ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELDS

(3-0-0)
LECTURE NOTES
B. TECH
(II YEAR – III SEM)
Prepared by:
SUDIPTA MOHANTY., Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering

Odisha University of Technology and Research,

Bhubaneswar

Techno Campus, P.O.-Mahalaxmi Vihar

Bhubaneswar-751029, Odisha, India
 Electromagnetic Fields (3-0-0)
Prerequisites:
1. Mathematics-I
2. Mathematics-II

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will demonstrate the ability
1. To understand the basic laws of electromagnetism.
2. To obtain the electric and magnetic fields for simple configurations under static conditions.
3. To analyse time-varying electric and magnetic fields.
4. To understand Maxwell's equation in different forms and different media.
5. To understand the propagation of EM waves.

Module 1: (08 Hours)

Co-ordinate systems & Transformation: Cartesian co-ordinates, circular cylindrical coordinates, spherical
coordinates. Vector Calculus: Differential length, Area & Volume, Line, surface and volume Integrals, Del
operator, Gradient of a scalar, Divergence of a vector & Divergence theorem, Curl of a vector & Stoke's theorem,
Laplacian of a scalar.

Module 2: (10 Hours)

Electrostatic Fields: Coulomb's Law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Fields due to a point, line, surface and
volume charge, Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law- Maxwell's Equation, Applications of Gauss's Law, Electric
Potential, Relationship between E and V- Maxwell's Equation and Electric Dipole & Flux Lines, Energy Density
in Electrostatic Fields., Current and current density, Ohms Law in Point form, Continuity of current, Boundary
conditions. Electrostatic boundary-value problems: Poisson's and Laplace's Equations, Uniqueness Theorem,
General procedures for solving Poisson's and Laplace's equations, Capacitance.

Module 3: (06 Hours)

Magneto static Fields: Magnetic Field Intensity, Biot-Savart's Law, Ampere's circuit Law-Maxwell Equation,
applications of Ampere's law, Magnetic Flux Density-Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equation for static fields,
Magnetic Scalar and Vector potentials. Magnetic Boundary Conditions.

Module 4: (10 Hours)

Electromagnetic Field and Wave propagation: Faraday's Law, Transformer & Motional Electromagnetic Forces,
Displacement Current, Maxwell's Equation in Final forms, Time-Harmonic Field. Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation: Wave Propagation in lossy Dielectrics, Plane Waves in loss less Dielectrics, Free space, Good
conductors Power & Poynting vector.

TEXTBOOKS:

1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Principles of Electromagnetics, 6th Ed., Oxford Intl. Student Edition, 2014.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. C. R. Paul, K. W. Whites, S. A. Nasor, Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3rd Ed, TMH.

2. W.H. Hyat, Electromagnetic Field Theory, 7 th Ed, TMH.
3. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism - Theory and applications", PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2009.
4. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism-Problems with solution", Prentice Hall India, 2012.
5. G.W. Carter, "The electromagnetic field in its engineering aspects", Longmans, 1954.
6. W.J. Duffin, "Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill Publication, 1980.
7. W.J. Duffin, "Advanced Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill, 1968.
8. E.G. Cullwick, "The Fundamentals of Electromagnetism", Cambridge University Press, 1966.
9. B. D. Popovic, "Introductory Engineering Electromagnetics", Addison- Wesley Educational Publishers,
International Edition, 1971.
10. W. Hayt, "Engineering Electromagnetics", McGraw Hill Education, 2012.
 MODULE-II

1. Electrostatic Field
 Coulomb’s law
 Electric Field Intensity
 Electric Field due to a point, line, surface and volume charge
 Electric Flux Density
 Gauss’s Law-Maxwell’s Equation
 Application of Gauss’s law
 Electric Potential
 Relationship between E and V- Maxwell's Equation
 Electric Dipole & Flux Lines
 Energy Density in Electrostatic Fields
 Current and current density
 Ohms Law in Point form
 Continuity of current
 Boundary conditions.

2. Electrostatic boundary-value problems

 Poisson's and Laplace's Equations
 Uniqueness Theorem
 General procedures for solving Poisson's and Laplace's equations
 Capacitance
 Chapter-2

Electrostatic Field

2.1 Introduction
The study of time invariant electric field in space or vacuum, produced by
various types of static charge distributions is called electrostatic field. A very
common example of such a field used in cathode ray tube for focusing and
deflecting a beam. Most of the computer peripheral devices like keyboards, touch
pads, liquid crystal displays etc. work on the principle of electrostatics. A variety
of machines such as X-ray machine and medical instruments used for
electrocardiograms, scanning etc. use the principle of electrostatics. Many
industrial processes like spray painting, electrodeposition etc. also use the
principle of electrostatics. Electrostatics also used in the agricultural activities
like strong seeds, spraying to plants etc. many components such as resistors,
capacitors etc. and the devices such as bipolar transistors field effect transistors
function based on electrostatics.
2.2 Coulomb’s Law
Key Point: A point charge means charges that are located on a body whose
dimensions are much smaller than other relevant dimensions e.g. a collection of
electric charges on a pin head may be regarded as a point charge.
The Coulomb’s law states that force between the two point charges Q1 and
Q2,
1. Acts along the line joining the two point charges.
2. Is directly proportional to the product (Q1Q2) of the two charges.
3. Is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 as shown
in Fig. 2.2.1, separated by the distance R. the charge Q1
exerts a force on Q2 while Q2 also exerts a force on Q1.
The force acts along the line joining Q1 and Q2. The
force exerted between them is repulsive if the charges
are of same polarity while it is attractive if the charges are of different polarity.
Mathematically the force F between the charges can be expressed as,
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹∝ …….. (1)
𝑅2
 Where Q1Q2 = product of two charges
R = distance between two charges
The Coulomb’s law also states that this force depends on the medium in
which the point charges are located. The effect of medium is introduced in the
equation of force as a constant of proportionality denoted as k.
𝑄 𝑄
Hence 𝐹 = 𝑘 1 2 2…..(2)
𝑅
Where k = constant of proportionality
In International System of Units (SI), the charges Q1 and Q2 are expressed
in Coulombs (C), the distance R in meters (m) and the force F in newtons (N).
Then to satisfy Coulomb’s law, the constant of proportionality is defined as,
1
𝑘= ……. (3)
4𝜋𝜀

Where ε = Permittivity of the medium in which charges are located.

The units of ε are farads/meter(F/m).
In general, ε is expressed as,
ε = ε0 ε𝑟 …… (4)
where ε0 = permittivity of free space or vacuum
εr = Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium
with respect to free space
ε = Absolute permittivity
For the free space or vacuum, the relative permittivity εr =1, hence ε = ε0
1 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹= …... (5)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

The value of permittivity of free space ε0 is,

1
ε0 = × 10−9 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m…… (6)
36π
1 1
∴k= = = 8.98 × 109 = 9 × 109 m/F ……... (7)
4πε0 4π×8.854×10−12

Hence the Coulomb’s law can be expressed as,

1 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹= ……. (8)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

This is the force between the two point charges located in free space or vacuum.
2.2.1 Vector Form of Coulomb’s Law
The force exerted between the two point charges has a fixed direction
which is a straight line joining the two charges. Hence the force exerted between
the two charges can be expressed in a vector form.
 Consider the two point charges Q1 and Q2 located at the points having
position vectors ⃗⃗⃗
r1 and ⃗⃗⃗
r2 as shown in Fig. 2.2.2.
Then the force exerted by Q1 and Q2 acts along
the direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅12 where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎12 is unit vector along
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅12 . Hence the force in the vector form can be
expressed as,
1 𝑄1 𝑄2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = 𝑎12 ……. (9)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅12 2
vector
Where 𝑎12 = Unit vector along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ R12 =
Magnitude of vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅12 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 −𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 −𝑟⃗⃗⃗1
∴ 𝑎12 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= |𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 ⃗⃗⃗1 |
…….. (10)
|𝑅 12 | |𝑅 12 | 2 −𝑟

Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑅 12 | = R = distance between the two charges

The following observations are important:

1. As shown in the Fig. 2.2.2, the force F1 is the force exerted on Q1 due to
Q2. It can be expressed as,
1 𝑄1 𝑄2 1 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑟1 − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21 = ×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅21 2 𝑟2 |2 |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 |
1 𝑄1 𝑄2
= ⃗⃗⃗2 |3
𝑟2 ) ……… (11)
× (𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟
⃗⃗⃗1 −𝑟

But 𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 = −[𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 ]
𝑎21 = −𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12
Hence substituting in (11),
1 𝑄1 𝑄2
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 2
(−𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 ) = −𝐹2 ………. (12)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Hence force exerted by the two charges on each other is equal but opposite
in direction.
2. The like charges repel each other while the unlike charges attract each
other. This is shown in Fig. 2.2.3. These are experiment conclusions
though not reflected in the mathematical expression.
 3. It is necessary that the two charges are the point charges and stationary in
nature.
4. The two point charges may be positive or negative. Hence their signs must
be considered while using equation (9) to calculate the force exerted.
5. The Coulomb’s law is linear which shows that if any one charge is
increased ‘n’ times then the force exerted also increases by n times.
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F2 = −F⃗⃗⃗⃗1 then nF
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = −nF
⃗⃗⃗⃗1
Where n = scalar
2.2.2 Principle of Superposition Theorem
If there are more than two point charges, then each will exert force on the
other, then the net force on any charge can be obtained by the principle of
superposition.

If we have more than two point charges,

we can use the principle of superposition
to determine the force on a particular
charge. The principle states that if there
are ‘n’ charges Q1, Q2, ……, Qn located
respectively, at points with position
vectors ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 , ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 , … … , ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑛 , the resultant force
F on a charge Q located at point 𝑟 is the
vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by
each of the charges Q1, Q2, ……, Qn.
𝑄𝑄1 ⃗⃗⃗1
𝑟 −𝑟 𝑄𝑄2 ⃗⃗⃗2
𝑟 −𝑟 𝑄𝑄𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝑟 −𝑟
Hence 𝐹= ⃗⃗⃗1 |3
+ ⃗⃗⃗2 |3
+ ⋯……..+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 |3
…….(13)
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟 −𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟 −𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟 −𝑟

𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑘
𝑟 −𝑟
∴ 𝐹= ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑄𝑘 ………. (14)
4𝜋𝜀0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑘 |3
|𝑟 −𝑟
2.3 Electric Field Intensity
 Consider a point charge Q1 as shown in Fig. 2.3.1. If any other similar
charge Q2 is brought near it, Q2 experiences a force. In fact, if Q2 is moved around
Q1, still Q2 experiences a force as shown in Fig. 2.3.1. (a).
Thus there exists a region around a charge in which it exerts a force on any
other charge. This region where a particular charge exerts a force on any other
charge located in that region is called electric field of that charge. The electric
field of Q1 is shown in Fig. 2.3.1. (b).
The force experienced by the charge Q2 due to Q1 is given by Coulomb’s
law as,
𝑄1 𝑄2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = 𝑎12
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅12 2
The force per unit charge can be written as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 𝑄1
= 𝑎12 ………. (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅12 2

This force exerted per unit charge is called electric field intensity or
electric field strength. It is a vector quantity and is directed along a segment
⃗.
from the charge Q1 to the position of any other charge. It is denoted as E
𝑄1
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎1𝑝 ……. (2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅1𝑝 2

Where p = position of any other charge around Q1.

⃗
2.3.1 Unit of 𝐄
The definition of electric field intensity is,
Force (N)Newtons
⃗E = =
Unit charge (C)Coulomb
⃗ is N/C and it is also measured in units V/m (volts per
Hence units of E
meter).
2.3.2 Electric Field due to Discrete Charges
Consider n charges Q1, Q2, ……. Qn as shown in the Fig. 2.3.2. The
combined electric field intensity is to be obtained at point P. The distances of
point P from Q1, Q2, ……. Qn are R1, R2, ……. Rn respectively. The unit vectors
along these directions are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅2 … … … ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅𝑛 respectively.
 Then the total electric field intensity at point P is the vector sum of the
individual field intensities produced by various charges at the point P.

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝐸3 + ⋯ … . . +𝐸
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑛
= 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅1 + 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑅𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝑛 2
1 𝑄𝑖
∴ ⃗E = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑅𝑖 …………….. (3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝑖 2

Each unit vector can be obtained by using the method discussed earlier.
𝑟𝑝 − ⃗𝑟𝑖
⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑅𝑖 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑝 − ⃗𝑟𝑖 |
Where 𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑝 = Position vector of point P
⃗𝑟𝑖 = Position vector of point where charge Qi is placed
2.3.3 ⃗𝑬
⃗ due to Line Charge
Consider a line charge distribution having a
charge density ρL as shown in Fig. 2.3.3.
The charge dQ on the differential length dl
is, dQ = ρLdl.

Hence the differential electric field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐸 at
point P due to dQ is given by,
𝑑𝑄 ρLdl
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐸 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……… (4)
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
 Hence the total 𝐸⃗ at a point P due to line charge can be obtained by
integrating ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 over the length of the charge.
ρLdl
𝐸⃗ = ∫𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……. (5)
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

The 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 and dl is to be obtained depending upon the co-ordinate system
used.
⃗⃗ due to Surface Charge
2.3.4 𝑬
Consider a surface charge distribution
having a charge density ρS as shown in Fig. 2.3.4.
The charge dQ on the differential area dS
is, dQ = ρSdS.

Hence the differential electric field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐸 at
point P due to dQ is given by,
𝑑𝑄 𝜌𝑆 dS
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……… (6)
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

Hence the total 𝐸⃗ at a point P due to surface charge can be obtained by

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ over the surface area on which charge is distributed. Note that this
integrating 𝑑𝐸
will be a double integration.
𝜌𝑆 dS
𝐸⃗ = ∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……. (7)
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

The 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 and dS is to be obtained according to the position of the sheet of
charge and the co-ordinate system used.

2.3.5 ⃗𝑬
⃗ due to Volume Charge
Consider a volume charge distribution having
a charge density ρv as shown in Fig. 2.3.5.
The charge dQ on the differential volume
dv is, dQ = ρvdv.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ at
Hence the differential electric field 𝑑𝐸
point P due to dQ is given by,
𝑑𝑄 ρ𝑣 dv
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……… (8)
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
 Hence the total 𝐸⃗ at a point P due to volume charge can be obtained by
integrating ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 over the volume in which charge is accumulated.
ρ dv
𝐸⃗ = ∫ 𝑣 2 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ……. (9)
𝑣 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
The 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 and dv must be obtained according to the co-ordinate system used.
Thus if there are all possible types of charge distributions, then the total 𝐸⃗
at a point is the vector sum of individual electric field intensities produced by
each of the charges at a point under consideration.
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑃 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑙 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑆 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑣 ………. (10)
Where 𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑃 , ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑙 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑆 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑣 are the field intensities due to point, line, surface and
volume charge distributions respectively.
2.3.6 Electric Field due to Infinite Line Charge
Consider an infinitely long straight-line carrying uniform line charge
having density ρL C/m. Let this line lies along the z-axis from -∞ to ∞ and hence
called infinite line charge. Let point P is on y-axis at which electric field intensity
is to be determined. The distance of point P from origin is r as shown in the Fig.
2.3.6.

Consider a small differential length dl carrying a charge dQ, along the line as
shown in the Fig. 2.3.6. It is along z-axis hence dl = dz.
 ∴ dQ = ρL dl = ρL dz……. (11)
The co-ordinates of dQ are (0, 0, z) while the
co-ordinates of point p are (0, r, 0). Hence the
distance vector 𝑅⃗ can be written as,
𝑅⃗ = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑃 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑑𝑙 = [𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 − 𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ]
∴ |𝑅⃗| = √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
⃗
𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 −𝑧𝑎
[𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ]
∴ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = ⃗|
= ….. (12)
|𝑅 √𝑟 2 +𝑧 2
𝑑𝑄
∴ 𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 −𝑧𝑎
𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧
= [ ]……… (13)
4𝜋𝜀0 (√𝑟 2 +𝑧 2 ) 2 √𝑟 2 +𝑧 2
Note: For every charge on positive z-axis, there is equal charge present on
negative z-axis. Hence, the z-component of electric field intensities produced by
such charges at point P will cancel each other. Hence, effectively there will not
be any z component of 𝐸⃗ at P. This is shown in Fig. 2.3.7.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be written by eliminating ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence the equation of 𝑑𝐸 𝑎𝑧 component,
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦
𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∴ 𝑑𝐸 [ ]…….. (14)
4𝜋𝜀0 (√𝑟 2 +𝑧 2 )2 √𝑟 2 +𝑧 2

Now by integrating ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐸 over the z-axis from -∞ to ∞ we can obtain total 𝐸⃗
at point P.
∞
𝜌𝐿
∴ 𝐸⃗ = ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2
−∞
Note: For such an integration, use the substitution
z
z = r tan θ i.e. r =
tanθ
2
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Here r is not the variable of integration.
𝜋
For 𝑧 = −∞ , 𝜃 = tan−1 (−∞) = − = −900
2
−1 (+∞) 𝜋
For 𝑧 = +∞ , 𝜃 = tan = + = +900
2
𝜋
2
𝜌𝐿
∴ 𝐸⃗ = ∫ 3𝑟 × 𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦
𝜋 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 2 2
𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)2
𝜃=−
2
 𝜋
2
𝜌𝐿 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ∫ 3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0
𝜋 𝑟 3 (1 + 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃) 2
−
2
But 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝜋
2
𝜌𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝐸⃗ = ∫ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 𝑦
𝜋
−
2
𝜋
2
𝜌𝐿
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜋
−
2
𝜋
𝜌𝐿
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] 2 𝜋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 −
2
𝜌𝐿 𝜋 −𝜋
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛 − sin ( )] ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 2
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿
= [1 − (−1)]𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 = × 2𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜌𝐿
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎𝑦 V/m ……… (15)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 is unit vector along the distance r which is perpendicular distance
of point P from the line charge. Thus in general𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 .
Hence the result of 𝐸⃗ can be expressed as,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎𝑟 V/m…….. (16)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Where r = perpendicular distance of point from the line charge
𝑎𝑟 = unit vector in the direction of the perpendicular distance of
⃗⃗⃗⃗
point P from the line charge.
Very important notes:
1. The field intensity at any point has no component in the direction parallel
to the line along which the charge is located and the charge is infinite.
2. The above equation consists of r and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 which do not have meanings of
cylindrical co-ordinate system. The distance r is to be obtained by distance
formula while ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 is unit vector in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 .
2.3.7 Electric Field due to Infinite Sheet of Charge
Consider an infinite sheet of charge
having uniform charge density 𝜌𝑠 C/m2,
placed in xy-plane as shown in Fig. 2.3.7. Let
us use cylindrical co-ordinates.
The point P at which 𝐸⃗ is to be calculated
is on z-axis. Consider the differential surface
area dS carrying charge dQ. The normal
direction to dS is z direction hence dS normal
to z direction is ρ dρ dϕ.
Now 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜙 ………. (17)
𝑑𝑄 𝜌𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜙
Hence, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐸 𝑎𝑅 = 𝑎𝑅 …….. (18)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
The distance vecor 𝑅⃗ has two components as shown in Fig. 2.3.8.

1. The radial component ρ along -𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 i.e. -ρ𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 .
2. The component z along ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑧 i.e. 𝑧𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 .
With these two components 𝑅⃗ can be obtained from the differential area
towards point P as,
∴ 𝑅⃗ = −ρ𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝑧𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 …………………….. (19)
∴ |𝑅⃗| = √(−𝜌)2 + (𝑧)2 = √𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 …… (20)
⃗
𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝑧𝑎
−ρ𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧
∴ 𝑎𝑅 = ⃗|
= ………………….. (21)
|𝑅 √𝜌2 +𝑧 2
𝜌𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜙 −ρ𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 √𝜌2 +𝑧 2
For infinite sheet in xy-plane, ρ varies from 0 to ∞ while ϕ varies from 0
to 2π.
Note: As there is symmetry about z-axis from all radial direction, all
𝑎𝜌 component of 𝐸⃗ are going to cancel each other and net 𝐸⃗ will not have any
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ there is no need to consider ⃗⃗⃗⃗
radial component. Hence while integrating 𝑑𝐸 𝑎𝜌
component.
 2𝜋 ∞ 2𝜋 ∞
𝜌𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜙
𝐸⃗ = ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = ∫ ∫ (𝑧𝑎𝑧 )
𝜙=0 0 0 0 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2
2 2 2
Put 𝜌 + 𝑧 = 𝑢 hence 2ρ dρ = 2u du
For ρ = 0, u = z and ρ = ∞, u = ∞, changing limits we have
2𝜋 ∞
𝜌𝑆 u du
⃗𝐸 = ∫ ∫ (𝑧𝑎𝑧 )
2 3/2
0 𝑢=𝑧 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑢 )
2𝜋 ∞ 𝜌 du
= ∫0 ∫𝑢=𝑧 𝑆 2
(𝑧𝑎𝑧 )
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑢
2𝜋 𝜌𝑆 −1 1 𝑢−1 1
= ∫0 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) [ ] ∞
𝑑ϕ(𝑧𝑎 𝑧
as ∫ = ∫ 𝑢−2 = =−
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢2 −1 𝑢

𝜌𝑆 2𝜋 1 1 𝜌𝑆
= [𝜙] (𝑧𝑎𝑧 ) [− − (− )] = (2𝜋)𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 0 ∞ 𝑧 4𝜋𝜀0
𝜌
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑆 𝑎𝑧 V/m …..For points above xy plane
2𝜀0
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 is direction normal to differential surface area dS considered.
Hence in general if ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 is direction normal to the surface containing charge, the
above result can be generalized as,
𝜌
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑆 𝑎𝑛 V/m ….. …. (22)
2𝜀0
Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 = Direction normal to the surface charge
Thus for the points below xy plane ,𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑧 hence,
𝜌
∴ 𝐸⃗ = − 𝑆 𝑎𝑛 V/m for points below xy plane
2𝜀0
Key Points: Thus electric field due to infinite sheet of charge is every where
normal to the surface and its magnitude is independent of the distance of a point
from the plane containing the sheet of charge.
2.4 Electric Flux
The total number of lines of force in any particular electric field is called
electric flux. It is represented by the symbol Ψ. Similar to the charge, unit of
electric flux is also coulomb C.
2.4.1 Properties of Electric Flux
1. The flux lines start from positive charge and
terminate on the negative charge as shown in Fig.2.4.1.
 2. If the negative charge is absent, then the flux lines terminates at infinity as
shown in Fig. 2.4.2 (a). While in absence of positive charge, the electric flux
terminates on the negative charge from infinity as shown in Fig. 2.4.2 (b).

3. There are more number of lines i.e. crowding of lines if electric field is
stronger.
4. These lines are parallel and never cross each other.
5. The lines are independent of the medium in which charges are placed.
6. The lines always enter or leave the charged surface, normally.
7. If the charge on a body is ±𝑄 coulombs, then the total number of lines
originating or terminating on it is also Q. But the total number of lines is
nothing but a flux.
∴ Electric flux Ψ = Q coulombs
The electric flux is also called displacement flux. The flux is a scalar field.
2.5 Electric Flux Density
Consider the two point charges as shown in Fig. 2.4.3. The flux lines
originating from positive charge and terminating at negative charge. Consider a
unit surface area as shown in Fig. 2.4.3. The number of flux lines are passing
through this surface area.
 The net flux passing normal through the unit surface area is called the
⃗ . It has a specific direction which is normal
electric flux density. It is denoted as 𝐷
to the surface area under consideration hence it is a vector field.
Consider a sphere with a charge Q placed at its centre. There are no other
charges present around. The total flux distributed radially around the charge is
Ψ = Q. This flux uniformly distributes over the surface of the sphere. Then
electric flux density is defined as,
Ψ
𝐷= in magnitude
𝑆

As Ψ is measured in coulombs and S in square meters, the units of D are

2
C/m . This is also called displacement flux density or displacement density.
The flux density at any point can be represented in vector form as,
⃗ = Ψ 𝑎𝑛 C/m2… (1)
𝐷
𝑆

Where 𝑎𝑛 = unit vector in the direction normal to the surface area

2.5.1 ⃗𝑫
⃗ due to a point charge Q
Consider a point charge +Q placed at the centre of the imaginary sphere of
radius r as shown in Fig. 2.5.2. The flux originated from the point charge +Q are
directed radially outwards. The magnitude of the flux density at any point on the
surface is,
Total flux Ψ
⃗⃗ | =
|D ………. (2)
Total surface area S
But Ψ = Q = Total flux
And S = 4πr 2 = Total surface area
∴ ⃗⃗ | = 𝑄 2 ………….. (3)
|D 4πr

The unit vector directed radially outwards and normal to the surface at any
point on the sphere is 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 . Thus in the vector form, electric flux density at
a point which is at a distance of r, from the point charge +Q is given by,
𝑄
⃗ =
𝐷 𝑎𝑟 C/m2……... (4)
4πr2
2.5.2 Relationship between 𝑫 ⃗⃗ and 𝑬 ⃗⃗
It has been derived that the electric field intensity E ⃗ at a distance of r, from
a point charge +Q is given by,
𝑄
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 r 2 𝑟
Dividing the equations of 𝐷 ⃗ and 𝐸⃗ due to a point charge +Q we get,
𝑄
𝐷⃗ 2 𝑎𝑟
= 4πr = 𝜀0
𝐸⃗ 𝑄
𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 r 2 𝑟
∴ ⃗⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ for free space……… (5)
If the medium in which charge is located is other than free space having
relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟 then,
⃗D
⃗ = ε0 𝜀𝑟 ⃗E
i.e.
⃗⃗ = εE
D ⃗ …….. (6)
2.6 Gauss’s law
Statement of Gauss’s law:
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface.
The total charge enclosed by the irregular
closed surface is Q coulombs. Consider some
small differential surface area dS at point P.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑆 𝑎𝑛
𝑑𝑆
Where 𝑎𝑛 = normal to the surface dS at point P
Key Point: Note that the normal to the surface is in two directions but only
directed outwards is considered as required. The normal going into the closed
surface at point P is not required.
The flux density at point P is 𝐷⃗ and its direction is such that it makes an
angle θ with the normal direction at point P. The flux dΨ passing through the
surface dS is the product of the component of 𝐷 ⃗ in the direction normal to the dS
and dS.
Hence dΨ = 𝐷𝑛 𝑑𝑆…….. (1)
Where 𝐷𝑛 = Component of 𝐷 ⃗ in the direction of normal
to the surface dS
we can write, 𝐷𝑛 = |𝐷⃗ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃…………. (2)
∴ dΨ = |𝐷 ⃗ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝑆 ………… (3)
∴ dΨ = 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………… (4)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
Hence the total flux passing through the entire closed surface is to be
obtained by finding the surface integration of the equation(4).
∴ 𝛹 = ∫ dΨ = ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………… (5)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
Such a closed surface over which the integration in the equation (5) is
carried out is called Gaussian Surface.
Now irrespective of the shape of the surface and the charge distribution,
total flux passing through the surface is the total charge enclosed by the surface.
∴ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Ψ = ∮S ⃗D dS = Q = charge enclosed ………… (6)
The common form used to represent Gauss’s law mathematically is,
Ψ = Q = ∮S ⃗D ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ……………. (7)
2.6.1 Application of Gauss’s Law
The Gauss’s law can be used to find 𝐸⃗ or 𝐷 ⃗ for symmetrical charge
distributions, such as point charge, an infinite line charge, an infinite sheet of
charge and a spherical distribution of charge. The Gauss’s law is also used to
find the charge enclosed or the flux passing through the closed surface.
While selecting the closed Gaussian surface to apply the Gauss’s law,
following conditions must be satisfied,

1. ⃗D
⃗ is every where either normal or tangential to the closed surface i.e. 𝜃 =
𝜋
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
or 0. So that ⃗D dS becomes DdS or zero respectively.
2
2. D ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ is constant over the portion of the closed surface for which D dS is not
zero.
 ⃗ and 𝐸⃗ are:
The steps to obtain 𝐷
⃗ | and its direction.
1. Identify |𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and direction normal to dS.
2. Identify |𝑑𝑆
3. Take dot product, D ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗ . dS
4. Choose the Gussian surface.
5. Integrate over the surface chosen as Gussian surface, keeping |𝐷 ⃗|
unknown as it is.
6. Find charge Q enclosed by Gaussian surface.
7. Equate the charge Q, to the integration obtained with |𝐷 ⃗ | as unknown.
⃗ | and express 𝐷 ⃗ with its direction. Then 𝐸⃗ = 𝐷⃗⁄
8. Determine |𝐷 ε0 .
Let us apply these ideas to the various charge distributions.
2.6.1.1 Point Charge
Let a point charge Q is located at the origin. Consider a Gaussian spherical
surface of radius ‘r’ around Q, with centre as origin. The 𝐷 ⃗ is always directed
radially outwards along 𝑎𝑟 whih is normal to the spherical surface at any point P
on the surface. This is shown in Fig.2.6.2.

∴ ⃗ = 𝐷𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑎𝑟
While for the Gaussian surface i.e. sphere of radius ‘r’, dS normal to ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 is
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟
𝑑𝑆

∴ D ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

⃗⃗ . dS since ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 = 1
Now integrate over the surface of sphere of constant radius ‘r’
2𝜋 𝜋
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮D dS = ∫ ∫ 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑆 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
 𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 [− cos 𝜃] [𝜙] = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟
0 0
But ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑆 ⃗D dS = 𝑄
∴ 𝑄 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟
𝑄
∴ 𝐷𝑟 = and hence
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
And ⃗ = 𝐷𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝐷⃗ 𝑄
𝐸⃗ = = 𝑎
ε0 4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2 𝑟
2.6.1.2 Infinite Line Charge
Consider an infinite line charge of
density ρL C/m lying along z-axis from
−∞ to + ∞ as shown in Fig. 2.6.3.
Consider the Gaussian surface as the
right circular cylinder with z-axis as its axis
and radius ρ. The length of the cylinder is L.
The flux density at any point on the
surface is directed radially outwards i.e. in the
𝑎𝜌 direction according to cylindrical co-
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ordinate system.
Consider differential surface area dS as shown
which is at a radial distance ρ from the line charge. The direction normal to dS is
𝑎𝜌 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Now 𝑄 = ∮ ⃗D⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS
𝑆
The integration is to evaluate for side surface, top surface and bottom surface.
∴ 𝑄 = ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 D ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ D
⃗⃗ . dS ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫
⃗⃗ . dS ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . dS
D
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Now ⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 𝑎𝜌
𝐷 as has only radial component
And ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝜌
𝑑𝑆 normal to 𝑎𝜌 direction
∴ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗D dS = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 (𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝜌 ) = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
Now 𝐷𝜌 is constant over the side surface.
As ⃗D
⃗ has only radial component and no component along ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 and -𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 hence
integrations over top and bottom surfaces is zero.
∴ ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 ⃗D ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS = ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 ⃗D dS = 0
∴ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 = ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⃗D dS = ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐷𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
𝐿 2𝜋
𝐿 2𝜋
= ∫ ∫ 𝐷𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐷𝜌 [𝑧] [𝜙]
𝑧=0 𝜙=0 0 0
∴ 𝑄 = 2𝜋𝜌𝐷𝜌 𝐿
𝑄
∴ 𝐷𝜌 =
2𝜋𝜌𝐿
𝑄
∴ ⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑎𝜌 = 𝑎
2𝜋𝜌𝐿 𝜌
𝑄
But = ρL C/m
𝐿
ρL
∴ ⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑎𝜌 = 𝑎 C/m2… (8) due to infinite line charge
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌
⃗
𝐷 ρL
And 𝐸⃗ = = 𝑎 V/m … (9)
ε0 2𝜋ε0 𝜌 𝜌
The results are same as obtained from the Coulomb’s law.
2.6.1.3 Infinite Sheet of Charge

Consider the infinite sheet of charge

of uniform charge density ρS C/m2, lying in
the z = 0 plane i.e. xy plane as shown in the
Fig. 2.6.4.
Consider a rectangular box as a
Gaussian surface which is cut by the sheet
of charge to give dS = dx dy.

⃗ acts normal to the plane i.e. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑧 and −𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑧 direction.

𝐷
⃗ = 0 in x and y directions. Hence the charge enclosed can be written as,
Hence 𝐷
∴ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 = ∮ ⃗D dS = ∫ ⃗D ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS + ∫ ⃗D⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗D dS
𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
But ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⃗D dS = 0 as ⃗D ⃗ has no component in x and y directions.
Now ⃗D⃗ = 𝐷𝑧 𝑎𝑧 for top surface and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ dS = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑧 , hence
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗D dS = 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦(𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧 ) = 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
Similarly, ⃗D⃗ = 𝐷𝑧 (−𝑎𝑧 ) for bottom surface and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ dS = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦(−𝑎𝑧 ), hence
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗D dS = 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦(−𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 . −𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ) = 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑄=∮ D ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS = ∫ D ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS + ∫ D ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS + ∫ ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
D dS
𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

= 0 + ∫ 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝐷𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Now ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴 =Area of surface
∴ 𝑄 = 2𝐷𝑧 𝐴
But 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 𝑥 𝐴 as ρS = surface charge density
ρS
Hence ρS = 2𝐷𝑧 or 𝐷𝑧 =
2
∴ ⃗⃗ = 𝐷𝑧 𝑎𝑧 = ρS 𝑎𝑧 C/m2…... (10)
D
2
⃗
𝐷 ρS
∴ 𝐸⃗ = = 𝑎𝑧 V/m… (11)
ε0 2ε0

The results are same as obtained from the Coulomb’s law for the infinite
sheet of charge.

2.6.1.4 Uniformly Charged Sphere

Consider a sphere of a radius

‘a’ with a uniform charge density
of ρv C/m3. Let us find 𝐸⃗ at a point
P located at aradial distance r from
the centre of sphere such that 𝑟 ≤
𝑎 and 𝑟 > 𝑎, using Gauss’s law.
The sphere is shown in Fig. 2.6.5.

Case 1: The point P is outside the sphere (𝒓 > 𝒂)

The Gaussian surface passing through point P is a spherical surface of
radius r. The flux lines and ⃗D
⃗ are directed radially outwards along ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 direction.
The differential area dS is considered at point P whose direction is in ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 direction
i.e normal to the Gaussian surface.
∴ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
∴ 𝑑𝛹 = ⃗D⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS = 𝐷𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟
= 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 …..(𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 )
𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝛹=𝑄=∮ D ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS = ∫ ∫ 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑆 𝜃=0 𝜙=0

𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 [− cos 𝜃] [𝜙] = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋
0 0
𝑄
∴ 𝐷𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 C/m2…………. (12)
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎𝑟 V/m…………… (13)
4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2

Total charge enclosed can be obtained as,

2𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
𝑄 = ∫𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑣 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0
 𝑟3 𝑎 𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝜌𝑣 [ ] [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] [𝜙]
3 0 0 0
4
= 𝜋𝑎3 𝜌𝑣 C…………….. (14)
3
4
𝜋𝑎3 𝜌𝑣 𝑎3 𝜌𝑣
𝐸⃗ = 3
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 …………….. (15)
4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2 3ε0 𝑟 2

𝑎 3𝜌
While ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝑟 = 𝑣
𝑎𝑟 …………………….. (16)
3𝑟 2

⃗ and 𝐸⃗ outside the uniformly charged sphere.

These are the expressions for 𝐷
Case 2: The point P on the sphere (𝒓 = 𝒂)
The Gaussian surface is same as the surface of the charged sphere. Hence
results can be obtained directly substituting r = a in the equation (15) and (16).
𝑎3 𝜌𝑣 𝑎𝜌𝑣
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎 =
2 𝑟
𝑎𝑟 …………… (17)
3ε0 𝑎 3ε0
𝑎𝜌𝑣
And ⃗ = ε0 𝐸⃗ =
𝐷 𝑎𝑟 ……………… (18)
3

Case 3: The point P is inside the sphere (𝒓 < 𝒂) the Gaussian surface is a
spherical surface of radius r where 𝒓 < 𝒂
Consider differential surface area dS as shown in the Fig. 2.6.6

Again ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ are directed radially outwards.

dS and 𝐷

∴ ⃗ = 𝐷𝑟 𝑎𝑟 while⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟

∴ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝛹 = ⃗D dS = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
∴ 𝛹 = 𝑄 = ∮𝑆 D ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝜋 ∫2𝜋 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
⃗⃗ . dS
𝜃=0 𝜙=0

𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 [− cos 𝜃] [𝜙] = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋
0 0
 𝑄
∴ 𝐷𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 C/m2…………. (19)
4𝜋𝑟 2

Now the charge enclosed is by the sphere of radius r only and not by the entire
⃗.
sphere. The charge outside the Gaussian surface will not affect 𝐷
2𝜋 𝜋 𝑟
∴ 𝑄 = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫𝜙=0 ∫𝜃=0 ∫𝑟=0 𝜌𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
4
= 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑣 where r < a ………… (20)
3

Using in equation (19) we get,

4
𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑣 𝑟𝜌𝑣
⃗ =
𝐷 3
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 ……0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 …………… (21)
4𝜋𝑟 2 3
⃗
𝐷 𝑟𝜌𝑣
𝐸⃗ = = 𝑎𝑟 …..….0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎……….…. (22)
ε0 3ε0

If the sphere is in a medium of permittivity ε𝑟 then ε0 must be replaced by

𝜀 = ε0 ε 𝑟 .
⃗⃗ | against r
Variation of|𝑬

⃗ | against r is exactly similar in nature as |𝐸⃗ | against r.

The graph of |𝐷
2.7 Maxwell’s First Equation or Point Form of Gauss’s law
⃗ is given by,
The divergence of electric flux density 𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ .𝑑𝑆
∮𝑆 𝐷
⃗ = lim
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 …………. (1)
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣

According to Gauss’s law, it is known that

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛹 = 𝑄 = ∮𝑆 D dS……………. (2)
Expressing Gauss’s law per unit volume basis
𝑄 ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ .𝑑𝑆
= …………. (3)
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣

Taking lim ∆𝑣 → 0 i.e. volume shrinks to zero,

𝑄 ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ .𝑑𝑆
lim = lim ……….. (4)
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
𝑄
But lim = 𝜌𝑣 at that point ………….. (5)
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣

The equation (5) gives the volume charge density at that point where
divergence is obtained. Equating (1) and (5),
⃗ = ∇. 𝐷
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 ⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ………. (6)

This is volume charge density around a point. The equation (6) is called
Maxwell’s first equation applied to electrostatics. This is also called point form
of Gauss’s law or Gauss’s law in differential form.
2.7 Work Done in Moving a Charge in an Electric Field
Work is said to be done when the test charge is moved against the electric
field.
Consider a positive test charge Q1 and
its electric field 𝐸⃗ . If a positive test charge Qt
is placed in this field, it will move due to the
force of repulsion. Let the movement of charge
𝑄𝑡 is 𝑑𝑙 . The direction in which the movement
has taken place is denoted by unit vector ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑙 , in
the direction of 𝑑𝑙, as shown in Fig. 2.7.1.

According to Coulomb’s law the force exerted by the field 𝐸⃗ is given by,

𝐹 = 𝑄𝑡 𝐸⃗ Newton…………... (1)
To keep the charge in equilibrium, it is necessary to apply the force which
is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the field in the direction dl.

∴ 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = −𝐹 = −𝑄𝑡 𝐸⃗ N …………. (2)

Key Point: Thus keeping the charge in equilibrium means we are moving a
charge 𝑄𝑡 , through the distance 𝑑𝑙 in opposite direction to that of field 𝐸⃗ . Hence
the work is done.
Hence mathematically the differential work done by an external source in
moving the charge 𝑄𝑡 through the distance 𝑑𝑙 , against the direction of field 𝐸⃗ is
given by,

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑄𝑡 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ……….. (3)

∴ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑄𝑡 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ……………. (4)

Thus if a charge Q is moved from initial position to the final position,
against the direction of electric field 𝐸⃗ then the total work done is obtained by
integrating the differential work done over the distance from initial position to
the final position.
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝑊 = ∫𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑄𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 Joule………… (5)
Key Point: Note that at both the positions initial and final, the charge Q is at rest
and not moving then the equation (5) is valid.
Consider the charge is moved from initial position B to final position A,
against the electric field 𝐸⃗ then work done is given by,
𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝐵

Thus the work done in moving a charge from one location B to another
A, in a static, uniform or non-uniform electric field ⃗𝑬⃗ , is independent of the
path selected. The line integral of 𝐸⃗ is determined completely by the endpoints
B and A of the path and not the actual path selected.

Key Point: This is called conservative property of electric field 𝐸⃗ and field 𝐸⃗ is
said to be conservative.
2.7.1 Important Comments about Work Done
The work done in moving a point charge in an electric field 𝐸⃗ from
position B to A is given by,
𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝐵

1. When the movement of the charge Q is against the direction of ⃗𝑬 ⃗ , then

the work done is positive, which indicates external source has done the
work.
2. When the movement of the charge Q is in the direction of 𝑬 ⃗⃗ , then the
work done is negative, which indicates field itself has done the work, no
external source is required.
3. The work done is independent of the path selected from B to A but it
depends on end points B and A.
4. When the path selected is such that it is always perpendicular to ⃗𝑬 ⃗ i.e.
the force on the charge is always exerted at right angles to the direction in
which charge is moving, then the work done is zero. This indicates θ, the
angle between 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝑙 is 900 . Due to the dot product, the line integral is
zero when 𝜃 = 900 .
5. lf the path selected is such that it is forming a closed contour i.e. starting
point is same as the terminating point then the work done is zero.
2.8 Potential Difference
Thus the work done in moving a point charge Q from point B to A in the
electric field 𝐸⃗ is given by,
𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿………. (1)

If the charge Q is selected as unit test charge, then from the above equation
we get the work done in moving unit charge from B to A in the field 𝐸⃗ . This work
done in moving unit charge from point B to A in the field 𝐸⃗ is called potential
difference between the points B and A. It is denoted by V.
 𝐴
∴ Potential difference, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿………. (2)

Thus work done per unit charge in moving unit charge from B to A in
⃗ is called potential difference between the points B and A.
the field 𝐄
Key Point: 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is positive if the work is done by the external source in moving
the unit charge from B to A, against the direction of 𝐸⃗ .
Hence unit of potential difference is Joules/Coulombs (J/C). But practically
the unit is called volt (V). One volt potential difference is one Joule of work done
in moving unit charge from one point to other in the field 𝐸⃗ .
2.8.1 Potential due to Point Charge
Consider a point charge, located at origin of a
spherical co-ordinate system, producing 𝐸⃗ radially
in all the directions as shown in Fig, 2.8.1.

Assuming free space, the field 𝐸⃗ due to the

point charge Q at a radial distance r from origin is
given by,
𝑄
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎𝑟 …….. (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Consider a unit charge which is placed at a point B which is at a radial

distance of 𝑟𝐵 from the origin. It is moved against the direction of 𝐸⃗ from point
B to A , which is at a radial distance 𝑟𝐴 from the origin. The differential length in
spherical system is
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 ……….. (4)
Hence the potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 between points A and B is given by,
𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 But B = 𝑟𝐵 and A = 𝑟𝐴
𝑟𝐴
𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝑎 . (𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 )
𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑟 𝑄
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝑟 𝐴 dr ……………. (5)
𝐵 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑄 𝑟 𝑟 𝑄 𝑟 −1
∫𝑟 𝑟 −2 dr = − 4𝜋𝜀 [ −1 ] 𝑟𝐵𝐴
𝐴
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐵 0

𝑄 1 𝑄 1 1
=− [− ] 𝑟𝑟𝐴 = [ − ] volt………… (6)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝐵 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
 1 1
When 𝑟𝐵 > 𝑟𝐴 , < and 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is positive. This indicates the work is done by
𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
external source in moving unit charge from B to A.
2.8.2 Concept of Absolute Potential
Consider potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 due to movement of unit charge from B
to A in a field of a point charge Q is given by,
𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = [ − ] volt
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

Now let the charge is moved from infinity to the point A i.e. 𝑟𝐵 = ∞.
1 1
Hence = = 0.
𝑟𝐵 ∞

𝑄 1 1 𝑄
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = [ − ]= volt ……. (7)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 ∞ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴

The quantity represented by equation (7) is called the potential of point A

denoted as 𝑉𝐴 .
𝑄
∴ 𝑉𝐴 = volt …………. (8)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴

Similarly, absolute potential of point B can be defined as,

𝑄
∴ 𝑉𝐵 = volt …………... (9)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵

This is work done in moving unit charge from infinity at point B.

Hence the potential difference can be expressed as the difference between
the absolute potentials of the two points.
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 volt…………. (10)
Thus absolute potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the
work done in moving a unit test charge from the infinity (or reference point
at which potential is zero) to the point, against the direction of the field.
Hence absolute potential at any point which is at a distance r from the
origin of a spherical system, where point charge Q is located, is given by,
𝑄
𝑉= ……….. (11)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The reference point is at infinity.

Key Points: Most widely used reference which is used to develop the concept of
absolute potential is infinity. The potential at infinity is treated to be zero and all
the potentials at various points in the field are defined with reference to infinity.
2.8.3 Potential due to Point Charge not at Origin
If the point charge Q is not located at the origin
of a spherical system then obtain the position vector
r' of the point where Q is located.
Then the absolute potential at a point A located
at a distance r from the origin is given by,
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝐴 = = …….. (12)
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟−𝑟 ′ | 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝐴

Where 𝑅𝐴 = |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ | = Distance between point at which potential is to be

calculated and the location of the charge
Key Point: R is only the distance and not the vector. The potential is a scalar
quantity hence only distance 𝑅𝐴 = |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ | is involved in the determination of
potential of point A. The reference is still infinity.
2.8.4 Potential due to Several Point Charges
Consider the various point charges Q1, Q2,
…Qn located at the distances r1, r2, …., rn from
the origin as shown in the Fig. 2.8.4. The
potential due to all these point charges, at point
A is to be determined by using Superposition
principle.
As the potential is scalar, the net potential at point A is the algebraic sum
of the potentials at A due to individual point charges, considered one at a time.
∴ 𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴1 + 𝑉𝐴2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑛
= + +⋯+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝑛
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑛
= + +⋯+
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟−𝑟1 | 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟−𝑟2 | 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟−𝑟𝑛 |
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚
∴ 𝑉𝐴 = ∑𝑛𝑚=1 = ∑𝑛𝑚=1 volt ………. (13)
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟−𝑟𝑚 | 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝑚
2.8.5 Potential Calculation When Reference is other than Infinity
The expressions derived till now are under the assumption that the
reference position of zero potential is at infinity. lf any other point than infinity is
selected as the reference then the potential at a point A due to point charge Q at
the origin becomes,
𝑄
𝑉𝐴 = + 𝐶…….. (14)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅𝐴

Where C = Constant to be determined at chosen reference point where V = 0.

Note that the potential difference between the two points is not the function
of C.
Key Point: Another important note is that if the potential difference is to be
calculated then reference is not needed. The reference is important only when the
absolute potential is to be calculated.
2.8.6 Potential Difference due to Infinite Line Charge

Consider an infinite line charge along z-

axis having uniform line charge density 𝜌𝐿 C/m.
The point B is at a radial distance 𝑟𝐵
while point A is at a radial distance 𝑟𝐴 from the
charge, as shown in the Fig. 2.8.5.
The 𝐸⃗ due to infinite line charge along z-
axis is known and given by,
𝜌𝐿
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎
While 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 in cylindrical system in radial direction.
𝐴 𝑟 𝜌
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝐵 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = − ∫𝑟 𝐴 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
𝐵 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿 1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟𝐴
= −∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − [ln 𝑟]
𝑟𝐵 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵
𝜌𝐿
=− [ln 𝑟𝐴 − ln 𝑟𝐵 ]
2𝜋𝜀0
𝜌 𝑟
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿 ln 𝐵 volt………….. (15)
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴
2.8.7 Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is an imaginary surface in an electric field of a
given charge distribution, in which all the points on the surface are at the same
electric potential.
The potential difference between any two points on the equipotential
surface is always zero. Thus the work done in moving a test charge from one
point to another in an equipotential surface is always zero. There can be many
equipotential surfaces existing in an electric field of a particular charge
distribution.
 lt can be noted that V is inversely proportional to distance r. Thus V, at
equipotential surface at 𝑟 = 𝑟1 is highest and it goes on decreasing, as the
distance r increases. Thus 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 > 𝑉3 As we move away from the charge, the
𝐸⃗ decreases hence potential of equipotential surfaces goes on decreasing. While
potential of equipotential surfaces goes on increasing as we move against the
direction of electric field.
For a uniform field 𝐸⃗ , the equipotential surfaces
are perpendicular to 𝐸⃗ and are equispaced for fixed
increment of voltages. Thus if we move a charge along
a circular path of radius r, as shown in 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 direction then
work done is zero. This is because 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are
perpendicular. Thus 𝐸⃗ and equipotential surface are at right angles to each other.

2.8.8 Conservative Field

It is seen that, the work done in moving a test charge around any closed
path in a static field 𝐸⃗ is zero. This is because starting and terminating point is
same for a closed path. Hence upper and lower limit of integration becomes same
hence the work done becomes zero. Such an integral over a closed path is denoted
as,
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = 0……………….. (16)
Applying Stoke’s theorem to equation (16)
∮𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
𝑑𝐿 = ∫(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆
𝐿
𝑆
Or ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = 0………. (17)
Key Point: A field having property given by equation (16), associated with it, is
called conservative field or lamellar field. This indicates that the work done in
𝐸⃗ and hence potential between two points is independent of the path joining the
two points. Equation (16) and (17) are referred to as Maxwell’s Equation in
integral and differential form respectively.
2.8.9 Relation between 𝐄 ⃗ and V
1n space the potential V is unique function of x, y and z co-ordinates, in
cartesian system denoted as V (x, y, z). Hence its total differential potential 𝑑𝑉
can be obtained as,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧………. (18)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
In cartesian co-ordinates,
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……… (19)
𝑎𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
While ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝑥𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ……… (20)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿
= −[𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧]……… (21)
Comparing equations (18) and (21) we can write,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − , 𝐸𝑧 = − ……….. (22)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence 𝐸⃗ can be expressed in terms of (22) as
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∴ 𝐸⃗ = − [ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 ] 𝑉……….. (23)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The potential V is scalar but the operator on V given in equation is vector
and is called del operator denoted as ∇. The operation of del on a scalar V is called
grad V.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∴ ∇= − [ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 ]……….. (24)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∴ 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉………………. (25)
The gradient of a scalar is a vector. The negative sign shows that the
direction 𝐸⃗ is opposite to the direction in which V increases i.e. 𝐸⃗ is directed from
higher to lower level of V.
2.9 An Electric Dipole
The two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, separated by
a very small distance give rise to an electric dipole.

Consider an electric dipole as shown in the

Fig.2.9.1. The two point charges +Q and –Q are
separated by a very small distance d.
Consider a point P (r, θ, 𝜙) in spherical co-
ordinate system. It is required to find 𝐸⃗ due to an
electric dipole at point P. Let O be the midpoint of
AB. The distance of point P from A is 𝑟1 while the
distance of point P from B is 𝑟2 . The distance of
point P from point O is r. The distance of separation of charges i.e. d is very small
𝑑
compared to the distances 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 and r. The co-ordinates of A are (0,0, + ) and
2
𝑑
that of B are (0,0, − ).
2
2.9.1 Expression of E due to an Electric Dipole
ln spherical co-ordinates, the potential at point P due to the charge + Q is
given by,
+𝑄
𝑉1 = ………… (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
The potential at P due to the charge -Q is given by,
−𝑄
𝑉2 = ………… (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
The total potential at point P is the algebraic sum of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 .
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
+𝑄 −𝑄
= +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
+𝑄 1 1 +𝑄 𝑟2 −𝑟1
∴ 𝑉= [ − ]= [ ]……….. (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2

Now consider that P is located far away

from the electric dipole. Thus𝑟1 , 𝑟2 and r can
be assumed to be parallel to each other as
shown in the Fig. 2.9.2.
As d is very small ,𝑟1 ≈ 𝑟2 ≈ 𝑟 hence
𝑟1 𝑟2 = 𝑟 2
 𝑄 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ 𝑉= [ ] volt
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
Now 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉 = − [ 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎𝜙 ]
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑉 𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕 1 𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕
∴ = [ ( )] = [ (𝑟 −2 )]
𝜕𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜕𝑟
𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −2𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= [−2𝑟 −3 ] =
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
𝜕𝑉 𝑄𝑑 𝜕𝑉
= [−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] and =0
𝜕𝜃 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜙
−2𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑄𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝐸⃗ = − [ 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝜃 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑄𝑑
∴ 𝐸⃗ = [2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑟 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜃 ]….. (4) Spherical System
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
This is electric field 𝐸⃗ at point P due to an electric dipole.
2.9.2 Dipole Moment
Let the vector length directed from — Q to + Q i.e. from B to A is 𝑑.
∴ 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑎𝑧 ………. (5)
Its component along ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 direction can be obtained as,
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 . 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑑𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑟 ……….. (6)
Then the product Q⃗⃗⃗𝑑 is called dipole moment and denoted as 𝑝.
∴ 𝑝 = Q 𝑑………. (7)
The dipole moment is measured in Cm (coulomb-metre).
Now 𝑝. 𝑎𝑟 = Q 𝑑 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃… (8)
Hence the expression of potential V can be expressed as,
𝑄𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑝.𝑎⃗𝑟
𝑉= = volt……. (9)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Now if 𝑝 = |𝑝| = 𝑄|𝑑| = 𝑄𝑑 then 𝐸⃗ due to a dipole can be expressed in
terms of magnitude of dipole moment as,
𝑝
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 3
[2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑟 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜃 ]….. (10)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Observe that:
1. The potential is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
dipole.
2. The electric field is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance
from dipole.
1 1
A single point charge is called monopole in which 𝑉 ∝ ( ) and 𝐸⃗ ∝ ( 2).
𝑟 𝑟
2.10 Energy Density in the Electrostatic Fields
To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, first determine
the amount of work necessary to assemble them. Let’s position three point
charges Q1, Q2, Q3 in an initially empty space where there is no electric field at
all.
The charge Q1 is moved from infinity to a
point in the space say P1. This requires no work as
there is no 𝐸⃗ present. Now the charge Q2 is to be
placed at point P2 in the space as shown in the
Fig.2.10.1. But now there is an electric field due
to Q1 and Q2 is required to be moved against the
field of Q1. Hence the work is required to be done.

∴ Work done to position Q2 at P2 =V2,1 Q2………. (1)

Where V2,1 = potential at P2 due to P1
Now let charge Q3 is to be moved from infinity to P3. There are electric
fields due to Q1 and Q2. Hence total work done is due to potential at P3 due to
charge at P1 and potential at P3 due to charge at P2.
Work done to position Q3 at P3 = V3,1Q3 +V3,2 Q3 ……... (2)
Hence the total work done in positioning all the charges is,
 WE = Q2 V2,1+Q3 V3,1+Q3 V3,2 ........... (3)
The total work done is nothing but the potential energy in the system of
charges hence denoted as WE. If charges are placed in reverse order we can write,
WE = Q2 V2,3+Q1 V1,2+Q1 V1,3………… (4)
In this expression Q3 is placed first, then Q2 and finally Q1.
Adding equation (3) and equation (4),
2WE =Q1 V1,2+Q1 V1,3 + Q2 V2,1+ Q2 V2,3+Q3 V3,1+Q3 V3,2 ……. (5)
Each sum of the potentials is the total resultant potential due to all the
charges except for the charge at the point at which potential is obtained.
∴ V1,2+ V1,3 = V1
This is potential at Pl where Q1 is placed due to all other charges Q2, Q3.
Similarly, V2,1+ V2,3= V2 and so on.
Using in the equation (5),
2WE =Q1 V1+ Q2 V2+Q3 V3……. (6)
If there are ‘n’ point charges, then the potential energy stored in the system
is given as,
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∑𝑛𝑚=1 𝑄𝑚 𝑉𝑚 Joule……. (7)
2
1
For line charge 𝜌𝐿 , 𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝐿𝑉 Joule ……….. (8)
2
1
For surface charge 𝜌𝑠 , 𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑆𝑉 Joule ……….. (9)
2
1
For volume charge 𝜌𝑣 , 𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣𝑉 Joule ……….. (10)
2
2.10.1 Energy Stored ln terms of 𝑫 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑬
Consider the volume charge distribution having uniform charge density 𝜌𝑣
C/m3. Hence the total energy stored is given by the equation (10) as,
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑑𝑣
2
𝑣
According to Maxwell's first equation,
⃗
𝜌𝑣 = ∇. 𝐷
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑣(∇. 𝐷 ⃗ )𝑉𝑑𝑣…………. (11)
2
For any vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 and scalar V there is vector identity,
∇. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐴. ∇𝑉 + 𝑉(∇. 𝐴)………. (12)
(∇. 𝐴)𝑉 = ∇. 𝑉𝐴 − 𝐴. ∇𝑉……….. (13)
Using equation (13) in equation (11) we get,
1
𝑊𝐸 = ∫(∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ −𝐷 ⃗ . ∇V)𝑑𝑣
2 𝑣
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∫ (∇. 𝑉𝐷 ⃗ )𝑑𝑣 − 1 ∫ (𝐷
⃗ . ∇V)𝑑𝑣………… (14)
2 𝑣 2 𝑣
 According to divergence theorem, volume integral can be converted to
closed surface integral if closed surface totally surrounds the volume.
1
∴ ∫ (∇. 𝑉𝐷⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = 1 ∮ (𝑉𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………. (15)
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆
2 𝑣 2 𝑆
1 1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∮𝑆(𝑉𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ∫ (𝐷
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ . ∇V)𝑑𝑣………… (16)
2 2 𝑣
1 1 1 1
We know that 𝑉 ∝ and 𝐸⃗ ∝ for point charge, 𝑉 ∝ and 𝐸⃗ ∝ for
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟3
1
⃗ is proportional to at least
dipoles and so on. So 𝑉𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ varies as 𝑟 2 .
while 𝑑𝑆
𝑟3
1 1
Hence total integral varies as . As surface becomes very large, 𝑟 → ∞ and → 0
𝑟 𝑟
Hence closed surface integral is zero in the equation (16).
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = − ∫ (𝐷 ⃗ . ∇V)𝑑𝑣………… (17)
2 𝑣
But 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉
1
∴ ⃗ . (−E
𝑊𝐸 = − ∫𝑣 (𝐷 ⃗ )) 𝑑𝑣………… (18)
2
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑣(𝐷 ⃗ . ⃗E)𝑑𝑣 Joule………… (19)
2
Now ⃗ = 𝜀0 𝐸⃗
𝐷
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑣(𝜀0 𝐸⃗ . 𝐸⃗ )𝑑𝑣 Joule
2
1
∴ 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑣(𝜀0 𝐸 2 )𝑑𝑣 Joule …. As 𝐸⃗ . 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸 2 …… (20)
2
In differential form,
1
𝑑𝑊𝐸 = ⃗ . 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑣
𝐷
2
𝑑𝑊𝐸 1
∴ = ⃗ . 𝐸⃗ J/m3…………. (21)
𝐷
𝑑𝑣 2
This is called energy density in the electric field having units J/m3. If this
is integrated over the volume, we get total energy present.
1 𝑑𝑊𝐸
𝑊𝐸 = ∫(
2 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
) 𝑑𝑣 …………. (22)
2.11. Current and Current Density
The current is defined as the rate of flow of charge and is measured in
amperes.
Key Point: A current of 1 ampere is said to be flowing across the surface when a
charge of one coulomb is passing across the surface in one second.
The current is considered to be the motion of the positive charges. The
conventional current is due to the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged.
Hence the direction of conventional current is assumed be opposite to the
direction of flow of the electrons The current which exists in the conductors, due
to the drifting of electrons, under the influence of the applied voltage is called
drift current.
While in dielectrics, there can be flow of charges, under the influence of
the electric field intensity. Such a current is called the displacement current or
convection current. The current flowing across the capacitor, through the
dielectric separating its plates is an example of the convection current.
The current density is defined as the current passing through the unit
surface area, when the surface is held normal to the direction of the current. The
current density is a vector quantity associated with the current and denoted as 𝐽.
The current density is measured in amperes per square metres (A/m2).
2.11.1 Relation between l and J
Consider a surface S and I is the current passing through the surface. The
direction of current I normal to the surface S and hence direction of 𝐽 is also
normal to the surface S.
Hence 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽𝑑𝑆……. (1)
where J = Current density in A/m2.
But if J is not normal to the differential area dS then the total current is
obtained by integrating the incremental current which is dot product of J and dS,
over the surface S.
Thus in general,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (Dot Product) ……. (2)
𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
Thus if J is in A/m2 and dS is in m2 then the current obtained is in amperes
(A). It may be noted that 𝐽 need not be uniform over S and S need not be a plane
surface.
In general, the relation between 𝐽 and 𝜌𝑣 can be
expressed as,
𝐽 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣………… (3)
where 𝑣= Velocity vector with which charge is getting
transferred.
 Such a current is called convection current and the current density is
called convection current density.
Key Point: The convection current does not involve conductors and hence does
not satisfy Ohm’s law. It occurs when current flows through an insulating
medium such as liquid, rarefied gas or a vacuum. The convection current density
is linearly proportional to the charge density and the velocity with which the
charge is transferred.
2.11.2 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation of the current is based on the principle of
conservation of charge. The principle states that The charges can neither be
created nor be destroyed.
Consider a closed surface S with a current density 𝐽, then the total current
I crossing the surface S is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………… (4)
𝐼 = ∮𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
The current flows outwards from the closed surface. It has been mentioned
earlier that the current means the flow of positive charges. Hence the current I is
constituted due to outward flow of positive charges from the closed surface S.
Let 𝑄𝑖 = Charge within the closed surface
𝑑𝑄𝑖
− = Rate of decrease of charge inside the closed surface
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign indicates decrease in charge. Due to principle of
conservation of charge, this rate of decrease of charge within a given volume must
be equal to the net outward current flow through the surface of the volume. Thus
current coming out of the closed surface is
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑑𝑄𝑖 ………. (5)
𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 𝑑𝑡
This is the integral form of the continuity equation of the current. The
negative sign in the equation indicates outward flow of current from the closed
surface. So the equation (5) is indicating outward flowing current I.
The point form of the continuity equation can be obtained from the
1`integral form. Using the divergence theorem, convert the surface integral in
integral form to the volume integral.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ (∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 ……….. (6)
∮𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 𝑣
𝑑𝑄𝑖
∴ − = ∫𝑣(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 ……… (7)
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑄𝑖 = ∫𝑣 ρ𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ………… (8)
Where ρ𝑣 = Volume charge density
𝑑 𝜕ρ
∫𝑣(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑡 (∫𝑣 ρ𝑣 𝑑𝑣) = − ∫𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑣 ……….. (9)
𝑣
∴
For a constant surface, the derivative becomes the partial derivative.
 𝜕ρ 𝑣
∴ ∫𝑣(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 = − ∫𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑣 ……….. (10)
If the relation is true for any volume, it must be true even for incremental
volume ∆𝑣.
𝜕ρ𝑣
(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑣 ……… (11)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕ρ𝑣
∴ ∇. 𝐽 = − …………. (12)
𝜕𝑡
This is the point form or differential form of the continuity equation of
the current.
𝜕ρ𝑣
For steady currents which are not the functions of time, = 0 hence,
𝜕𝑡
∇. 𝐽 = 0……..…. (13)
For such currents, the rate of flow of charge remains constant with time.
The steady currents have no sources or sinks, as it is constant.
2.11.3 Conductors
The current constituted due to the drifting of electrons under the influence
of electric field in metallic conductors is called drift current. The drift velocity
is directly proportional to the applied electric field.
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 ∝ 𝐸⃗ ……….. (14)
𝑣
The constant of proportionality is called mobility of the electrons in a
given material and denoted as 𝜇𝑒 . It is positive for the electrons.
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 = −𝜇𝑒 𝐸⃗ ……….. (15)
𝑣
The negative sign indicates that the velocity of the electrons is against the
direction of field 𝐸⃗ . Thus mobility is measured in square metres per volt-second
(m2/V. s).
But in the material, the number of protons and electrons is same and it is
always electrically neutral. Hence 𝜌𝑣 = 0 for the neutral materials. The drift
velocity is the velocity of free electrons hence the above relation can be expressed
as,
𝐽 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 ………….. (16)
where 𝜌𝑒 = Charge density due to free electrons
The charge density 𝜌𝑒 can be obtained as the product of number of free
electrons/m3 and the charge ‘e’ on one electron. Thus 𝜌𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 where n is number
of free electrons per m3.
Substituting equation (15) in equation (16) we get,
𝐽 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝐸⃗ ……… (17)
2.11.4 Point Form of Ohm's Law
The relationship between 𝐽 and 𝐸⃗ can also be expressed in terms of
conductivity of the material.
Thus for a metallic conductor,
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ …….. (18)
Where 𝜎 = conductivity of the material
The conductivity is measured in mhos per metre (℧/𝑚). The equation (6)
is called point form of Ohm's law. The unit of conductivity is also called
Siemens per metre (S/ m).
Comparing equation (17) and (18) we get
𝜎 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒 ……… (19)
This is conductivity in-terms of mobility of the charge density of the
electrons.
2.11.5 Resistance of a Conductor

Consider that the voltage V is applied to a

conductor of length L having uniform cross-
section S, as shown in the Fig. 2.11.2.
The direction of 𝐸⃗ is same as the direction
of conventional current, which is opposite to the
flow of electrons. The electric field applied is
uniform and its magnitude is given by,
𝑉
𝐸= ……. (20)
𝐿
The conductor has uniform cross-section S and hence we can write,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐽𝑆…… (21)
𝐼 = ∮𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
The current direction is normal to the surface S.
𝐼
Thus, 𝐽 = = 𝜎𝐸⃗ …….. (22)
𝑆
And using equation (20) in equation (22) we get,
𝜎𝑉
𝐽= ……….. (23)
𝐿
𝐽𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝐿
∴ 𝑉= = = ( ) 𝐼……... (24)
𝜎 𝑆𝜎 𝑆𝜎
𝑉 𝐿 𝜌𝑐 𝐿
∴ 𝑅= = = ……... (25)
𝐼 𝜎𝑆 𝑆
Where 𝜌𝑐 = Resistivity of the conductor in Ω. 𝑚
For non-uniform fields, the resistance R is defined as the ratio V to I where
V is the potential difference between two specified equipotential surfaces in the
material and I is the current crossing the more positive surface of the two, into
the material. Mathematically the resistance for non-uniform fields is given by,
𝑏 𝑏
𝑉𝑎𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
− ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
− ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝐿
𝑅= = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ………. (26)
𝐼 ∫𝑠 𝐽.𝑑𝑆 ∫𝑠 𝜎𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝑆
2.11.6 Properties of Conductor
Consider that the charge distribution is suddenly unbalanced inside the
conductor. There are number of electrons trying to reside inside the conductor.
All the electrons are negatively charged and they start repelling each other due to
their own electric fields. Such electrons get accelerated away from each other, till
all the electrons causing interior imbalance, reach at the surface of the conductor.
The conductor is surrounded by the insulating medium and hence electrons just
driven from the interior of the conductor, reside over the surface. This,
l. Under static conditions, no charge and no electric field can exist at any
point within the conducting material.
2. The charge can exist on the surface of the conductor giving rise to
surface charge density.
 3. Within a conductor, the charge density is always zero.
4. The charge distribution on the surface depends on the shape of the
surface.
5. The conductivity of an ideal conductor is infinite.
6. The conductor surface is an equipotential surface.

2.11.7 Relaxation Time

The medium is called homogeneous when the physical characteristics of
the medium do not vary from point to point but remain same everywhere
throughout the medium. If the characteristics vary from point to point. the
medium is called nonhomogeneous or heterogeneous. While the medium is
called linear with respect to the electric field if the flux density 𝐷 ⃗ is directly
proportional to the electric field 𝐸⃗ . The relationship is through the permittivity of
the medium. If 𝐷 ⃗ is not directly proportional to 𝐸⃗ , the material is called
nonlinear.
Consider a conducting material which is linear and homogeneous. The
current density for such a material is,
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ where 𝜎 = conductivity of the material
⃗𝐷 𝜎 ⃗
𝐽= 𝜎 = 𝐷 …… (27)
𝜀 𝜀
The point form of continuity equation states that,
𝜕ρ𝑣
∇. 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜎
∴ ∇. ( 𝐷 ⃗ ) = − 𝜕ρ𝑣
𝜀 𝜕𝑡
 𝜎 𝜕ρ𝑣
∴ ⃗ )=−
(∇. 𝐷
𝜀 𝜕𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ⃗ ) = ρ𝑣
(∇. 𝐷
𝜎ρ𝑣 𝜕ρ𝑣
∴ =−
𝜀 𝜕𝑡
𝜕ρ𝑣 𝜎ρ𝑣
∴ + = 0……... (28)
𝜕𝑡 𝜀
This is a differential equation in ρ𝑣 whose solution is given by,
ρ𝑣 = 𝜌0 𝑒 −(𝜎/𝜀)𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 …….. (29)
Where 𝜌0 = Charge density at t=0
This shows that if there is a temporary imbalance of electrons inside the
given material, the charge density decays exponentially with a time constant
𝜀
𝜏 = sec. This time is called relaxation time.
𝜎
The relaxation time (𝜏) is defined as the time required by the charge
density to decay to 36.8 % of its initial value.
ε
∴ τ = Relaxation time = sec………… (30)
σ
Key Point: This shows that under static conditions no free charge can remain
within the conductor and it gets evenly distributed over the surface of the
conductor.
2.12 Boundary Conditions
When an electric field passes from one medium to other medium, it is
important to study the conditions at the boundary between the two media. The
conditions existing at the boundary of the two media when field passes from one
medium to other are called boundary conditions. Depending upon the nature of
the media, there are two situations of the boundary conditions,
1. Boundary between conductor and free space.
2. Boundary between two dielectrics with different properties.
The free space is nothing but a dielectric hence first case is nothing but the
boundary between conductor and a dielectric. For studying the boundary
conditions, the Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics are required.
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄……. (1)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝐿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∮𝑆 𝐷
Similarly the field intensity 𝐸⃗ is required to be decomposed into two
components namely tangential to the boundary (𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) and normal to the
boundary (𝐸⃗𝑁 )
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐸⃗𝑁 ……. (2)
Similar decomposition is required for flux density 𝐷 ⃗ as well.
2.12.1 Boundary Conditions between Conductor and Free Space
Consider a boundary between conductor and free space. The conductor is
ideal having infinite conductivity. Such conductors are copper, silver etc. having
conductivity of the order of 106 S/ m and can be treated ideal. For ideal conductors
it is known that,
1. The field intensity and the flux density inside a conductor is zero.
2. No charge can exist within a conductor. The charge appears on the surface
in the form of surface charge density.
3. The charge density within the conductor is zero.
Thus 𝐸⃗ , 𝐷
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑣 within the conductor are zero. While 𝜌𝑠 is the surface
charge density on the surface of the conductor. To determine the boundary
conditions let us use the closed path and the Gaussian surface. Consider the
conductor free space boundary as shown in the Fig. 2.12.1.

2.12.2 𝑬⃗⃗ at the Boundary

Let 𝐸⃗ be the electric field intensity, in the direction shown in the Fig.2.12.1,
making some angle with the boundary. This 𝐸⃗ can be resolved into two
components :
1. The component tangential to the surface (𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 ).
2. The component normal to the surface (𝐸⃗𝑁 ).
It is known that, ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = 0
The integral of 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 carried over a closed contour is zero i.e. work done
in unit positive charge along a closed path is zero.
Consider a rectangular closed path abcda as shown in the Fig. 2.12.1, It is
traced in clockwise direction as a-b-c-d-a and hence ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 can be divided into
four parts.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
𝐿
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑
𝑑𝐿 = 0………. (3)
 The closed contour is placed in such a way that its two sides a-b and c-d
are parallel to tangential direction to the surface while the other two are normal
to the surface, at the boundary.
The rectangle is an elementary rectangle with elementary height ∇ℎ and
elementary width ∇𝑤. The rectangle is placed in such a way that half of it is in
the conductor and remaining half is in the free space. Thus ∇ℎ/2 is in the
conductor and ∇ℎ/2 is in the free space.
Now the portion c-d is in the conductor where 𝐸⃗ = 0 hence the
corresponding integral is zero.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑
𝑑𝐿 = 0………. (4)
As the width ∇𝑤 is very small, 𝐸⃗ over it can be assumed constant and hence
can be taken out of integration. But ∇𝑤 is along tangential direction to the
boundary in which direction 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
𝑏 𝑏
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝐿 = |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 |∇𝑤…… (5)
Now b-c is parallel to the normal component so we have 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑁 along this
direction. Over the small height ∇ℎ, 𝐸⃗𝑁 can be assumed constant and can be taken
out of integration.
𝑐
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝑐 𝐸⃗𝑁 . 𝑑𝐿
∫𝑏 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ …… (6)
𝑏
But out of b-c, b-2 is in free space and 2-c is in the conductor where 𝐸⃗ =
0.
𝑐 ∇ℎ
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗𝑁 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏
𝑑𝐿 = | 𝐸⃗𝑁 | ( )…… (7)
2
Similarly, for path d-a, the condition is same as for the path b-c, only direction is
opposite.
𝑎
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −| 𝐸⃗𝑁 | (∇ℎ)…… (8)
∫ 𝐸⃗𝑁 . 𝑑𝐿
𝑑 2
Substituting equations (5), (7) and (8) in (3) we get,
∇ℎ ∇ℎ
∴ |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 |∇𝑤 + | 𝐸⃗𝑁 | ( ) − | 𝐸⃗𝑁 | ( ) = 0
2 2
∴ |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 |∇𝑤 = 0 But ∇𝑤 ≠ 0 as finite
∴ |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = 0 ……. (9)
Thus the tangential component of the electric field intensity is zero at
the boundary between conductor and free space.
Key Point: Thus the 𝐸⃗ at the boundary between conductor and free space is
always in the direction perpendicular to the boundary.
Now ⃗ = 𝜀0 𝐸⃗ for free space
𝐷
∴ ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = 𝜀0 |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = 0………… (10)
|𝐷
Thus the tangential component of electric flux density is zero at the
boundary between conductor and free space.
Key Point: Hence electric flux density 𝐷 ⃗ is also only in the normal direction at
the boundary between the conductor and the free space.
2.12.3 ⃗𝑫
⃗ 𝑵 at the Boundary

To find normal component of

⃗ select a closed Gaussian surface in the
𝐷
form of right circular cylinder as shown in
the Fig. 2.12.3. Its height is ∇ℎ and is placed
in such a way that ∇ℎ/2 is in the conductor
and remaining ∇ℎ/2 is in the free space. Its
axis is in the normal direction to the surface.
Fig.2.12.3
According to Gauss's law, ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
The surface integral must be evaluated over three surfaces,
i) Top, ii) Bottom and iii) Lateral.
Let the area of top and bottom is same equal to ∆𝑆.
∴ ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐷
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄…… (11)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
The bottom surface is in the conductor where 𝐷 ⃗ = 0 hence corresponding
integral is zero. The top surface is in the free space and we are interested in the
boundary condition hence top surface can be shifted at the boundary with ∆ℎ →
0.
∴ ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐷
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄…….… (12)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
The lateral surface area is 2𝜋𝑟∆ℎ where r is the radius of the cylinder. But
as ∆ℎ → 0, this area reduces to zero and corresponding integral is zero.
While only component of D present is the normal component having
magnitude|𝐷⃗ 𝑁 |. The top surface is very small over which 𝐷𝑁 can be assumed
constant and can be taken out of integration.
∴ ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐷
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑁 |∆𝑆…….… (13)
From Gauss's law,
⃗ 𝑁 |∆𝑆 = 𝑄…….. (14)
|𝐷
But at the boundary, the charge exists in the form of surface charge density
𝜌𝑠 C/ m2.
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆………… (15)
Equating equations (14) and (15),
 ⃗ 𝑁 |∆𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆
|𝐷
⃗ 𝑁 | = 𝜌𝑠 ……………. (16)
|𝐷
Thus the flux leaves the surface normally and the normal component
of flux density is equal to the surface charge density.
∴ ⃗ 𝑁 | = 𝜀0 |𝐸⃗𝑁 | = 𝜌𝑠 ………… (17)
|𝐷
𝜌
∴ |𝐸⃗𝑁 | = 𝑠 ………. (18)
𝜀0
Key Point: Note that as the tangential component of 𝐸⃗ i.e. |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = 0, the surface
of the conductor is an equipotential surface. The potential difference along any
path on the surface of the conductor is− ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐿. and 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0 as, the
potential difference is zero. Thus all points on the conductor surface are at the
same potential.
2.12.4 Boundary Conditions between Conductor and Dielectric
The free space is a dielectric with 𝜀 = 𝜀0 .Thus if the boundary is between
conductor and dielectric with 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 .
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛 | = 0…… (19)
|𝐷
⃗ 𝑁 | = 𝜌𝑠 …. (20)
|𝐷
𝜌 𝜌
|𝐸⃗𝑁 | = 𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀 𝜀𝑠 …… (21)
0 𝑟
2.12.5 Boundary Conditions between Two Perfect Dielectrics
Let us consider the boundary between two perfect dielectrics. One
dielectric has permittivity 𝜀1 while the other has permittivity 𝜀2 . The interface is
shown in the Fig. 2.12.4.
The 𝐸⃗ and 𝐷 ⃗ are to be obtained again by resolving each into two
components, tangential to the boundary and normal to the surface.
Consider a closed path abcda rectangular in shape having elementary
height ∆ℎ and elementary width ∆𝑤, as shown in the Fig. 2.12.4. It is placed in
such a way that ∆ℎ/2 is in dielectric 1 while the remaining is dielectric 2. Let us
evaluate the integral of 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 along this path, tracing it in clockwise direction as
a-b-c-d-a.

∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = 0 …… (22)
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 + ∫𝑏 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 + ∫𝑐 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 + ∫𝑑 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = 0….. (23)
Now 𝐸⃗1 = 𝐸⃗1𝑡 + 𝐸⃗1𝑁 ………… (24)
And 𝐸⃗2 = 𝐸⃗2𝑡 + 𝐸⃗2𝑁 ………… (25)
Both 𝐸⃗1 and 𝐸⃗2 in the respective dielectrics have both the components,
normal and tangential.
Let |𝐸⃗1𝑡 | = 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 , |𝐸⃗2𝑡 | = 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2
|𝐸⃗1𝑁 | = 𝐸⃗𝑁1 , |𝐸⃗2𝑁 | = 𝐸⃗𝑁2
Now for the rectangle to be reduced at the surface to analyse boundary
𝑐 𝑎
conditions, ∆ℎ → 0. As ∆ℎ → 0, ∫𝑏 and ∫𝑑 become zero as these are line
integrals along ∆ℎ and ∆ℎ → 0.
Hence equation (23) reduces to,
𝑏 𝑑
∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝑑𝐿 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐
𝑑𝐿 = 0…… (26)
Now a-b is in dielectric 1 hence the corresponding component of 𝐸⃗ is 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1
as a-b direction is tangential to the surface.
𝑏 𝑏
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝑑𝐿 = |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |∆𝑤………. (27)
 While c-d is in dielectric 2 hence the corresponding component of 𝐸⃗ is
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 as c-d direction is also tangential to the surface. But direction c-d is opposite
to a-b hence corresponding integral is negative of the integral obtained for path
a-b.
𝑑 𝑑
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐
𝑑𝐿 = ∫ −𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐
𝑑𝐿 = −|𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |∆𝑤………. (28)
Substituting equation (27) and equation (28) in equation (26) we get,
|𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |∆𝑤 − |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |∆𝑤 = 0
|𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | = |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |……… (29)
Thus the tangential components of field intensity at the boundary in
both the dielectrics remain same i.e. electric field intensity is continuous
across the boundary.
The relation between 𝐷 ⃗ and 𝐸⃗ is known as,
⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗ ……….. (30)
𝐷
Hence if |𝐷 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | and |𝐷⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 | are magnitudes of the tangential components
⃗ in dielectric 1 and 2 respectively then,
of 𝐷
|𝐷⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | = 𝜀1 |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | and |𝐷
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 | = 𝜀2 |𝐸⃗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |…… (31)
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |
|𝐷 𝜀1 𝜀𝑟1
∴ ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |
= = …………. (32)
|𝐷 𝜀2 𝜀𝑟2

Thus tangential components of ⃗𝑫 ⃗ undergoes some change across the

interface hence tangential ⃗𝑫 ⃗ is said to be discontinuous across the boundary.
To find the normal components, let us use Gauss's law. Consider a
Gaussian surface in the form of right circular cylinder, placed in such a way that
half of it lies in dielectric 1 while the remaining half in dielectric 2. The height
∆ℎ → 0 hence flux leaving from its lateral surface is zero. The surface area of its
top and bottom is ∆𝑆.
∴ ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄…………… (33)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
∴ [∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 + ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ] 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄……….. (34)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
But ∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 as ∆ℎ → 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
∴ [∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 +∫ ]𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄……….. (35)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
The flux leaving normal to the boundary is normal to the top and bottom
surfaces.
∴ ⃗ | = |𝐷
|𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁1 | for dielectric 1 and |𝐷
⃗ 𝑁2 | for dielectric 2.
And as top and bottom surfaces are elementary, flux density can be
assumed constant and can be taken out of integration.
∴ ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐷
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐷
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑁1 |∆𝑆………… (36)
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑁1
 For top surface, the direction of 𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁 is entering the boundary while for
bottom surface, the direction of 𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁 is leaving the boundary. Both are opposite in
direction, at the boundary.
∴ ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 −𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −|𝐷
⃗ 𝑁2 . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑁2 |∆𝑆…… (37)
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
∴ ⃗ 𝑁1 |∆𝑆 − |𝐷
|𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁2 |∆𝑆 = 𝑄…… (38)
But 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆……………. (39)
∴ ⃗ 𝑁1 | − |𝐷
|𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁2 | = 𝜌𝑠 ………… (40)
There is no free charge available in perfect dielectric hence no free charge
can exist on the surface. All charges in dielectric are bound charges and are not
free. Hence at the ideal dielectric media boundary the surface charge density 𝜌𝑠
can be assumed zero.
∴ ⃗ 𝑁1 | = |𝐷
|𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁2 |……… (41)
Hence the normal component of flux density D is continuous at the
boundary between the two perfect dielectrics.
⃗ 𝑁1 |
|𝐷 𝜀1 |𝐸⃗𝑁1 |
∴ = =1 ⃗ 𝑁1 | = |𝐷
As |𝐷 ⃗ 𝑁2 |
⃗ 𝑁2 |
|𝐷 𝜀2 |𝐸⃗𝑁2 |
|𝐸⃗𝑁1 | 𝜀2 𝜀𝑟2
∴ = = ………….. (42)
|𝐸⃗𝑁2 | 𝜀1 𝜀𝑟1

The normal components of the electric field intensity 𝐸⃗ are inversely

proportional to the relative permittivities of the two media.
2.13 Concept of Capacitance
The ratio of the magnitudes of the total charge on any one of the two
conductors and potential difference between the conductors is called the
capacitance of the two conductor system denoted as C.
Hence capacitance can be expressed as,
𝑄 ∮𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ .𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜀 ∮𝑆 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝑆
𝐶= = +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
……… (1)
𝑉 − ∫− 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝐿 − ∫− 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝐿
Key Point: The capacitance depends on the physical dimensions of the system
and the properties of the dielectric such as permittivity of the dielectric.
Some Important Two Conductor Configurations
2.13.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor is shown in the
Fig. 2.13.1. It consists of two parallel metallic
plates separated by distance ‘d’. The space
between the plates is filled with a dielectric of
permittivity ε. The lower plate, plate 1 carries
the positive charge and is distributed over it. The
upper plate, plate 2 carries the negative charge
and is distributed over its surface. The plate 1is
placed in z=0 i.e. xy plane hence normal to it is z-direction. While upper plate 2
is in 𝑧 = 𝑑 plane, parallel to xy plane.
Let A = Area of cross section of the plates in m2.
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴 Coulomb………. (2)
This is magnitude of charge on any one plate as charge carried by both is
equal in magnitude. To find potential difference, let us obtain 𝐸⃗ between the
plates.
The space between the plates is filled with homogenous dielectric with
⃗ = 𝜌𝑠 𝑎𝑧 …….(3)
permittivity 𝜀, so 𝐷
𝐷 ⃗
Again 𝐸⃗ = ……………(4)
𝜀
𝜌
So 𝐸⃗ = 𝑠 𝑎𝑧 ……. (5)
𝜀
The potential difference is given by,
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑠
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − ∫ 𝑎𝑧 . (𝑑𝑥𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 )
− 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝜀
𝑧=0
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠 0 𝜌𝑠
𝑉 = −∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − [𝑧] = − [−𝑑]
𝑧=𝑑 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑 𝜀
𝜌𝑠 𝑑
𝑉= volt………. (6)
𝜀
The capacitance is the ratio of charge Q to voltage V,
𝑄 𝜌𝑠 𝐴 𝜀𝐴
𝐶= = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑 = Farad………. (7)
𝑉 𝑑
𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
Thus if, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 , then 𝐶 = Farad……….. (8)
𝑑
Capacitance is not dependant on the charge or the potential difference
between the plates rather dependant on permittivity, area of cross section of the
plates and separation of the plates.
2.13.2 Capacitance of a Co-Axial Cable
Let a = Inner radius, b = Outer radius
The two concentric conductors are separated by
dielectric of permittivity 𝜀. The length of the cable is L
meter. The inner conductor carries a charge density +𝜌𝐿
C/m on its surface then equal and opposite charge density
−𝜌𝐿 C/m exists on the outer conductor.
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 × 𝐿………. (9)
Assuming cylindrical co-ordinate system, 𝐸⃗ will be radial from inner to
outer conductor, and for infinite line charge it is given by,
𝜌
𝐸⃗ = 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 …….. (10)
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
 𝐸⃗ is directed from inner conductor to the outer conductor. The potential
difference is work done in moving unit charge against 𝐸⃗ i.e. from r = b to r = a.
To find potential difference, consider ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 in radial direction which is 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
+ 𝑟=𝑎 𝜌𝐿
∴ 𝑉 = − ∫− 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = − ∫𝑟=𝑏 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿 𝑎
= − [𝑙𝑛𝑟] 𝑎𝑏 =− 𝑙𝑛 [ ]
2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋𝜀 𝑏
𝜌𝐿 𝑏
∴ 𝑉= 𝑙𝑛 [ ] volt ………. (11)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
𝑄 𝜌𝐿 ×𝐿
∴ 𝐶= = 𝜌𝐿 𝑏
𝑉 𝑙𝑛[ ]
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
2𝜋𝜀𝐿
∴ 𝐶= 𝑏 F …………. (12)
𝑙𝑛[ ]
𝑎
2.13.3Spherical Capacitor
Consider a spherical capacitor formed of two
concentric spherical conducting shells of radius ‘a’
and ‘b’. The capacitor is shown in the Fig. 2.13.3.
The radius of outer sphere is 'b' while that of
inner sphere is 'a'. Thus b > a. The region between the
two spheres is filled with a dielectric of permittivity
𝜀. The inner sphere is given a positive charge +𝑄
while for the outer sphere it is −𝑄.
Considering Gaussian surface as a sphere of radius r, it can be obtained that
𝐸⃗ is in radial direction and given by,
𝑄
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎 V/m…………… (13)
2 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
The potential difference is work done in moving unit positive charge
against the direction of 𝐸⃗ i.e. from 𝑟 = 𝑏 to 𝑟 = 𝑎.
+ 𝑟=𝑎
𝑄
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫ 𝑎 . 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 𝑟
− 𝑟=𝑏
𝑟=𝑎
𝑄 𝑄 1 𝑎
= −∫ 2
𝑑𝑟 = − [− ]
𝑟=𝑏 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑏
𝑄 1 1
∴ 𝑉= [ − ] volt………. (14)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑎 𝑏
𝑄 𝑄
Now 𝐶= = 𝑄 1 1
𝑉 [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑎 𝑏
4𝜋𝜀
∴ 𝐶= 1 1 Farad ………… (15)
[ − ]
𝑎 𝑏
2.13.4 Capacitance of Single Isolated Sphere
Consider a single isolated sphere of radius ‘a’, given a charge +𝑄. It forms
a capacitance with an outer plate which is infinitely large hence 𝑏 = ∞.
 The capacitance of such a single isolated spherical conductor can be
obtained by substituting 𝑏 = ∞ in the equation (15).
4𝜋𝜀
∴ 𝐶= 1 1
[ − ]
𝑎 ∞
1
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑎………. (16) (as = 0)
∞
Electrostatic boundary-value problems
2.14 Introduction
In earlier chapters, the 𝐸⃗ and 𝐷 ⃗ in the given region are obtained using
Coulomb's law and Gauss's law. Using these laws is easy, if the charge
distribution or potential throughout the region is known. Practically it is not
possible in many situations, to know the charge distribution or potential variation
throughout the region. Practically charge and potential may be known at some
boundaries of the region, only. From those values it is necessary to obtain
potential and 𝐸⃗ throughout the region. Such electrostatic problems are called
boundary value problems. To solve such problems, Poisson's and Laplace's
equations must be known.
2.14.1 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
From the Gauss’s law in the point form, Poisson's equation can be derived.
Consider the Gauss’s law in the point form as,
∇. 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ………. (1)
where 𝐷⃗ = Flux density and 𝜌𝑣 = Volume charge density
It is known that for a homogeneous, isotropic and linear medium, flux
density and electric field intensity are directly proportional. Thus,
⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗ ……… (2)
𝐷
∴ ∇. 𝜀𝐸⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ……… (3)
From the gradient relationship,
𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉…….. (4)
Substituting (4) in (3),
∇. 𝜀(−∇𝑉) = 𝜌𝑣 ……… (5)
Taking −𝜀 outside as constant,
−𝜀[∇. ∇𝑉] = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌
∴ [∇. ∇𝑉] = − 𝑣
𝜀
Now ∇. ∇ operation is called ‘del squared’ operation and denoted as ∇2 .
𝜌
∴ ∇2 V = − 𝑣 …….. (6)
𝜀
This equation (6) is called Poisson's equation.
If in a certain region, volume charge density is zero (𝜌𝑣 = 0), which is true
for dielectric medium then the Poisson's equation takes the form,
∇2 V = 0 (For charge free region) ……. (7)
This is special case of Poisson's equation and is called Laplace’s
equation. The ∇2 operation is called the Laplacian of V.
Key Point: Note that (𝜌𝑣 = 0), still in that region point charges, line charges
and surface charges may exist at singular locations.
The equation (7) is for homogeneous medium for which 𝜀 is constant. But
it 𝜀 is not constant and the medium is inhomogeneous, then equation (5) must be
used as Poisson's equation for inhomogeneous medium.
In Cartesian co-ordinate system, Laplace’s equation is
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = 2
+ 2
+ = 0…… (8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
Similarly, in Cylindrical coordinate system, it is given as,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = (𝜌 𝜕𝜌 ) + 𝜌2 (𝜕𝜙2 ) + 𝜕𝑧 2 = 0…… (9)
𝜌 𝜕𝜌
And in Spherical coordinate system, it is given as,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = (𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 ) + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙2 = 0…… (10)
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟

2.14 Uniqueness Theorem

The boundary value problems can be solved by number of methods such
as analytical, graphical, experimental etc. Thus there is a question that, is the
solution of Laplace's equation solved by any method, unique? The answer to this
question is the uniqueness theorem, which is proved by contradiction method.
Assume that the Laplace’s equation has two solutions say V1 and V2, both
are function of the co-ordinates of the system used. These solutions must satisfy
Laplace's equation. So we can write
∇2 𝑉1 = 0 and ∇2 𝑉2 = 0……….. (1)
Both the solutions must satisfy the boundary conditions as well. At the
boundary, the potentials at different points are same due to equipotential surface
then,
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ………. (2)
Let the difference between the two solutions is 𝑉𝑑 .
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ……… (3)
Using Laplace's equation for the difference 𝑉𝑑 ,
∇2 𝑉𝑑 = ∇2 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )……… (4)
∴ ∇2 𝑉𝑑 = ∇2 𝑉2 − ∇2 𝑉1 …….. (5)
On the boundary 𝑉𝑑 = 0 from the equations (2) and (3).
Now the divergence theorem states that,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ……. (6)
∫𝑣(∇. 𝐴). 𝑑𝑣 = ∮𝑆 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆
Let 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 and from vector algebra
∇. (𝛼𝐵⃗ ) = 𝛼(∇. 𝐵
⃗)+𝐵 ⃗ . ∇𝛼
Now use this for ∇. (𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 ) with 𝛼 = 𝑉𝑑 and 𝐵 ⃗ = ∇𝑉𝑑
∇. (𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 ) = 𝑉𝑑 (∇. ∇𝑉𝑑 ) + ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇(𝑉𝑑 )
 But ∇. ∇= ∇2 hence,
2
∇. (𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 ) = 𝑉𝑑 ∇ 𝑉𝑑 + ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇(𝑉𝑑 )……… (7)
Using equation (4),
∇. (𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 ) = ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 ……… (8)
To use this in equation (6), let 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 hence
∇. 𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 = ∇. 𝐴 = ∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ……. (9)
∫𝑣(∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 ). 𝑑𝑣 = ∮𝑆 𝑉𝑑 ∇𝑉𝑑 . 𝑑𝑆
But 𝑉𝑑 = 0 on boundary, hence right hand side of equation (9) is zero
∴ ∫𝑣(∇𝑉𝑑 . ∇𝑉𝑑 ). 𝑑𝑣 = 0
∴ ∫𝑣|∇𝑉𝑑 |2 . 𝑑𝑣 = 0 as ∇𝑉𝑑 is a vector……. (10)
Now integration can be zero under two conditions,
i) The quantity under integral sign is zero.
ii) The quantity is positive in some regions and negative in other regions
by equal amount and hence zero.
But square term cannot be negative in any region hence, quantity under
integral must be zero.
Hence |∇𝑉𝑑 |2 = 0
i.e. ∇𝑉𝑑 = 0…………… (11)
As the gradient of 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 is zero means 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 is constant and
not changing with any co-ordinates. But considering boundary it can be proved
that 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = constant = zero.
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ………. (12)
This proves that both the solutions are equal and cannot be different.
Thus Uniqueness Theorem can be stated as:
If the solution of Laplace's equation satisfies the boundary condition then
that solution is unique, by whatever method it is obtained.
2.14.1 Procedure for Solving Laplace's Equation
The procedure to solve a problem involving Laplace’s equation can be
generalized as,
Step 1: Solve the Laplace’s equation using the method of integration. Assume
constants of integration as per the requirement.
Step 2: Determine the constants applying the boundary conditions. Given
constants obtained using boundary conditions is a unique solution.
Step 3: Then 𝐸⃗ can be obtained for the potential field V obtained, using gradient
operation −∇ 𝑉.
Step 4: For homogeneous medium, 𝐷 ⃗ can be obtained as 𝜀𝐸⃗ .
 ⃗ 𝑁 hence once 𝐷
Step 5: At the surface, 𝜌𝑆 = 𝐷 ⃗ is known, the normal component
⃗ 𝑁 to the surface is known. Hence the charge induced on the conductor surface
𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗
can be obtained as 𝑄 = ∫𝑆 𝜌𝑠 . 𝑑𝑆
Step 6: Once the charge induced Q is known and potential V is known then the
capacitance C of the system can be obtained.
If 𝜌𝑣 ≠ 0 then similar procedure can be adopted to solve the Poisson's
equation.