Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/thermal-science-and-engineering-progress

Experimental study about the impact of open cell aluminium foam (OCAF)
insertion in salt-based phase change material (PCM) for electronics
thermal management
Abdelrahman M. Elshaer a, *, A.M.A. Soliman b, Mohamed S. Yousef c, M. Kassab d,
A.A. Hawwash a
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
b
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Badr University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
c
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Department of Thermal and Fluid Engineering, Av. de la Universidad, 30, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain
d
Egyptian Space Agency, Cairo, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thermal management of electronic components is a critical task in a harsh thermal environment. Spacecraft and
Phase change materials (PCM) satellites’ electronics are susceptible to highly intermittent heating and cooling thermal conditions, which im­
Open-cell aluminium foam (OCAF) poses challenges for robust thermal management system design. Phase change materials (PCM) are a promising
Thermal management module (TMM)
solution for overcoming these challenges and enhancing thermal control performance. The lower PCM thermal
Intermittent thermal environment
PCM supercooling
conductivity and PCM supercooling limit PCM utilisation in electronic thermal control systems. The present
Electronics thermal management study aims to provide solutions for enhancing the heat transfer within the PCM, boosting the PCM thermal
Lumped thermal model conductivity, and diminishing the PCM supercooling. The open-cell aluminium foam (OCAF) was adopted for
boosting the heat transfer within the PCM. A thermal management module (TMM) integrated with a salt-based
PCM/OCAF composite was developed for electronics thermal management. The TMM was tested under inter­
mittent thermal conditions of heating and cooling. An electric heater and Peltier cooler were affixed to the TMM
for the heating and cooling process, respectively. Three levels of heat fluxes were adopted: 700, 1000, and 1400
W/m2. The heating process lasted one hour; then, the TMM was cooled by the Peltier element to the initial
temperature. The research novelty covers the gap in understanding how OCAF affects salt-based PCM super­
cooling when subjected to varying heating loads during intermittent cycles. The outcomes reported a remarkable
improvement in thermal management efficiency. The PCM-based TMM reduced the highest temperature by
about 20.4 %, 21.6 %, and 23 % at the three heating levels. The OCAF diminished the PCM supercooling
curiously. The reduction in PCM supercooling was 43.5 % compared to the 100 % PCM case obtained at the heat
flux of 1400 W/m2.

improvements across the entire spacecraft performance are possible

Introduction and literature review [2,3]. Thermal control subsystems (TCSs) ensure that satellite compo­
nents and subsystems are kept within the safe temperature margins to
Missions of space exploration present unique difficulties due to the protect the components against exposure to extreme temperatures.
unknowns they introduce and the extreme thermal environments that Managing the temperature of satellite electronics can significantly
frequently necessitate the use of unique materials and devices [1]. En­ extend the components’ lifespan and operational performance [4–6].
gineers must develop systems with novel thermal control elements that Researchers improved the thermal management system of elec­
are highly efficient to confront this issue head-on. Collecting, trans­ tronics through various methods, such as nanoparticles [7], thermo­
forming, and dispersing heat is a delicate balancing act when it comes to chemical materials, heat pipes and extended surfaces [8]. While these
harnessing energy from thermal environments and managing the tem­ approaches offer potential solutions, they often have drawbacks,
perature within a spacecraft so as to increase its efficiency. By opti­ including noise generation and power drain constraints. Phase Change
mizing this process, not only can costs be reduced, but also Materials (PCMs) are gaining increased attention as they can store a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Elshaer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102311
Received 30 August 2023; Received in revised form 18 November 2023; Accepted 23 November 2023
Available online 24 November 2023
2451-9049/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Nomenclature PPI Pore per inch

TCS Thermal control systems
Symbols TCEs Thermal conductivity enhancers
C Thermal capacity (J/kg. K) TMM Thermal management module
h Average convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2. K)
Subscripts
I Electric current (A)
Conv. Convection heat transfer
k Thermal conductivity (W/m. K)
H Heater
P Electric Power (W)
i Initial temperature
Greek symbols t Total
ρ Density (kg/m3) Q Heat flow (W)
U The uncertainty t Time (s)
T Temperature (K)
Abbreviations V Electric voltage (V)
CT Critical temperature σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant (W/m2. K4)
OCF Open-cell foam μ The fluid dynamic viscosity (kg/m. s)
OCAF Open-cell aluminium foam S Surface
OCCF Open-cell copper foam ∞ Infinity (ambient temperature)
PCM Phase change material ω Time constant
PTC Positive temperature coefficient

significant amount of energy at near-constant temperatures while developed a unique combination of PCM and copper foam to examine
providing passive dissipation pathways [45]. Critically essential PCM the effects of varying heating powers on thermal performance during
utility characteristics include its conversion temperature range param­ acceleration. Mancin et al. [19], meanwhile, it determined that
eters and high enthalpy fusion values. This unique advantage makes embedding different melting temperature PCMs in three samples of
them highly sought after as passive cooling solutions [9]. A significant copper foams at varied heat loads significantly increased the heat
barrier to using PCMs in electronic cooling applications is their weak transfer rate, demonstrating an enhanced capability for energy storage
thermal conductivity, which restricts the rate of heat flow within a block solutions through this pairing technology.
and hinders its latent heat capacity from being utilized. To make these Researchers have conducted extensive experiments to enhance the
materials suitable for such tasks, it becomes necessary to integrate them efficacy of metal foam/PCM-integrated heat sinks. Zhu et al.’s work [20]
with thermal conductivity enhancers (TCEs) that can boost their energy demonstrated how copper foam filling height and pore size could affect
efficiency by improving upon conduction due to greater thermal con­ performance, with two-thirds as an optimal ratio for maximizing effi­
ductivity [10,11]. ciency. Rehman et al.’s study showed that a PCM with a higher volume
Many researchers are devising innovative solutions to improve the fraction improved cooling effects, and lower melting temperatures were
PCM’s thermal conductivity, from classic fin-based designs to more most beneficial for low heating loads [21]. Arshad et al. and Li et al.
novel approaches like incorporating metal structures into periodic cells [22,23] explored the heat transfer improvement of PCM-based metal
and even blending them with nanoparticles. Metal foams, particularly, foams through carefully devised experiments, respectively. In particular,
have garnered much interest due to their promising performance across dynamic pore density optimizations enabled a faster melting process in
various applications. So, some experts combine them with other their respective studies; however, it was also observed that earlier
methods to further enhance heat transfer properties. Metal foams are an computational models had vastly diverged from experimental results
innovative material crafted of intricate metal structures with unique due to neglecting certain boundary conditions during simulations.
properties depending on their cell type. Open-cell foams (OCFs) have a Zhang et al. [24] investigated the potential of a composite PCM
special advantage, offering up to 1000 times more metallic surface area composed of aluminium foam and paraffin, discovering that its melting
than flat surfaces with the same amount of metal due to their inter­ time was decreased by up to 28 % compared to pure paraffin. This study
connected cells and porosity structure, making this material incredibly reveals how porous models can be used effectively in simulating the
versatile for various applications [12]. performance of energy-efficient materials for thermal storage systems.
Research in metallic foam/PCM heat sinks has been immensely Elshaer et al. [25] investigated the performance of the PCM combination
successful. It has produced a wealth of experimental and theoretical and melting point on the thermal control performance of small satellites.
studies that have shed light on its impressive thermal regulation capa­ The results reported higher stability in the temperature with varying
bilities, providing insight into how this porous material affects PCM heating loads with PCM combination.
performance [13]. For instance, Xiao et al. [14] discovered that PCM/ Their porosity and pore density significantly impact the thermal
nickel and PCM/copper foam composites demonstrated remarkable performance of PCM composites. This phenomenon was explored
thermal conductivity improvements compared to pure PCM, three times through a series of visual examinations done by Duan and Li [26],
greater for nickel and fifteen times greater when utilising copper foams. revealing that using metal foams in combination with the PCMs could
Li et al.’s subsequent work [15], examining these same composite ma­ improve heat transfer processes within these composites. Further ex­
terials with varying porosities and pore densities, yielded an even more periments conducted on aluminium foam mixtures, which varied in
impressive 11x increase than the base material’s sole use of PCMs. terms of pore densities and melting temperatures, demonstrated an
Studies conducted by Li et al. [16], and Diani and Rossetto [17] indicate eight-fold decrease in melt time for such compounds as opposed to
the vital role of metal foam on thermal performance and heat transfer in regular ones [27]. Zhang et al. [28] studied how centrifugal accelera­
PCMs, outlining that factors such as porosity and pore density have tions affected this process further, demonstrating changes across them
considerable influence on wall temperature. Additionally, it was found also had notable impacts on efficiency. Bai et al. and Qu et al. [29,30]
that higher densities for copper foams lead to improved performances have explored the solidification behaviour of PCM-inserted copper foam
from PCM composites during melting processes. Tang et al. [18] with varying pore densities, discovering that a foam/PCM composite

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

could halve overall solidification time; moreover, decreasing porosity Unexpectedly impressive results were yielded, underscoring their pro­
and pore density corresponded to lower surface temperatures in the posed setup’s efficacy and ease of configuration. NematpourKeshteli
energy storage system structure developed by Qu’s team. Hussain et al. et al. [42] studied how adding nanoparticles, metal foams, and fins can
[31] developed a Nickel foam/PCM combination to create an efficient boost a PCM’s thermal conductivity via numerical exploration. Their
thermal control system for high-powered batteries, achieving a 31 % research showed that composites made with 0.92 to 0.98 porosity metal
reduction in surface temperature compared to pure PCM. Subsequently, foam/PCMs had shorter melting times than pure PCMs, exhibiting the
Li et al. [32] experimentally evaluated the energy processing of this potential for such additives to increase efficiency across this domain. Ali
newfound system relative to its refined counterpart and investigated [43] studied heat transfer boosting for a PCM/ nickel foam combination-
how changes in melting point and porosity influence thermal perfor­ based module for thermal management applications. It was remarked
mance; surprisingly, finding the lowest porous compositions yielded that the composite with a 0.8 PCM fraction boosted the operational time
optimal results concerning temperature regulation. Elshaer et al. [33] of the module by four times.
conducted a numerical study investigating an aluminium foam model/ After carefully exploring the previous literature, the present work
PCM composite for thermal management applications. The foam model improves the thermal management performance for intermittently
reported significant mitigation in the PCM - PCM-integrated heat sink operating electronics by integrating open-cell aluminium foams (OCAF)
temperature during heating. with PCMs. This research also uncovered a gap in understanding how
Marri and Balaji’s investigation into the thermal functioning of OCAF affects salt-based PCM supercooling when subjected to varying
PCM/aluminium foam composites unveiled that pore density is more heating loads during intermittent cycles. Thermal management module
influential than porosity [34]. Subsequently, Iasiello et al.’s experi­ (TMM) involving a main body and cover plate were manufactured and
mentation bolstered this conclusion by showing a decreased melting tested. SP 31 was utilized as the PCM throughout experiments. The
time when characteristics like porosity were altered; however, PPI had OCAF samples adopted had a pore size of 30 PPI and 95 % porosity. An
little effect on the results [35]. Joshi and Rathod [36] studied the nu­ electric heater was fixed to substitute the electric components’ heat
merical impact of various porosities and filling height ratios on copper source. Simultaneously, a Peltier cooler was employed for cooling ac­
foam’s melting time, which increased as these values decreased. Sub­ tion. Three samples were tested: the TMM without PCM, the TMM with
sequently, Yang et al.’s simulations [37] examined how metal foams PCM, and the TMM with PCM/OCAF composite. As part of the research,
with varying fillings affected composites containing PCMs and 15 PPI three distinctive heat fluxes, 700, 1000, and 1400 W/m2 were applied to
copper foams; after exploring 17 cases, they found a 0.89 ratio, which the three samples discussed. The TMM without PCM was used for
improved energy storage efficiency by 10.5 % compared to when fully evaluating the convective heat transfer coefficient at the outer surfaces
filled. Wang et al. [38] evaluated the efficacy of a higher alcohol/ using the transient method and the lumped model assumption. The
graphite foam-based heat sink, revealing that its latent heat transfer was applicability of the lumped model assumption was verified experimen­
substantially improved. This composite PCM-based model vastly tally in different cases.
extended thermal control time by 24 % compared to pure higher alcohol
sinks, with 90 ℃ as the temperature baseline for both setups. Experimental setup and formulations
Zhao et al. [39] developed a low melting alloy combined with carbon
foam, which enabled passive thermal management of electronic com­ This section explains the experimental setup components, test rig,
ponents and extended its operational time by 1.5 times while reducing tools, error study, and used formulations. Subsection 2.1 describes the
heater temperature significantly; 13.4 K compared to traditional RT-60 experimental setup elements and methodology implemented in recent
paraffin case in heating load conditions. Shu et al. [40] conducted a work. In addition, subsection 2.2 describes the measurement uncer­
study to identify ways of reducing energy supply fluctuation under tainty. Finally, the formulations of specific heat are discussed in sub­
intermittent conditions using thermal storage modules. Notable results section 2.3.
saw the melting time duration reduced by over half when the heating
temperature was elevated from 65 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. Alhusseny et al. [41] Experimental setup, methodology, and materials
presented an innovative design for a Thermal energy storage system that
incorporated bundled tubes of staggered organization filled with Fig. 1 depicts the components and setup of the test rig. The test rig
paraffin wax and integrated open-cell copper foam (OCCF) as its PCM. consisted of a variable power supply, with a voltage range from 0 to 30 V

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Table 1 in the context: level (1), level (2), and level (3), respectively. The cooling
Experimental setup components and associated specifications. unit was working at 12 V power. A Kapton tape was used to affix four
Element Count Basic specifications thermometers to the TMM walls with one wire linked to a single data
node. Using a pull-up resistance of 4.7 kΩ, the wire of data was linked to
(a) Positive Temperature 1 The heater works at Vmax = 12 V and
Coefficient (PTC) heater Pmax = 24 W. a 5 V power source. The components of the setup are detailed in Table 1.
(b) Peltier element cooler 1 TEC1-12703 contains 127 Fig. 2 presents a schematic of the TMM, heating, and cooling ele­
thermocouples linked to one hot and ments. The TMM was constructed of aluminium alloy (6061-T6) and
one cold node. Weight (31 g), Size (40 composed of a cover plate and a container held together by four bolts.
x 40 x 4.7 mm), Imax (3.3 A), and Vmax
(15.4 V)
The TMM consisted of two main components: the body and the cover
(c) Power supply 1 Vmax = 30 V and Imax = 5 A plate. The body had outer dimensions of 100 mm, 70 mm, and 15 mm in
(d) Thermal conductive 2 Silicone thermal conductive pads with length, width, and height, respectively. The body had an inside grove to
pads thermal conductivity of 6 W/m.K be filled with the PCM. The groove dimensions were 86 mm × 56 mm ×
(e) Electric fan 1 Driven by a 12 V power source
15 mm. Moreover, the TMM cover plate had the same body length and
(f) Arduino hardware 1 A board works as a data logger
board width with a 2.5 mm thickness. The TMM was coated with a black
(g) Temperature sensors 4 DS18B20 thermometer anodization coating to boost the heat transfer by radiation.
(h) Breadboard 1 Wiring networks The heating element was an electric heater which was affixed to a
cavity in a wooden plate. The cooling system was a Peltier cooler with its
hot face connected to a finned sink and its cold side attached to the TMM
and a current range of 0 to 5 A, and was utilised to supply the heater
cover plate. Thermal grease and thermal pads were used to mitigate the
power. In addition, a data logger was utilised for data collection. The
thermal contact resistance. An electric fan was attached to the finned
wiring connections for sensors and other electric elements were orga­
heat sink to increase the heat release rate from the Peltier element’s hot
nized using a breadboard. The TMM configuration comprised an
side. The fan and the Peltier cooler were connected in series and worked
aluminium container for PCM storage, an electric heating element, a
at 12 V. The TMM experienced a heating process of 60 min. Next, the
Peltier cooling system, a finned heat sink, and a fan for cooling the
TMM cooled to the initial temperature, which equals 20.5 ℃, while the
Peltier element hot side. The collected temperature data was monitored
ambient temperature was 25 ℃. In addition, Fig. 2- c depicts the wooden
and analysed by the connected PC. The TMM was subjected to three
plat with an electric heater attached. The plate heater was affixed to a
levels of heat fluxes: 700, 1000, and 1400 W/m2, which are called later

Fig. 2. Cooling and heating elements and the wooden plate heater.

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 3. Aluminium foam with 30 PPI. The right figure shows the actual foam sample dimensions, but the left one shows a magnified view of the foam sample.

Fig. 4. The three cases of TMM.

wooden plate measuring 9 cm and 12.5 cm in width and length, had a porosity of 0.95 and was 86 mm in length and 56 mm in width,
respectively. A PTC heater with dimensions of 2 cm, 3.5 cm and 0.5 cm respectively.
in width, length and depth, respectively, was installed in the middle of Fig. 4 depicts the three cases examined. In the first case, the TMM
the wooden plate. Thermal insulation grease was utilised to affix the was discussed without PCM, and then the TMM was packed with 54 g of
heater to the wooden plate. PCM in the second case. In the third case, an OCAF was integrated with
Fig. 3 shows the aluminium foam utilized in the work with a pore size the PCM. Rubitherm provided the salt-based PCM (SP31). The utilized
of 30 pores per linear inch (PPI). The adopted aluminium foam sample materials’ properties are itemized in Table 2. The PCM experiences

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Table 2
Materials properties [44].
Materials Melting temperature (℃) Density (ρ) (kg/m3) Specific heat (Cp) (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (k) (W/m. K) Latent heat (kJ/kg)
Solid liquid

Aluminium – 2760 – 0.897 170 –

(6061 T6)
SP 31 31–33 ℃ 1350 1250 2 0.5 210

Table 3
Uncertainty analysis results.
Physical variable Measuring equipment Equipment Equipment Linearity error Accuracy error (%) Total
spans resolution (%) uncertainty

The electric voltage Voltameter From 0 to 30 V 10 mv 0.01 % 0.05 % ± 0.018 V

(V)
The electric current Ammeter From 0 to 5 A 1 mA 0.1 % 0.5 % ± 0.025 A
(A)
The electric power (W) Dependent variable (P = VI) – – – – ± 0.25 W
Temperature (℃) Temperature sensor − 55 – 125 ℃ 0.06 ℃ – 0.53 % ± 0.66 ℃
(thermistor) In the range from − 10 to 85
℃

supercooling during the solidification processes. Equation (1) calculates method is used to evaluate the instrument’s uncertainty as indicated in
a heat loss and a supercooling temperature difference (ΔT Supercooling). equations (4) and (5).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Qlost = mPCM CΔTSupercooling (1)
Ux = u20 + u2c (4)
Where C: is the PCM-specific heat, mPCM : is the mass of PCM.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ΔTSupercooling is the difference between the PCM solidification temperature
Uc = (uc1 )2 + (uc2 )2 + (uc2 )2 + ⋯ + (ucn )2 (5)
and the minimum temperature obtained before the PCM solidification
starts.
Where Uc : is the calibration uncertainty of instrument anduo : is the
Four thermometers were used and attached to the TMM walls for
resolution uncertainty that equals half of an instrument resolution.
temperature measurements. Sensors were affixed in the middle of the
exterior walls of the TMM, with one sensor at each wall. A Kapton tape
was utilized to adhere them to the walls and apply pressure to the Thermal capacity and lumped model formulation
thermistor to produce a good interface between the thermistors and the
aluminium body of the TMM. The specific heat of the TMM was calculated during the heating
procedure. On the one hand, the TMM obtained thermal energy during
Measurements uncertainty heating. On the other hand, the TMM lost thermal heat to the sur­
roundings by radiation and natural convection. The total specific heat is
The testing conditions, the measurement instruments, and the an important property that shows improved thermal storage capacity.
experimenter produce three typical experimental testing errors. They Estimating the thermal capacity required evaluation for the convection
are apparatus errors, systematic errors and random errors from instru­ heat transfer, which the TMM lost to the surroundings during heating.
ment structure errors, repeated measurements and unknown sources The convective heat transfer coefficient was evaluated for the outer
and conditions, respectively. These errors cannot be precisely estimated, surfaces using the transient method and the lumped model assumption
and uncertainty must be addressed. Ammeter, Voltmeter and tempera­ using the TMM without PCM cases. The applicability of the lumped
ture sensors were used as measuring instruments. Table 3 lists the un­ model assumption was verified experimentally in different circum­
certainty of the study’s three instruments and four variables. The stances. The TMM was heated to an initial temperature, and then it was
technical data sheets provided by the suppliers contain the specifications allowed to cool down only by convection to the surrounding quiescent
of all the instruments. The uncertainty of power (P) was computed using air. During this process, the TMM temperature response was recorded.
the independent variables displayed in the following equation. This process was repeated for different initial temperatures of 40 ℃, 50
℃, and 60 ℃ to get the average time constant. The following equations
P = VI (2)
represent the lumped model formulations by which the outer surfaces’
heat transfer coefficient was evaluated for the present model.
P, I, and V are the heater power, electric current, and voltage, respec­
tively. The power uncertainty was evaluated based on the uncertainties T − T∞
(6)
− t
= eω
of the maximum values for current and voltage, which were 1 A and 10 Ti − T∞
V, respectively. The power uncertainty Up is computed using equation
(3). ω=
ρCt V
(7)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ∅
( )2 ( )2̅
∂P ∂P
UP = U + U (3) (8)
∂V V ∂I I ∅ = hAs

Where UV and UI are the uncertainty of voltage and current, respec­ Where Ti and T∞ are the initial and the ambient temperatures, respec­
tively. tively. The ambient temperature was 25 ℃. The time is represented by
There are two categories of uncertainty for instruments: calibration the symbol t, and ω is the time constant for the transient temperature
uncertainty and resolution uncertainty. The linearity, hysteresis, and response. ρ and V I are the TMM density and the volume, respectively. Ct
sensitivity errors lead to calibration uncertainty. A root sum square is the total thermal capacity of the TMM. h represents an average

6
A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 5. Heater characteristics.

Fig. 6. TMM temperature at Level (1).

coefficient of convection heat transfer and As represents the surface area
of the TMM system.
QH − QConv. = Qstored (9)
∫ 3600
Q̇H Δt − ∅(T − T ∞ )dt = mCt Δt (10)
0

∫ 3600 ∑
60
∅(T − T ∞ )dt ≈ ∅ (T n − T ∞ )Δtstep (11)
0 0

Where QConv and QH are the convection heat dissipated to the sur­
roundings and the energy supplied by an electric heater, respectively.
The time of the heating process is Δt and equals 60 min. m represents the
mass of PCM and aluminium container. Ct and Tn are the total specific
heat and temperature of the TMM module, respectively. Δtstep is the time
step for the discretized integration. The integration was rounded to a 60-
second time step piece-wise polynomial. The lag between the data logger
readings represented the adopted time step.

Results and discussion

In this section, the findings of the present work are figured out and
discussed precisely. Subsection 3.1 presents the heater performance Fig. 7. TMM temperature at Level (2).
determination test. Subsections 3.2 and 3.3 show the temperature re­
sults and crucial time, respectively. Subsection 3.4 presents the PCM TMM temperature
supercooling results, while subsection 3.5 shows the evolution of PCM
melting in the PCM/OCAF composite. Subsections 3.6 and 3.7 present The temperature of the TMM was reported in Figs. 6, 7, and 8 at heat
the convective heat transfer coefficient and thermal capacitance results, fluxes of 700, 1000, and 1400 W/m2, respectively. The temperature
respectively. readings for the four mounted temperature sensors were averaged and
reported, as shown in the prescribed figures. As shown in Fig. 6, the
The electric heater characterization temperature results show a significant reduction in the maximum tem­
perature when PCM was adopted. The TMM temperature was 41.6 ℃ for
A calibration test for a heater was conducted at three voltage levels: the case without thermal storage. At the same time, the TMM with PCM
10 V, 9 V, and 8 V. The planned voltages give the necessary heating stated a temperature, at the termination of the heating procedure, of
power for testing at the anticipated temperatures. The relationship be­ 33.1 ℃ with a 20.4 % reduction. The PCM stored latent heat during the
tween heater temperature and the provided voltage and current was heating process, and hence, the temperature was reduced significantly.
determined. The electric current was noticed to rise as the temperature However, the PCM/OCAF could decrease the highest temperature by 9.3
rose. The decline in heater resistance paralleled the rise in heater tem­ ℃ with a reduction ratio of 22.3 %. The OCAF boosted the heat transfer
perature. Hence, the current enlarged as the temperature rose. Fig. 5 process within the PCM, substituting the weak PCM thermal conduc­
depicts the relationship between heater power and temperature at the tivity and improving the thermal management performance.
selected voltages. The thermal power increased as the temperature rose. Fig. 7 describes the temperature results at level (2) heat flux. The
The supplied voltage to the heater was gently modified throughout the TMM without PCM, at the termination of the heating process, stated the
heating process to maintain a steady output power.

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 11. Time spent at a temperature higher than the CT at Level (3).

(3), as shown in Fig. 8, the TMM achieved a 55 ℃ highest temperature

without PCM. The TMM with PCM and PCM/OCAF composite cases
reached temperatures of 42.3 ℃ and 39.7 ℃ with 23 % and 27.8 %
Fig. 8. TMM temperature at Level (3).
reduction percentiles, respectively.
Fig. 8 shows a noticeable decline in the PCM/OCAF combination case
cycle time. The combination could lower the cycle time from 130 min,
for the PCM case, to 121 min at the combination. The decrease
percentile in cycle time was 11 min with a percentage of 8.4 %.

Crucial time

The crucial time is defined as the time for which the temperature of
the TMM exceeds the critical temperature (CT). Three reference CT
values were adopted: 30 ℃, 35 ℃, and 40 ℃. Figs. 9, 10 and 11 show the
crucial time results at levels (1), (2), and (3), respectively. At CT of 30
℃, the TMM without PCM stated a time of 54 min, as shown in Fig. 9. At
The same time, the TMM with PCM achieved a crucial time of 44 min
with a diminution of 18.5 %. The PCM/OCAF composite showed a
crucial time of 42 min with a decrease of 22.2 %. At CT of 35 ℃, the
TMM without PCM achieved a crucial time of 40 min, but the PCM and
PCM/OCAF composite lowered the time by 100 %, and the TMM tem­
Fig. 9. Time spent at a temperature higher than the CT at Level (1).
perature was maintained at a temperature below the CT. At CT of 40 ℃,
the temperature of the TMM did not exceed the CT; hence, the crucial
time achieved was 0 min.
Fig. 10 shows the critical time results at level (2) heating power. At
CT of 30 ℃, the TMM without PCM stated a crucial time of 59 min;
however, the crucial time was lowered to 52 min and 47 min at PCM and
PCM/OCAF composite, respectively. The decrease percentages were
11.8 % and 20.3 %, respectively. At CT of 35 min, the time reported for
the case without PCM was 52 min. The PCM case could mitigate the
crucial time by 40 min; the PCM/OCAF could also limit the temperature
below 35 min and report a crucial time of 0 min. At CT of 40 ℃, the case
without PCM achieved a crucial time of 40 min, but the PCM and PCM/
OCAF cases reported no crucial time.
Fig. 11 shows the crucial time results at Level (3) heating power. For
the CT of 30 ℃, the PCM could lower the crucial time by 4 min with a
diminution percentile of 6.3 %. At the same time, the PCM/OCAF
composite declined the crucial time by 9 min (14.2 %). At CT of 35 ℃,
the PCM lowered the crucial time by 22.5 min (39.8 %). In addition, the
PCM/OCAF combination achieved a crucial time of 14 min with a
Fig. 10. Time spent at a temperature higher than the CT at level (2). decreasing percentile of 75.2 %. At CT of 40 ℃, the case without PCM
was 49 min.
highest temperature of 47.2 ℃. In contrast, the TMM with PCM achieved In contrast, the PCM case reported a crucial time of 6 min with a
a maximum temperature of 37 ℃ with a decreasing percentage of 21.6 decrease percentile of 87.7 %. The PCM/OCAF managed the TMM
%. The PCM/OCAF combination stated a temperature reduction of 28.6 temperature and limited the values below 40 ℃; hence, no crucial time
%. In addition, the PCM/OCAF could mitigate the cycle time by 6 min was reported for this case. The cases with PCM generally reduced the CT
relative to the case with 100 % PCM. For the temperature results at level significantly, and the explanation is that the latent thermal storage kept

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

temperature to the solidification temperature, resulting in a loss of so­

lidification heat. Fig. 12 depicts the PCM supercooling nomenclature.
The supercooling temperature differential (ΔT Supercooling) is the differ­
ence between the lowest and solidification temperatures attained during
supercooling. The amount of supercooling is related to (ΔT Supercooling),
resulting in the loss of stored heat.
Fig. 13 depicts (ΔT Supercooling) on the Y-axis at the left and heat loss
on the Y-axis at the right. In the instance of 100 % PCM, the recorded
(ΔT Supercooling) at levels (1), (2), and (3) were 0 ◦ C, 0.85 ◦ C, and 2.7 ◦ C,
respectively. It was observed that supercooling enlarged as the heat load
increased. The PCM/OCAF composite might significantly lessen the
supercooling. The recorded supercooling temperature difference for the
OCAF case at levels (1) and (2) was zero and 1.39 ℃ at level (3). The
decrease percentile of 43.5 % relative to the case with 100 % PCM was
obtained at level (3) heating power.
Fig. 13 illustrates the heat vanished during solidification. With a
heating power of level (1), neither supercooling nor heat loss occurred in
the PCM. In the 100 % PCM case, heat loss was 91.8 J at level (2) and
291.6 J at level (3). With the PCM/OCAF composite, the heat loss was
zero and 150.12 J at level (2) and level (3), representing a 100 % and
64.4 % decrease, respectively. The correlation between a rise in super­
Fig. 12. PCM Supercooling for 100 % PCM case at level (2).
cooling and a rise in heating power is explained. As the heating power
grew, so did the amount of melted nucleating substance, delaying the
the temperature nearly constant for some time; therefore, the temper­
supercooling process. The nucleation agent in salt-based PCM is the
ature increase was limited relative to the case without PCM. The OCAF
reason for the solidification process. Thus, the lack of a nucleation agent
improved the heat transfer within the PCM and, as a result, boosted the
slowed the solidification process under greater heating power.
amount of melted PCM and the stored heat.

Evolution of the PCM melting process

PCM supercooling
Melting of PCM occurred during the heating procedure. The quantity
At the PCM discharge procedure, PCM supercooling means lowering of melted PCM immediately affects the thermal efficiency of the TMM.
the PCM temperature underneath the PCM solidification temperature. The more PCM is dissolved, the more heat energy is stored as latent heat;
PCM based on salt is most commonly supercooled. The nucleating agent therefore, the thermal performance improves substantially. The reduced
is one of the fundamental components of the salt-based PCM and is PCM thermal conductivity impedes heat transfer across the PCM, hence
responsible for initiating the PCM solidification process. A portion of the lowering the PCM liquid percentile. Fig. 14 depicts the PCM/OCAF
nucleating chemical dissolves during the heating phase, slowing solidi­ composite within the TMM container throughout the heating procedure.
fication and leading to PCM supercooling. Supercooling decreases the The opaque stuff refers to liquified PCM. It is demonstrated that the
amount of heat emitted during solidification. A portion of the heat melting process started at the walls and bottom plate when the PCM
released throughout solidification was used to raise the PCM attained its melting temperature. As the density of liquids is less than

Fig. 13. Differential supercooling temperature and the corresponding vanished heat at the adopted heating power levels.

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 14. Evolution of PCM melting during heating for PCM/OCAF at level (3) heating power.

that of solids, the residual solid element descended during the heating heating, the TMM was cooled down in the ambient air by convection,
procedure, while liquid PCM replaced it at the top. The inserted OCAF and its temperature declined. One of the significant parameters lumped
significantly improved the heat transfer through the PCM. It was model formulation is the time constant. The time constant was varied in
observed that the PCM melt fraction was drastically enhanced in the the model formulation until the least error was achieved between the
OCAF case. Unlike pure PCM, the PCM was entirely dissolved before the temperature results for the experimental work and the model. The
heating procedure terminated. At the termination of the heating pro­ lumped model results shown in Fig. 15 are based on a time constant of
cedure, the PCM melt portion was unity, and more heat energy was kept 18 min. The temperature results show a good convergence between the
in the PCM, improving the thermal performance. experimental results and the model prediction.
Fig. 16 shows the maximum error obtained for the three heating
Outer surface convective heat transfer coefficient trials at different model formulation parameters. The time constant was
varied from 16 to 22 to get the value corresponding to the least error. For
Fig. 15 refers to the temperature response for the TMM in three cases the trials at which the initial temperatures were 40 ℃ and 50 ℃, the
using the experimental and lumped model approach. The applicability time constant of 20 min and 22 min reported the lowest error between
of the lumped model was verified in three independent cases in which the experimental and model results. But at the higher initial temperature
the TMM was heated to 40 ℃, 50 ℃, and 60 ℃, respectively. After of 60 ℃, these time constant values reported higher errors. The time

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

Fig. 17. Apparent thermal capacity during the heating process.

Fig. 15. Transient temperature for experimental and lumped model results at a
time constant of 18 min. 3345 J/kg. K, at a heating load of level (2), with an increase of 3.7 times
relative to the case without PCM. However, the PCM/OCAF composite
recorded a heat capacity of 4530 J/kg. K, an increase of around five
times compared to the case without PCM. With a heating power of level
(3), the case of 100 % PCM stated a heat capacity of 3600 J/kg. K, with
an improvement of around four times the reference case. However, the
PCM/OCAF composite recorded a heat capacity of 4582 J/kg. K with an
improvement of 5.1 times the reference case.

Conclusion

The current work investigates the influence of open-cell aluminium

foam (OCAF) insertion in a PCM-based thermal management module
(TMM) on electronics thermal control performance. The TMM was
tested under the intermittent thermal conditions of heating and cooling,
and the PCM charging and discharging processes were investigated.
TMM configuration consisted of an aluminium container with cover
plate, a heating plate and a cooling unit. The TMM was tested under
three levels of heat fluxes: 700, 1000, and 1400 W/m2. Three cases were
investigated, the TMM without PCM, the TMM with 54 g of PCM, and the
TMM with PCM/ OCAF composite. The convective heat transfer coeffi­
cient was evaluated at the TMM outer surfaces using the transient
method and the lumped model assumption at the case without PCM
Fig. 16. Error between the experimental and the lumped model results at cases. The main conclusions of the present work are outlined as the
different time constants. following:

constant of 18 min reported the minimum error at an initial temperature • The PCM-based TMM is a promising alternative for the thermal
of 60 ℃ and acceptable error (<1.5 ℃) at other initial temperatures. The control of intermittently working electronics. The OCAF is promising
time constant of 18 min was adopted for the lumped model for enhancing the heat transfer through the PCM and mitigating the
formulations. drawbacks of PCM relatively lower thermal conductivity.
• The TMM with PCM showed a maximum temperature of 33.1 ℃ with
a 20.4 % reduction compared to the case without PCM. However, the
Thermal capacitance PCM/OCAF could diminish the maximum temperature by 9.3 ℃
with a reduction percentage of 22.3 %.
The results for heat capacity shed light on the thermal impedance of • The PCM/OCAF composite could significantly reduce the PCM
the TMM. Fig. 17 illustrates the heat capacity findings for the case supercooling. The recorded supercooling temperature difference for
without PCM, with 100 % PCM, and with a PCM/OCAF for various the OCAF case at levels (1) and (2) was zero and 1.39 ℃ at level (3).
heating power. The TMM without PCM showed an average heat capacity The decrease percentage of 43.5 % compared to the case with PCM
of 897 J/kg at the heating power investigated. Simultaneously, at level was obtained at level (3) heating power.
(1), the case containing 100 % PCM and the PCM/OCAF composite had • In the pure PCM case, heat loss by PCM supercooling was 91.8 J at
heat capacity values of 3061 and 3499 J/kg. K, respectively. The case level (2) and 291.6 J at level (3). With the PCM/OCAF composite, the
containing 100 % PCM increased the heat capacity by around 3.5 times heat loss was zero and 150.12 J at level (2) and level (3), repre­
the value without PCM, while the PCM/OCAF composite increased it by senting a 100 % and 64.4 % decrease, respectively.
around four times. The 100 % PCM sample recorded a heat capacity of

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A.M. Elshaer et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 47 (2024) 102311

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