GUIDE TO

INDIAN
PROVINCIAL
FURNITURE
Introduction
Elevated seating has long had its place in India. Contrary
to the belief that seating was introduced in India only later
in the medieval period, allusions to these forms can be
drawn from as early as 200 BC from Buddhist relief
sculptures. Astronomer Varahamihira’s text, Brihat
Samhita (6th century CE) enumerates 14 species of wood
for furniture-making, including sandalwood, teak, and
blackwood. The ancient Shilpashastras list 64 techniques
of arts and crafts and detail time for cutting and
seasoning, suggesting the use of wood in India dates back
to several centuries. Over the years, forms of seating
diversified in manner, aesthetic and versatility. Whether it
was the twin-swing seats for idyllic recreation, elevated
seats for learned men, low stools for all or thrones
reserved for kings - India had developed a form of seating
suitable for every occasion.
ASANAS -
Elevated Seats
References to the earliest forms of seats are made in literature as early
as the Rigvedic period (6th century BCE), sculptures and paintings at
the Ajanta and Ellora Caves (2nd century BCE), and Buddhist relief
sculptures (2nd century BCE).

This large hemispherical Chaitya Griha (shrine hall) at the Ajanta caves
features a seated Buddha at the centre, on an elaborately carved
elevated seat and a foot rest. Several other exquisite sculptures of
seated figures are behind the pillars on the right.
THRONES
Initially reserved for those in positions of authority like kings and
learned persons, the common terms for the highest chair were
rajasana (king's throne), or mayurasana (peacock throne) and
simhasana (lion throne).

One of the earliest examples is the throne of Rao Setaram of Kannauj

(12th century CE), which is structurally similar to an ordinary chair, has
a high reclining back, arms and a footrest

Another iconic example is the Peacock Throne, commissioned by

Emperor Shah Jahan in 1628. It was ascended by silver steps and
backed with two peacock plumes, gilded, enamelled, inset with
diamonds and semi-precious stones. (Agra, 1635; and Red Fort, Delhi,
1648
JHOOLAS - Swings
For centuries, swings have been an allegory of amatory, festivity and
celebration, and their dynamic form evokes a sense of exuberance.
While early literary references to swings can be seen in the Vedas, later
visual depictions are seen in miniature paintings from the Mughal
period as well as Deccan-style paintings from Bijapur.

Even today, the regions of Mathura and Vrindavan in northern India

celebrate the Jhulan (Swing) Festival - that extols the love between
Radha and Krishna, with elaborate swings, song and dance.

In their simplest forms, swings were constructed with a wooden board

that was suspended from a tree. More elaborate versions for couples
were made from silver or brass and decorated with trimmings, bolsters
and gaddas (mattresses).

Suspended either inside homes, or outside in courtyards, swings are

still found in larger abodes and are often considered symbols of luxury
LOW STOOLS
Low stools were used by people of all social standings due to their
ease of mobility. They were occasionally adorned with cushions or
elaborate carvings. Puranic references to low stools can be found in
sculptures of the Ikshyaku dynasty.
BOLSTERS
Bolsters were used by both royalty and commoners. They were often
seen in Mughal miniatures of the 16th century.

Generally strewn across carpets and rugs, the bolsters’ bulbous forms
could be used not only as elevated forms of seating but also as
backrests and armrests.
CHARPAI
The charpai derives its name from the Hindi words 'char' and ‘pai’
which literally translate into ‘four legs’.

While the divan - a more affluent version of the charpai - became

symbolic to royalty, during the Mughal period, the charpai gained
popularity with the common man.

The portable structure of the charpai made it a simple, economic

staple in Indian households. Its versatility ranged from its use for
sleeping or seating multiple people at spontaneous gatherings to being
stacked away when not in use.
CHOWKIE
A chowkie refers to a low square stool that was, at times, enhanced
with a carved backrest.

Although commonly found in prayer rooms in Indian homes, the

chowkie could serve additional purposes, such as a footstool
PATLA
The patla is a form of low seating that is generally present in various
religious ceremonies and rituals in India.

It is traditionally made out of wood and is rectangular in shape. The

patla is lower than the chowkie - elevated just barely off of the floor.
KURSI
Etymologically, kursi (chair) has its origin in Arabic for ‘throne’, which
finds its way to Turkish, Persian, Hindi and Urdu, with similar meaning.
Pre-Independeance
SEATING
Local methods and practice of furniture design in India gradually
embraced foreign styles and influence resulting in the creation of a
unique design language. The advent of Islam in the 7th Century along
with the arrival of the Mughal Emperors into the subcontinent in the
16th Century brought with them the intricacies of what came to be
known as the Indo-Islamic style. Simultaneously, Western design
influences came to the south, with the Dutch and Portuguese
colonisers in the 16th and 17th Centuries. British Imperial rule in India
from 1858 - 1947 introduced styles such as Victorian and Edwardian,
along with European movements such as Aestheticism, which merged
with Indian design to give rise to an Anglo-Indian vocabulary, and
hybrid styles such as the Indo-Saracenic. From 1920s to the 1940s,
Modernism created the bridge between pre-independent and post-
independent India along with the Art Deco and Bauhaus styles.
Persian, Hindi and Urdu, with similar meaning.
Indo-Islamic Style
Traditional Islamic furniture featured marquetry inlay in wood, the use
of ceramic tiles or plaques on tabletops, and intricate work on objects
such as caskets and chests. This manner of fine inlay work possibly
developed from styles and techniques used in the making of weapons
and musical instruments. The emergence of Islam in India in the 7th
century CE brought about an Islamic influence on the methods and
customs of Indian furniture-making. Some of the common practices
included relief carvings on materials such as wood, metal, marble, and
enamel, ornamentation using geometric patterns and naturalistic
renditions of animals and flora, motif inspired calligraphy, and
intricately pierced work on objects such as screens, doors, tabletops,
and the backs of chairs.
PEACOCK CHAIR
The flared, high-arched back of this tall, statuesque type of chair
evokes the canopy-like structure of the 17th-century mayurasana
(Peacock Throne) used by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. It is christened
the ‘hourglass chair’ owing to the eponymous shape of its base.
Descendants of the peacock chair were made of materials such as
wrought iron, gold-toned metal wire, or oak and metal, and were
occasionally coated with a brightly coloured paint.

This version of the peacock chair is made out of intricately woven

cane, and has a round, cushioned seat. The fantail-like back is
elaborately woven in a jaali-like pattern, similar to the latticed
architectural element found in Indo-Islamic monuments.
X-CHAIR
The X-Chair developed in Italy during the late 15th to early 16th
Century and is associated with Girolamo Savonarola, a preacher form
the Renaissance period. However, its inlay work is reminiscent of Indo-
Islamic craftsmanship.

Known as the X-Chair or Scissor Chair, this folding chair is supported

by two curved intersecting wooden structures that form the letter X.
The top-rail is connected to the back of the straight arms, and the
narrow seat is held in place by the wooden slats on either sides.

This rendition of the chair features elaborate carvings along with

meticulous inlay design similar to the Indo-Islamic style. The wooden
back rail has motifs resembling peacocks, and the handrails are inlaid
with designs resembling jaguar heads.
Indo-Portuguese
and Indo-Dutch
Styles
Ornamental furniture assumed a new form with the arrival of the
Portuguese and the Dutch in India during the 16th - 17th Centuries.
Indo-Portuguese and Indo-Dutch styles emerged through the
seamless integration of the Western practice of fine woodwork and
the intricacies of Indian carvings and designs. The resulting furniture
had heavy, rigid features that simultaneously conveyed a senes of
openness, as well as delicate patterning and ornamentation skillfully
placed in the confines of the wooden structures. This type of furniture
was not only utilitarian but also stood as arresting artefacts.
CARVED
ORNAMENTAL
CHAIR
Indo-Dutch furniture was marked by skilled carpentry and
craftsmanship. Although this style of furniture appeared simple, it
consisted of intricate carvings, indicative of trained artistic hands.
Some of the carvings were evocative of the decorative Batavian style
from Java, Indonesia, the then administrative seat of the Dutch in the
East.

This chair, with its slightly angled back, was probably made from dark
ebony. It is elaborately carved with ornate, yet elegant, motifs of
flowers, birds, deities and stylised foliage on the backrest and along
the periphery of the seat. Images of deities appear on either end of the
top-rail, as well as in the centre of the seat. Ornate scrollwork with
floral designs adorn the frontal S-shaped portion of the legs.
FOLDING CHAIR
WITH ARMRESTS
Indo-Portuguese style furniture originated at the climax of Portuguese
supremacy in India, between 1510 to the mid-1630s, and continued
until the late 19th Century. These types of folding chairs had an open,
comfortable form and were usually made out of cane or rattan.

This stately folding chair is in the Goan style, a type of Indo-Portuguese

style, and is crafted using rosewood and woven cane. The vertical slats
of the back extend seamlessly to form one set of rear legs. The ends of
the curved armrests of the chair comprise heads of a serpent-like
creature. The legs are carved in the Marlborough style - straight,
squared, plain, and tapered in the ends. The back has an intricately
woven central panel with a crest rail carved in a foliate pattern.
BURGOMASTER
CHAIR
The name of the Burgomaster Chair is derived from the Dutch word
‘burgemeester’, which translates into ‘mayor’, attributing a higher
status to this chair. This chair, popularly known as a round chair, was
made in the East Indies - Indonesia, South India, and Sri Lanka - since
the late 1600s while India was under the Dutch East India Company,
and attained its name ‘Burgomaster’ only in the 19th century.

Initially used as single, standalone pieces, they were also found in sets
of four or six which suggests that these chairs were not always
suggestive of rank.

This chair is made of wood - probably teak - and has a cane seat. The
circular, cane seat is backed by a concave, open backrest that consists
of two rows of evenly spaced spindles. The finials are devoid of heavy
ornamental carvings, an otherwise common stylistic element of such
chairs
Colonial Style
British Imperial rule in India (1858-1947) gave rise to various styles
such as English Chippendale, Sheraton, and Jacobean - from the
Victorian, Georgian and Edwardian eras - which merged with Indian
designs to create a category of Anglo-Indian or Colonial furniture. This
period also saw the influence of Aestheticism - the late 19th century
European arts movement centered on the principle that art existed
exclusively for beauty - which inspired decadent carving and rich
embroidered fabrics in Colonial furniture as well. During the British
rule there was also a popular rise in portable furniture called Camping
furniture which was characterised by its lightweight, portability and
versatility. The patronisation of objects such as folding chairs by
itinerant British army officers eventually found their way to campers
and adventures.
 PLANTATION
CHAIR
The plantation chair (or the planter’s chair) was commissioned by the
British during their rule in India. They were traditionally made out of
mahogany, rosewood or teak, had low seats woven out of cane or
rattan, and a reclining back. Designed for comfort, this type of chair,
also known as the easy chair or chaise lounge, consisted of two long
arms, and a lower section that extended as a footrest.

In addition to being shipped to Britain, these chairs became a common

sight at waiting rooms of railway stations in India. It continues to be a
popular fixture in most spacious homes, libraries, and clubhouses in
present day Mumbai, Kolkata and Goa.

This plantation chair is made of wood, probably teak, and has a seat
made of either can or rattan. The chair has sturdy legs with a series of
rounded ridges carved at regular interval. The reeded leg is similar to a
fluted leg, except that the former is convex as opposed to concave.
The rear legs are of a sabre style, flaring out marginally.
HAMMOCK CHAIR

British camping furniture included hammock chairs - large, imposing

chairs with ample leg rest. Owing to their sturdy frames and adjustable
reclining backs, these chairs were used for leisure and comfort.

In this particular hammock chair, form and function takes precedence

over aesthetic quality. The plank along the top-rail has a simple
scallop-shaped design with slight protrusion at the ends. The folding,
slender legs are rounded at the joints, and have H-shaped stretchers
running between the rear legs.
 Hybrid Style
Hybrid styles, the synthesis of techniques and practices from various
artistic movements, were evident in not only architecture but also
furniture design. For example, the Indo-Saracenic method combined
Islamic design with Indian materials and was developed by British
architects in India during the late 19th to early 20th Century. The Indo-
Saracenic style involves rich mouldings, ornate decorations, usage of
gilded iron, and prominent spherical and curved patterns. Local
Rajasthani and Gujarati forms established themselves in furniture-
making as well, and brought in elements such as corbel, and (pendant
and eave-like) formations.
RAM-HEAD CHAIR
Indo-Saracenic styles featured an amalgamation of European form
with regal Indian and Mughal ornamentation and design. The wood
used in this type of furniture was adorned with intricate silverware and
rich, cushioned seating, similar to Mughal thrones.

The curved top-rail of the chair has an intricately carved finial that
runs parallel to the back slat, and its front legs flare out slightly
indicating they sabre style. The cushioned seating is designed with
repeating, identical forms. The ram head’s earlier appearance could be
attributed to the jewelled and enamelled daggers of the Mughal period