Dr.

Samia Elgazzar
 Outline
• Definition of research design
• Characteristics of research design
• Classification of of research design
 DEFINITION
• A research design is a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation… to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.

• It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses …to the

final analysis of data.

For example, a building cannot be constructed without the knowledge of its structure. A
builder cannot order raw materials or set dates till he knows the structure of this building,
such as an office building, school, home, etc.
• A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to
be completed
 Definition of research design
Research design is the blueprint for fulfilling research objectives and answering
questions. Its essentials include
• An activity and time-based plan.
• A plan based on the research questions
• A guide for selecting sources, and types of information.
• A framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables.
• A procedural outline for every research activity.
• is it important to understand the philosophy underlying each type of research to best
meet the intended purpose of the study
 Benefits of Research Design
There are several benefits of having a well-designed research plan. Including:

• Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear understanding of the research objectives and the
desired outcomes.

• Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and reliability of results, research design help to minimize the
risk of bias and helps to control extraneous variables.

• Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the proper data is collected and data is collected
systematically and consistently.

• Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the collected data can be analyzed effectively, providing
meaningful insights and conclusions.

• Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure the results are clean and influential within the
research team and external stakeholders.

• Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and maximizing the impact of the research .
 Characteristics research design
• Neutrality: The results projected in the research should be
free from bias and neutral.
• Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher
expects similar results every time.
• Validity: The questionnaire developed from this design will
then be valid.
• Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a
population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized
method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part
of a population with similar accuracy.
 Research Design Elements
• Accurate purpose statement
• Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing
research
• The method applied for analyzing collected details
• Type of research methodology
• Settings for the research study
• Timeline
• Measurement of analysis
Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and

behavioral sciences. Data are collected through observations and interviews

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that seeks to

understand and describe the universal essence of a phenomenon. The approach

investigates the everyday experiences of human being.

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

❑ It is a formal, objective, Systematic process in which numerical data are used

to obtain information,

Uses

❑ To describe variable

❑ To relationship among variables

❑ To determine cause and effect interaction between variables .

 Uses of qualitative research

• Guiding nursing practice

• Developing survey instruments

• Developing nursing theory

 Classifications of Study Designs

Three types of classifications on the basis of:

1. The number of contacts with the study population

2. The reference period of the study

3. The nature of the investigation

 Study Design
based on no. of contact with the population
• A cross-sectional study looks at data at a single point in time. The participants in this type of study are
selected based on particular variables of interest.

• Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as descriptive research, not causal or
relational, meaning that you can't use them to determine the cause of something, such as a disease.
Researchers record the information that is present in a population, but they do not
manipulate variables.

• Choose a sampling frame for selecting study participants

• Measure exposure and health outcome status of the study participants

• Health outcomes are based on prevalence, not incidence

 Cross Sectional Design

Advantages:
» Cheap to undertake
» Easy to analyze

Disadvantages:
» Cannot measure change
Example
• Examining the prevalence of cancer amongst a defined
population. he researcher can evaluate people of different ages,
geographical locations, and social backgrounds
 Defining Characteristics of Cross-Sectional Studies

Some of the key characteristics of a cross-sectional study include:

• The study takes place at a single point in time

• It does not involve manipulating variables

• It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income,

gender, etc.)

• It can provide information about what is happening in a current population

 Longitudinal Design
• A longitudinal study (or longitudinal survey, or panel study) is a research
design that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g., people)
over short or long periods of time (i.e., uses longitudinal data). It is often a type

of observational study.it is collected from the same people at two or

more points in time:

• Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational research in which researchers
observe and collect data on a number of variables without trying to influence
those variables.
 Longitudinal Design

• May be seen as a repetitive cross-sectional study

• Reliable in accuracy as data is collected on a regular basis
Disadvantage
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The same disadvantages as before-after design + may suffer from the
‘conditioning effect’
• Participants become familiar with the pattern and respond without
thinking.
 Differences between cross-Sectional Study
and Longitudinal Study
Cross-Sectional Study
• Evaluates variable at a single point in time
• Participants are less likely to drop out
• Uses new participant(s) with each study
Longitudinal Study
• Measures variable over time
• Requires more resources
• More expensive
• Subject to selective attrition
• Follows the same participants over time
Difference between two study
 Design of a Cohort study
Time
No-disease

Exposed Disease
People
without
Population
the disease
(healthy people)
Un-exposed No-disease

Disease
Follow-up period
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 Study design based on Reference Period

1. Retrospective Design:

• Investigates a phenomenon , situation , problem or issue that has happened in the past.
• In a retrospective study, you collect data on events that have already happened.

• Basis for studies:

– data available for that period
– the respondents’ recall of the situation.

Examples:
• For example, people with AIDS might be asked about their lifestyle choices and medical history in order to
study the origins of the disease.
 Case-control study: back in time
• In studies of disease etiology, for example, researchers begin by selecting a group of
patients (the cases) with a particular disease.
• Assess prior exposure status and other risk factors for cases and controls
• Examples
The researcher selects a few cancer patients and non-cancer patients and studies the
histories of both groups to compare the frequency of exposure to risk factors i.e., smoking
for each group in order to estimate the relationship between the risk factor (smoking) and
the disease (lung cancer).
• Advantages
– Inexpensive and efficient (especially for rare diseases)
– Useful for studying diseases with long latencies
• Disadvantages
– Difficult to select an appropriate comparison group
– Potential bias in measuring exposure (recall bias due to disease)
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 Design of a Case - Control study
Time
Inquiry

Exposed Cases
(People
with
Un-exposed the disease)
Population

Controls
Exposed
(People
without
the disease)
Un-exposed

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 Main difference between both designs

• Case control: The study begins with diseased (cases) and non-
diseased (control) people

• Cohort study: The study begins with exposed (healthy) and non-
exposed (healthy) people

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 2.The Prospective Study Design

• In a prospective study, you choose a group of subjects and follow them over time,
collecting data in real-time.
• Refers to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude,
or outcome in the future
• Such studies attempt to:
– establish the outcome of an event or what is likely to happen
Example
• To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic achievement of their
children.
• To measure the effects of the change in migration policy on the extent of immigration in
Australia.
 Observational Designs

• Retrospective: Backward in time

• Prospective: Forward in time

• Cross-Sectional: At one point in time

• Least control of extraneous factors

• Difficulty in establishing causality

• Generally, although not always, involves random sampling

Classifications of Study Design
 Experimental Design

•Experiments involve manipulation (the researcher manipulates the

independent variable by introducing a treatment or intervention);

control (including the use of a control group that is not given the

intervention and is compared to the experimental group) .

Concepts
 Principles of Experimental Design

• Randomization is the random process of assigning treatments to the experimental

units. The random process implies that every possible allotment of treatments has

the same probability. each participant has an equal and known probability of

being assigned to either the control or the experimental group

• manipulation

• Local Control all extraneous source of variation is brought under control.

 Categories of experimental design
Based on the dimension of control over independent variables

1. Pre-Experimental Design: Testing the effects of the independent variable

on a single participant or a small group of participants (e.g. a case study). It is
a one-shot case study in which one group is exposed to a treatment or
condition and measured afterward to see if there were any effects. There is
no control group for comparison.
• An example of this would be a teacher using a new instructional method
for their class
 categories of experimental design

2. Quasi-Experimental Design: This is similar to an experimental study,

but lacks random selection and random assignment of
participants/subjects. An example of a quasi-experimental study would
be comparing the reading skills between two classes. Perhaps one
group uses a printed book and the other uses an electronic version of
the same book. A researcher could compare the skills of the groups,
but this is not a true experiment.
3. True Experimental Design: Testing the effects of the independent
variable on a group of participants who are randomly assigned to
treatment and control groups.
 True Experimental Design

Example Some students in a certain class take a pre-test. The teacher then uses
a certain teaching technique for one week and administers a post-test of similar
difficulty.
 Correlational research design

• Correlational research design looks into correlations between

variables without allowing the researcher to control or manipulate
any of them. Correlational studies reveal the magnitude and/or
direction of a link between two (or more) variables. Correlational
might have either a positive, negative, or zero. It is considered
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Example: age and weight
 Correlational Studies Direction or Types
Correlational Studies What Happens? Example
Direction or Types

Positive correlation Both variables change in the same As the prices of petrol increase,
direction the fare of auto increases too.

Negative correlation The variables change in opposite As tea consumption increases,

directions tiredness decreases

Zero correlation There is no relationship between the Tea consumption is not correlated
variables with height
 Difference between qualitative and quantitative research design

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Focuses on putting ideas and hypotheses to the test. Concentrate on generating ideas and developing a theory or
hypothesis.

Math and statistical analysis were used to examine the Summarizing, classifying, and analyzing data were used to conduct
situation. the analysis.

Numbers, graphs, and tables are the most common Mostly represented with words
forms of expression.

It necessitates the participation of a large number of Only a few people are required to answer.
people.

Closed questions (multiple choice) Open-ended inquiries

 Exploratory research
• Exploratory research is defined as research used to investigate a
problem that is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing research problem, but will not provide
conclusive results.
• For example, A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest
success rate for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals
or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the
method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their
success rate.
 Quasi-experimental

Manipulation of the independent variable, but the absence of either

randomization or control.

• Most studies with quasi-experimental designs have samples that

were not selected randomly and there is less control of the study
intervention, extraneous variables, and setting.
 Question 1
• Nursing Research can be classified according to the time frame
the research study has been made. As a nurse, you know that
the study entitled “Knowledge and practice of Staff Nurses in
preventing needle prick injuries in a private hospital in Manila
is classified as:
• A. Basic Research
B. Historical Research
C. Descriptive Research
D. Experimental Research
 Question
• Nursing Research has a lot of purposes. Which of the following
category do the study about the sociodemographic profile of
nursing students and their risk for depression belong?
• A. Prescription
B. Exploration
C. Prediction and control
D. Explanation
 Question
• if the aim of a study is to 'explore' a topic, which of the following
does this word indicate it is likely to be?

• a) A review of the literature.

• b) A randomized control trial.

• c) A survey.

• d) A qualitative study.