SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2003, 31(3), 215-222

© Society for Personality Research

DOI 10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.215

PREDICTORS OF BODY IMAGE DISSATISFACTION IN

ADULT MEN AND WOMEN

SHARIN PALLADINO GREEN

Miami University, OH, USA
MARY E. PRITCHARD
University of Evansville, IN, USA

Disordered eating and body image have been widely studied in college students and children.
However, few studies have examined body image dissatisfaction in adulthood. Therefore, this
study sought to determine the prevalence of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and
women. One hundred and thirty-nine adults were surveyed on body dissatisfaction and pos-
sible relating factors. It was found that media influence predicted body dissatisfaction in
women and that age, family pressure and self-esteem predicted body image dissatisfaction in
both men and women. Because adults’ views about their bodies can have an impact on those
of their children, it is important that researchers continue to examine body image dissatisfac-
tion and comparable issues within adult populations.

Body image dissatisfaction and body distortion are prevalent among today’s
youth, as evidenced by recent studies examining the relationship between disor-
dered eating and body image in college men and women (Mintz & Kashubeck,
1999) and in the adolescent population (Phelps et al., 1993). In addition,
researchers have examined also body dissatisfaction in college populations of
both men and women (Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001). Although no one can
argue against the need for continued research on adolescent (see Schur, Sanders,
& Steiner, 2000) or college populations (see Mintz & Kashubeck), research
needs to broaden its spectrum by examining adult populations to determine what
influences body image dissatisfaction in adulthood. Below we discuss several
factors that research on college students suggests may play a key role in body

Sharin Palladino Green, Miami University, OH, USA; Mary E. Pritchard, University of Evansville,
IN, USA.
Appreciation is due to reviewers including Lesa Rae Vartanian, PhD, Indiana University/Purdue
University at Fort Wayne, Department of Psychology, Heff Hall 380D, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
and Dr. Thomas F. Cash, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529-
0267, USA.
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Sharin Palladino Green, Miami University,
Department of Psychology, 136 Benton Hall, Oxford, OH 45056. Phone: (office) (513) 529-2447;
Fax: (513)-529-2420; Email:<[email protected]> or <[email protected]>
215
216 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION

image dissatisfaction such as gender, self-esteem, media influence, and family

pressure (see Abell & Richards, 1996; Gleason, Alexander, & Somers, 2000;
Heinberg & Thompson, 1995).

GENDER
Body dissatisfaction typically is characterized as an issue faced predominant-
ly by the female population. Research has shown that compared to men, female
undergraduates have more negative body image evaluations, stronger invest-
ments in their looks, and more frequent body image dysphoria (Muth & Cash,
1997). In contrast, other studies have found no gender differences in body atti-
tudes (Wilcox, 1997), which may relate to a recent increase in body image dis-
satisfaction in males (Cash, 1997; Raudenbush & Zellner, 1997), as men are now
complaining about being “too skinny” as well as being “too fat” (Muth & Cash).
In addition, a recent study examining body satisfaction in college men and
women found that women show lower body satisfaction on average than do men.
However, men were also dissatisfied with body image, wanting to be either thin-
ner or more muscular as suggested by Muth and Cash, whereas the majority of
women desired a thinner physique (Vartanian et al., 2001). Because there is con-
flicting information on body dissatisfaction in various populations, this study
was planned to explore whether or not there are gender differences in body dis-
satisfaction among adult men and women.

MEDIA INFLUENCE
Media pressure to be thin influences individuals to have negative feelings
about their appearance. A recent meta-analysis found that after viewing thin
media images, female participants’ body images were significantly more nega-
tive than after viewing average or plus size models (Groesz, Levine, & Murmen,
2002; see also Heinberg & Thompson, 1995). Another study determined that
how often individuals view media, particularly media believed to promote thin-
ness, predicts drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and disordered-eating
symptomatology in a sample of undergraduate women (Harrison & Cantor,
1997). In addition, Vartanian et al. (2001) found that media influence was the
most important predictor of overall body satisfaction in college women. The
influence of media is beginning to affect men as well, as research is showing the
impact of media on body dissatisfaction in both undergraduate women and men
(Vartanian et al. 2001). In addition, a recent study has shown that although men
believe the media have little influence on their behavior, the media do in fact
have a significant impact on how men feel about themselves (Kennedy, 2000).
Because the majority of research has focused on the media’s influence on col-
lege students and women, it is important to assess whether or not the media have
an impact upon adult men and women.
 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION 217
FAMILY INFLUENCE
In addition to media exposure, studies have shown that family environment
can play a role in the development of eating disorders in college students (Pauls
& Daniels, 2000; Twamley & Davis, 1999), as well as in adolescents (Felker &
Stivers, 1994). Similarly, weight- or shape-related criticism by family members
or others has been found to contribute significantly to body dissatisfaction
(Fabian & Thompson, 1989; Gleason et al., 2000). However, most research has
focused on both younger populations and predominantly female populations,
leaving research on adult males very limited. Therefore, this study examined
whether or not pressure from family members predicts body image dissatisfac-
tion in adult men and women.
SELF-ESTEEM
A recent study found that body image and self-esteem are positively related in
younger populations, showing that a decrease in self-esteem contributes to a
poorer body image (Abell & Richards, 1996; Gleason et al., 2000) and bulimic
symptoms (Vohs, Bardone, Joiner, Abramson, & Heatherton, 1999). In contrast,
other research has found that weight dissatisfaction is not associated with self-
esteem for women (Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988).
Whereas self-esteem is a widely studied topic among young women, it is sur-
prising that the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and self-esteem
has not been extensively studied in adult women, and specifically in adult men.
Thus, this research attempted to determine the relationship between self-esteem
and body dissatisfaction in adult men and women.
GOALS OF THE CURRENT STUDY
Although much research has been conducted to determine what factors relate
to body image dissatisfaction in younger – primarily female – populations,
research on body dissatisfaction in adults is scant. Based on previous research
examining factors relating to body dissatisfaction in young males and females,
we expected that media influence, family influence, and self-esteem would have
an impact on body dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Given previous
research suggesting a diminishing influence of gender as one ages (Feingold &
Mazzella, 1998), we did not expect gender to be an influencing factor in our
study.

METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
One hundred and thirty-nine adults (94 females, 45 males) from the commu-
nity were recruited. Adults were from area businesses and universities.
Participants’ ages ranged from 19 to 68 years, with a mean age of 42 years (SD
= 11.65 years).
218 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION

PROCEDURE
Approximately two hundred questionnaires were sent out by mail or handed
out directly to individuals. Participants had approximately two weeks to send
back the completed survey and consent forms in the addressed stamped envelope
provided. Consent forms were separated from the questionnaires as soon as they
were received to maintain anonymity. The return rate for the questionnaire was
approximately 70%.

MEASURES
Body image Body image was assessed by asking participants 14 questions con-
cerning how they feel about their body (e.g., “I’m happy about the way I look”).
Responses were rated on a 5-point scale (1=never, 5=always). The Body Esteem
Questionnaire (Mendelson, Mendelson, & White, 2001) was used, and demon-
strated high reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .95) in this sample.
Media influence The influence of the media on body image was assessed by the
Mass Media Influence Subscale of the Socialization Factors Questionnaire
(Vartanian et al., 2001). This 10-item scale inquires about the influence of mag-
azine, television, and models on individuals’ perceptions of themselves (e.g., “I
feel bad about my own body after seeing attractive models in magazines and on
TV.”). Participants responded on a 5-point scale (1=strongly agree, 5=strongly
disagree). Questions were averaged to create a mass media influence scale
(Cronbach’s alpha = .85).
Family influence Family influence was assessed by a series of yes/no questions
(e.g., “Have you ever felt pressured by family members to lose weight?” and
“Does this pressure to diet still influence your opinions about yourself?”).
Questions were averaged to create a scale score. This series of questions showed
adequate reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .68) in this sample. These questions
were utilized in order to address specific instances of family pressure rather than
the more broadly defined area of family teasing and criticism.
Self-esteem Levels of self-esteem were measured using the Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale (1965). This 10-item scale uses a variety of questions assessing
personal feelings about oneself as well as positive and negative emotions (e.g.,
“On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.”). Responses were measured on a 4-
point scale (1=strongly agree, 4=strongly disagree). This scale showed high reli-
ability with the current sample (Cronbach’s alpha = .91). The Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale is a widely used scale to assess self-esteem, and continues to be
one of the best measures for self-esteem (for reviews, see Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991).
RESULTS

Before analyzing the factors that predict body dissatisfaction in males and
 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION 219
females, we wanted to determine whether or not there were any gender differ-
ences in body dissatisfaction. Women reported less satisfaction with their bodies
(M = 2.86, SD =.72) than did men (M = 3.62, SD =.71), t (185) = 5.72, p < .001.

PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION

To determine which factors predicted body dissatisfaction in male and female
adults, we ran separate simultaneous regressions for men and women. For
women, the combined influence of the predictor variables had a significant effect
on body dissatisfaction, F (4, 91) = 27.05, p < .001, R2 = .55. As displayed in
Table 1, media influence, family pressure, age and self-esteem made a signifi-
cant contribution to body dissatisfaction in women. For men, the combined influ-
ence of the predictor variables had a significant effect on body dissatisfaction, F
(4, 43) = 10.17, p < .001, R2 = .51. As displayed in Table 1, age, family pressure
and self-esteem made a significant contribution to body dissatisfaction for men.
TABLE 1
FACTORS PREDICTING BODY DISSATISFACTION IN MEN AND WOMEN

Variable B SE B ß

Women
Age -.01 .01 -.16*
Media Influence -.20 .08 -.19*
Self-esteem -.67 .10 -.50***
Family Pressure -.65 .12 -.41***
Men
Age -.02 .01 -.31**
Media Influence -.24 .16 -.17
Self-esteem -.55 .18 -.36**
Family Pressure -1.09 .30 -.42***

Note: *p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

DISCUSSION

Research continues to focus on younger populations such as children, adoles-

cents, and young adults, neglecting to examine body image in adult populations.
Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine whether or not factors known
to predict body dissatisfaction in younger generations would predict body dis-
satisfaction in adults. Several factors were examined, including gender, family
pressure, media influence, and self-esteem. We found gender differences in body
image dissatisfaction. Media influence predicted body dissatisfaction in women
and age, family pressure and self-esteem predicted body image dissatisfaction in
both men and women, as will be discussed below.
220 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION

GENDER
Feingold and Mazzella (1998) found that the differences between the sexes in
adulthood were much less pronounced than in adolescence because of greater
variability in women’s levels of satisfaction with their bodies as adults.
However, we found gender differences in body image dissatisfaction in adults.
This is likely to be due to the fact that we did not find a great deal of variability
in women’s body dissatisfaction. Our results are more in line with those of
Vartanian et al. (2001), who found that women scored lower than did men on
measures of body satisfaction, but that men are experiencing some body image
issues that differed from women’s concerns of a thin physique. It is interesting
to note that issues with body dissatisfaction continue well into adulthood.

MEDIA INFLUENCE
Media influence displayed a strong relationship to body image dissatisfaction
in women in our sample. This supports previous research on college students
(Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Vartanian et al., 2001). However, media influence did
not predict body image dissatisfaction in men, which is contrary to results
obtained by Vartanian et al. (2001), who found that media influence was a pre-
dictor of men’s body satisfaction. This result could be due to the differing pop-
ulations. Perhaps college males are influenced by media due to an excess con-
sumption of television and movies whereas adults are not swayed by media mes-
sages because these entertainment outlets are not actively sought.

FAMILY INFLUENCE
Consistent with results in Fabian and Thompson’s study on adolescents (1989)
and previous work on college students (Twamley & Davis, 1999), we found that
if a family member pressured an individual to diet, he or she was more likely to
have a poor body image, regardless of gender. Because children’s dieting behav-
iors are predicted by the dieting habits of their parents (Abramovits & Birch,
2000), as well as by their parents’ body dissatisfaction (Stice, Agras, & Hammer,
1999), families need to be aware of the negative impact of the pressures they
place on their children.

SELF-ESTEEM
Self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction in both men and women. Our
results are in contrast to those of other studies, which have suggested that the
normative nature of weight satisfaction may contribute to a lack of association
between weight dissatisfaction and self-esteem for women (Silberstein et al.,
1988). There could be multiple reasons for these contrasting results including the
twelve-year difference between the studies and varying scales used to measure
weight or body dissatisfaction. In addition, our results were similar to those
 PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION 221
found on a previous study of male and female college students (Green &
Pritchard, 2002). Regardless, it is apparent that future studies should not neglect
self-esteem when examining body dissatisfaction.
The results of our study showed that age, family pressure, and self-esteem
were significant predictors of body dissatisfaction in both adult men and women.
In addition, adult women report a significant level of media influence similar to
that found in younger women. With the emphasis of media persuading males to
engage in bodybuilding and other such activities, even if they do not believe the
media influence them, more research needs to be conducted on the adult male
population. Future research should investigate other factors (e.g., influence of
friends or coworkers) that may contribute to the staying power of body image
dissatisfaction in adults, as it is evident that body image dissatisfaction is not
strictly an issue faced solely by younger generations. Such research contribu-
tions could aid in the development of programs geared towards increasing body
satisfaction in adults.

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