheat market in per ton denomination. A USDA report revealed that in 1998, average

operating costs were $1.43 per bushel and total costs were $3.97 per bushel. In that study,

farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre (2.2435 metric ton/hectare), and typical

total wheat production value was $31,900 per farm, with total farm production value

(including other crops) of $173,681 per farm, plus $17,402 in government payments. There

were significant profitability differences between low- and high-cost farms, due to crop yield

differences, location, and farm size (Murphy, 2010)

15
2.2.4 WHEAT AS FOOD

Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground

into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat;

parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats. If the

raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be

used in several ways.

Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods

as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, muesli, pancakes, pasta and noodles

, pies, pastries, pizza, semolina, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy,

beer, vodka, boza (a fermented beverage), and breakfast cereals.

In manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities

in dough, enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads, noodles, and

pasta that facilitate wheat consumption (Shewry and Hey, 2015).

2.2.5 NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS OF WHEAT

In 100 grams, wheat provides 1,368 kilojoules (327 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich

source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such

as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin . Several B vitamins and

other dietary minerals are in significant content. Wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates,

and 1.5% fat. Its 13% protein content is mostly gluten (75–80% of the protein in wheat).

Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition, according to the new protein quality

method (DIAAS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Though they contain

adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids, at least for adults, wheat proteins are

deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine. Because the proteins present in the

wheat endosperm (gluten proteins) are particularly poor in lysine, white flours are more

16
deficient in lysine compared with whole grains. Significant efforts in plant breeding are being

made to develop lysine-rich wheat varieties, without success as of 2017. Supplementation

with proteins from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for

this deficiency, since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break

down and become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth.

(Wolfe, 2015).

2.3 CHIN-CHIN

Chin chin is a fried snack in West Africa.It is similar to the Scandinavian snack klenat, a

crunchy, donut-like baked or fried dough of wheat flour, and other customary baking items.

Chin chin may contain cowpeas. Many people bake it with ground nutmeg for flavor. The

dough is usually kneaded and cut into small one-inch (or so) squares, about a quarter of an

inch thick, before frying (Mepba et al., 2007). Chin chin is made of dough

containing flour, sugar, butter, and milk. Optional ingredients include eggs, nutmeg and

baking powder according to individual preference. The dough is cut into various shapes and

sizes then typically deep fried in vegetable oil.

17
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Material Sourcing

Wheat, plantain was obtained from a local market in Lagos state. While other equipment and

materials was obtained from Mushin market, Lagos state. The production of sample was done

in the Food Processing Laboratory and all reagents was obtained from the Food Technology

Analytical Laboratory.

3.2 Preparation of Samples

3.2.1 Production of Cassava Flour

Cassava was washed, peeled and cut into round slices of 5 mm thickness. The slices was

steam blanched for 10 min. This was followed by drying in a hot air oven at a temperature of

80o C for 24 h. The dried cassava will then be milled and sieved using a 0.25 mm mesh

(Okpala and Chinyelu, 2011)

3.2.2 Flour Blending

Wheat flour was mixed with cocoyam and plantain flour at five (5) different ratios, using a

Kenwood blender. The blends was separately kept in air-tight containers, well labeled and

stored at room temperature pending their use.

3.2.3 Production of Chin-Chin

The method of Akusu et al., (2016) was used in the preparation of chin-chin with some

modifications. The composite flour blends, sugar, margarine, egg, baking powder, nutmeg,

milk and water were mixed together at appropriate rate in a large bowl. The dough was

placed on a floured surface and kneaded until smooth and elastic. The kneaded dough was

18
rolled out to approximately 1.5 cm thick and cut into small squares of 1.5 by 1.5 cm in size.

Vegetable oil (Corn oil) was put inside a deep fryer (MC 1800 model) and allowed to hot

enough until the temperature of fryer reached 180 o C. The dough cubes were placed in the

hot oil and the chin-chin was deep fried for 8min until golden brown. The fried chin-chin was

removed and drains off excess oil, package and stored at room temperature (28±2 o C) for

analysis.

Wholesome Cassava

 Sorting

 Washing

 Peeling

 Slicing

 Blanching (80oC for 4mins)

 Draining

 Drying

 Milling

 Sieving

 Packaging

Cassava Flour

Fig. 1: Flowchart for the Production of Cassava Flour

Source: Okpala and Chinyelu, 2011

19
Chin-Chin (Wheat Flour)

 Weighing

 Mixing stage

 Size reduction of dough

 Frying

 Cooling

 Packaging in aluminum foil

Fig. 4: Flowchart for the Production of Chin-Chin

Source: Akusu et al., 2016

3.3 ANALYSIS TO BE CARRIED OUT

3.3.1 Proximate Composition of Samples

The flour blends and chin-chin was analyzed for their moisture content, crude fibre, crude

protein, crude fat carbohydrate and total ash according to methods described by AOAC,

(2015).

3.3.1.1 Determination of Moisture Contents

The empty porcelain crucibles was dried in an oven at 105oC for 30 minutes. It was

transferred into a desiccator and allowed to cool at room temperature for about 20minutes.

The weight of the empty porcelain crucibles was taken and recorded as W0. The samples was

blended in order to increase the surface area. 1g of the powdered sample was accurately

weighed into the porcelain crucible and it was recorded as W1 and it was dried in an oven at

105o till a constant weight was obtained. The crucibles was kept in a desiccator for them to

cool for 30 minutes. The final weight was taken and it was recorded as W2.

20
3.3.1.2 Determinations of Protein Content

Biuriette method (Randox kit) was used where 0.5g of sample was homogenized with 4.5mls

of phosphate buffer. The mixture will then be centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3000rpm. Then

20ml of the supernatant was mixed with 1ml biurette solution. The same was Done for

standard. It will then be allowed to stand for 30 minutes at room temperature. Then the

absorbance was measured at 546nm.

3.3.1.3 Determination of Ash Content

A known weight of finely ground sample was weighed into a cleaned, dried previously

weighed crucible with lid (W1). The sample was ignited over a low flame to char the organic

matter. The crucible was then placed in a muffle furnace at 475oC for 6 hours until it became

ash completely. It was transferred directly to the desiccators, cooled and weighed (W2).

3.3.1.4 Determination of Crude Fiber

Method by AOAC, 2015 was used where five gram (5g) of each sample was weighed Into a

500ml Erlenmeyer flask and 100ml of TCA digestion reagent was added. It will then be

brought to boiling and reflux for 40 minutes counting from the start of boiling. The flask was

removed from the heater; it was cooled a little then filtered through a filter paper. The

samples was dried at 105oC after drying; it will then be transferred to a desiccators and

weighed as W1it will then be burnt in a muffle furnace at 500oC for six hours (6hrs), it was

allowed to cool and reweighed as W2.

3.3.1.5 Soxhlet Extraction Method for Crude Fat Determination

The materials used include soxhlet extractor, thimbles and hexane. Five gram of well blended

sample was weighed into the thimbles and cotton wool was placed on the sample inside the

thimble to prevent pouring out of the sample during extraction. The round bottom flask will

21
be dried in the oven at 60 degree Celsius and the initial empty weight recorded. 80ml of

hexane was poured into the flask, the thimble containing sample was also fitted/placed into

the extractor. The heating mantle was switched on and water was set running through the

condenser for cooling. The extraction was allowed to continue its reflux for 2hrs after which

it was discontinued. The flask will then be dried again in the oven to eliminate all hexane

present. The amount % of crude fat or oil present in the sample was calculated by subtracting

the weight of the empty flask from the final weight.

3.3.1.6 Carbohydrate Determination

The carbohydrate contents of each blend was obtained by difference. This is by adding The

value of each previous determinations and subtracting the results from 100 (AOAC, 2015).

3.4 SENSORY ANALYSIS

The sensory evaluation was assessed for the attributes of taste, texture, colour, flavour,

crunchiness and overall acceptability and this evaluation was done by a 20 member panel.

The evaluation was held at 10 am for the morning session and 3 pm for the afternoon session.

The nine-point hedonic scale will also be used to evaluate the degree of liking (9) and

disliking. The samples was evaluated by a 20-member panel of untrained panelists, drawn

from the Yaba College of Technology community. Attributes to be assessed include colour,

taste, texture and overall acceptability on a 9-point hedonic scale where 1 denote dislike

extremely and 9-like extremely. The samples was evaluated simultaneously and served

randomly and individually to the panelists along with water. The sensory evaluation was

performed in a ventilated room with conventional lightning and equipped with individual

booths.

22
3.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

All data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 16.0 for Windows

(SPSS Inc.; Chicago, IL, USA). The significance levels of differences between means was

determined by using Duncan’s new multiple range tests; which is considered statistically

significant. The correlations between all studied parameters was determined by principal

components analysis (PCA) using XLSTAT software.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Proximate Analysis of Chin-chin From Blends of Wheat and Cassava Flour

The proximate composition of the blends of chin-chin from Wheat and cassava is presented

on table 2. According to Ire et al. (2020), digestion of food materials and some other

physiological processes are enhanced by moisture which also helps in nutrient absorption

from food. In the human body, water performs many important roles which include being a

carrier for nutrients and waste products, among others. The moisture content of the chin-chin

ranged between 12.52 to 14.22 %. The samples differed significantly (p<0.05). Sample A2

(375g wheat and 25g cassava flour) had the highest value of moisture while sample A1

(400g wheat flour) had the least moisture value. The significant difference observed in the

moisture content of the chin-chin samples may be attributed to temperature and duration of

baking. Foods with moisture content above 14 percent are often not stable at room

temperature and may spoil easily and the relative high moisture content may reduce the shelf

life of the chin-chin and composite flour. The low moisture content could reduce the growth

of microorganisms thereby increasing the shelf-life of the product.

The ash content of a food sample is indicative of the mineral elements present in the food

sample (Adu-kwarteng et al., 2013). The results obtained for the ash content of the chin-chin

samples ranged between 2.05 % and 2.92 %. Sample B1 (350g wheat and 50g cassava flour)

had the least ash content while sample A1 (100% Wheat) had the highest ash content. There

was no significant difference (p<0.05) between the samples. Khalaf et al. (2019) obtained

the ash content lower than that obtained in this study (1.42 - 1.85%) for sesame crackers. In

order to estimate the amount of minerals in a food sample, the ash content of the sample is

taken into consideration.

24
Table 1: Proximate Analysis of Chin-chin Produced from the Blends of Wheat and
Cassava Flour

SAMPLE Moisture Crude Fat Total Ash Crude Crude Carbohydrate

Content (%) (%) (%) Fibre (%) Protein (%)
(%)
SPA 12.52±0.005 1.21±0.07 2.92±0.05 2.34±0.05 5.25±0.02 73.35±0.05
SPB 14.22±0.05 2.05±0.05 2.38±0.05 3.25±0.05 7.45±0.05 66.69±0.05
SPC 14.12±0.05 1.18±0.05 2.05±0.05 3.88±0.05 8.99±0.05 69.78±0.05
SPD 13.67±0.05 2.01±0.05 2.45±0.05 3.55±0.05 10.05±0.05 68.27±0.05

NB: Data are mean values of triplicate determination ± standard deviation. Mean values with
the same letter within the same column are not significantly difference (p > 0.05).

KEY:

A1 - 100% Wheat Flour

A2 – 375g wheat flour and 25g cassava flour

B1 - 350g wheat flour and 50g cassava flour

B2 - 325g wheat flour and 75g cassava flour

Therefore, any food product reported to have with high ash content is expected to be rich in

mineral elements. In humans, the consumption of diets that contain moderate amounts of

mineral elements increases the speed at which metabolic processes occur. This brings about

improvement in growth and development (Ahaotu et al., 2022).

Fat is an energy source for humans necessary for growth and development. It also enables

Vitamins A, D, E and K to be absorbed into the body. The amount of fat in food influences

the taste and consistency (Ire et al., 2020). There was observed significant difference in fat

content (p<0.05) which could be attributed to the different proportions of cassava flour used.

The fat content ranged between 1.18 % and %. 2.05. Sample A2 (375g wheat and 25g

cassava flour) had the highest fat content while sample B1 (350g wheat and 50g cassava

flour) had the lowest fat content. There was significant difference (p<0.05) between the

samples. The fat content obtained in this research work is lower than that obtained Sujirtha

25
and Mahendran (2015) 16.8% - 24.5% in chin-chin from the flour blends of wheat and

defatted coconut flours.

Crude fibre represents the content of the non-digestible components of food such as lignin,

cellulose and hemicellulose. These are essential in animal nutrition, since they enhance the

transit time through the bowels, aids digestion thus reducing the risk of colon cancer

(Agoyero et al., 2011). The values obtained for the crude fibre of the flour blends ranged

between 2.34% and 3.88%. To prevent constipation and other health maladies associated with

inefficient waste removal from the body, regular consumption of diets rich in crude fiber is

recommended (Soliman, 2019). It could also reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases. The

risk of developing hypertension, colon and breast cancer is also reduced by eating diets rich

in vegetable fiber (Ahaotu et al., 2022). The crude fibre content increased with increase in

cassava flour.

Proteins present in foods are required for body building and repair. Proteins are needed for

the maintenance of body tissues. They also play a vital role in the synthesis of plasma

proteins, hemoglobin, hormones, enzymes, coagulation factors and antibodies (Kumar etal.,

2017). Sample A1 (100 % Cassava Flour) had the lowest protein content (5.35%) while chin-

chin sample B2 (325g wheat and 75g cassava flour) had the highest protein content (10.50%),

although statistical analysis showed no significant difference (p<0.05) in protein contents

among the chin-chin samples. The protein content increased with increased cassava flour.

The carbohydrate content of some of the chin-chin samples are within the recommended

dietary reference intake’s (DRI) acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AMDR) of 45

to 65% of energy obtained from carbohydrate for adults (Ire et al., 2020). The carbohydrate

content of the chin-chin samples ranged between 66.69 % and 73.35 %. Sample A2 (375g

wheat and 25g cassava flour) had the lowest carbohydrate content and sample A1 (100%

wheat Flour) had the highest carbohydrate content. The carbohydrate content was

26
significantly different from each other across the columns. The carbohydrate contents of

these samples are an indication that the products are good sources of energy.

4.3 Sensory Analysis of Chin-chin from the Blends of Wheat and Cassava Flour

Sensory evaluation is necessary to measure the sensory characteristics of food and consumer

products for quality assurance, product development and optimization using human sense

organs (Gbarakoro et al., 2015). It has been reported by previous authors that the sensory

attributes are not only used by the consumer as an indicator of food safety but as an indicator

of food quality (Zinoviadou et al., 2015). The results is shown on Table 3 below.

Aroma is another attribute that influences the acceptance of products even before they are

tasted (Inyang and Zakari, 2008). The values obtained for aroma ranged between and 6.65-

6.75. Sample B2 (325g wheat and 75g of cassava flour Flour) had the least mean score and

sample A1 (100 % wheat flour) had the highest mean score.

Colour is a very important parameter in judging foods that not only reflect the suitable raw

materials used for the preparation but also provides information about the formulation and

quality of the product (Ndife et al., 2013). The panelists rating was between 6.37 and 7.9.

Sample B1 (350g wheat and 50g of cassava flour Flour) was rated poorest in term of colour

while sample A2 (375g wheat and 25g of cassava flour Flour) was rated the best.

Taste is an important sensory attribute of any food because of its influence on acceptability

(Teleszko and Wojdylo, 2014). The results obtained for the taste of the chin-chin samples

ranged between 6.45 and 6.85. It was observed that the taste value increased with increased

wheat flour.

The appearance was analyzed by the panelists and the values ranged from 6.60 to 7.45. The

panelists rated samples A2 (375g wheat and 25g of cassava flour Flour) least and sample A1

(100% Wheat flour) was rated highest. The samples are not significantly different (p=0.05)

27
from each other.

Overall acceptability deals with how well consumers accept or detest a sample Because

consumer determines the acceptability of a food product from their perception about the

product. Roudaut et al. (2012) reported that the acceptability of food products always rely on

the food sensory properties which was highlighted as the important parameter especially in

flour products. Overall acceptability showed sample A1 and B2 (100% wheat flour and 325g

wheat and 75g of cassava flour Flour ) having the highest mean score and sample A2 (375g

wheat and 25g of cassava flour Flour) had the lowest mean score. The samples were not

significantly different (p=0.05) from each other.

Table 2: Sensory Evaluation on Chin-chin from Blends of Wheat and Cassava Flour

SAMPLE Taste Colour Texture Aroma Appearance Overall

Acceptance
A1 6.85±0.05 7.6±0.05 6.90±0.05 6.75±0.05 7.45±0.05 7.40±0.05
A2 6.75±0.05 7.90±0.05 6.15±0.05 6.70±0.05 6.95±0.05 6.80±0.05
B1 6.65±0.05 6.37±0.05 6.30±0.05 6.70±0.05 7.30±0.05 7.30±0.05
B2 6.45±0.05 7.20±0.05 6.50±0.05 6.65±0.05 6.60±0.05 7.40±0.05

KEY:

A1 - 100% Wheat Flour

A2 – 375g wheat flour and 25g cassava flour

B1 - 350g wheat flour and 50g cassava flour

B2 - 325g wheat flour and 75g cassava flour

28
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Wheat and cassava can be used for the production of gluten-free products with improved

protein and fibre content. Based on the findings in the present study, it can be concluded that

the nutritional quality is enhanced in the case of protein, fat, fiber, and ash content with

significant. The result of the work showed that chin-chin made with the wheat and cassava

composite flour blends enhance the nutritional quality of chin-chin.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Studies such as microbial analysis should be carried out to further ascertain the shelf stability

of the chin-chin produced.

29
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