Child Psychiatry Hum Dev (2012) 43:102–112

DOI 10.1007/s10578-011-0248-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Maternal Overcontrol and Child Anxiety: The Mediating

Role of Perceived Competence

Nicholas W. Affrunti • Golda S. Ginsburg

Published online: 27 August 2011

Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract Previous research has shown that maternal overcontrol is related to higher
levels of child anxiety. It has been theorized, though not empirically tested, that maternal
overcontrol decreases child perceived competence and mastery, which increases child
anxiety. The present study investigated this theory using a sample of 89 mother–child
dyads (children aged 6–13, 84.3% Caucasian, 6.7% African American, and 51.7% male).
After statistically controlling for maternal anxiety level, child perceived competence was
shown to partially mediate the relationship between maternal overcontrol and child anx-
iety. Though current findings are based on cross sectional data, they suggest multiple
pathways through which maternal overcontrol impacts child anxiety. One pathway,
described in theoretical models, posits that greater levels of parental control reduce chil-
dren’s opportunities to acquire appropriate developmental skills, lowering their perceived
competence, and thus increasing their anxiety. Implications of these findings and directions
for future research are discussed.

Keywords Parenting  Anxiety  Overcontrol  Perceived competence  Child anxiety

Introduction

Anxiety is one of the most pervasive psychiatric problems experienced by children [1].
Thus, research on the etiology of these problems is paramount. One factor found to
contribute to child anxiety problems is specific parenting behaviors [2–4]. Indeed, par-
enting has become a central focus of research due to the increased probability of familial
transmission of anxiety disorders [5, 6] as well as empirical research examining the parents
of anxious youths (see [7–9] for reviews). One particular parenting behavior, parental
control, has received the most attention (and empirical evidence) and has been shown to be
associated with higher levels of anxiety in children [2, 10, 11].

N. W. Affrunti  G. S. Ginsburg (&)

Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences,
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 550 North Broadway/Suite 202, Baltimore,
MD 21205, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

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Parental overcontrol refers to an excessive amount of involvement in a child’s activities,

daily routines, or emotional experiences and an encouragement of dependence on the
parents [12–14]. The common assumption is that parental overcontrol is a result of
increased parental anxiety; however, research in this area is inconsistent [15, 16]. Indeed,
studies have shown that anxious and nonanxious parents do not always differ in their use of
overcontrol [16–18]. In contrast, parents of anxious, compared to nonanxious youth, have
been consistently found to use a greater degree of overcontrol [8, 19], suggesting that
regardless of parental anxiety status, the use of parental overcontrol appears related to
higher levels of anxiety in children.
Despite the ambiguity in the relation between parental anxiety and parental overcontrol,
it has been posited that overcontrolling behaviors restrict a child’s access to his/her
environment and also communicate to a child that there is an excessive amount of threat
that the child will not be able to cope with or master on his/her own. Thus, it is hypoth-
esized that this parenting behavior reduces the opportunity for the child to develop com-
petence, or mastery over things in their environment, particularly, novel or threatening
situations [20, 21]. Theoretically, it is this decrease in child self-competence which leads to
an increased level of anxiety in the child. Conversely, granting of a child’s autonomy is
thought to encourage a child’s independence, thereby allowing him/her to gain a sense of
mastery of his/her environment and reducing his/her level of anxiety [9].
There is a growing body of empirical support for the theory that lowered child self-
perceived competence is related to higher levels of child anxiety. In a recent longitudinal
study [22] a community sample of 185 adolescents were followed from age 13 to age 18 to
evaluate prospective predictors of social anxiety and fears of negative evaluation. As
expected, structural equation modeling analyses found that a lack of perceived social
acceptance (or competence) predicted subsequent explicit social anxiety (i.e., those
responses which are subject to conscious control and measured by self-report), even after
accounting for pre-existing social withdrawal symptoms [22]. This finding was supported
in a cross sectional study, which found that low levels of perceived competence, in ado-
lescents 10–14 years old, were associated with current symptoms of both child anxiety and
depression (N = 214) [23]. Furthermore, adolescents’ self-perceptions about competency
were more consistent predictors of symptoms of anxiety than beliefs about control and
contingency.
Data using clinical samples have found similar results. In a study of 47 children with
anxiety disorders versus 31 non-anxious controls, researchers found that anxious children,
compared to their nonanxious peers, reported significantly lower self-competence than
controls [24]. Ekornås et al. [25], in a study of 329 children aged 8–11 years also found
that children with anxiety disorders, compared to their nondisordered peers, perceived
themselves as being less accepted by peers and less competent in physical activities.
There has been inquiry into the effect of parenting behaviors on child and adolescent
competency; however, these studies tended to use the general, nonspecific variable of
parenting style, rather than specific parenting behaviors and were not specifically focused
on anxiety. For instance, in a study of 108 adolescents, high levels of maternal rigid control
were related to decreased adolescent social competence and self-worth [26]. Similar
findings have been reported in other studies [12, 27].
Taken together, while maternal overcontrol has been associated with higher child
anxiety and lower child self-perceived competence has been found to predict higher child
anxiety, the extent to which lowered perceptions of competence in children mediate the
relation between maternal overcontrol and child anxiety, as hypothesized in developmental
models of child anxiety, has not been tested. The current study sought to empirically

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Self-perceived (b) Total: B = -.346*

Competence GAD: B = -.413*
(a) B = -.295*
Social: B = -.357*
(c’) Total: B = .283*
GAD: B = .186
Social: B = .198
Maternal Child
overcontrol (c) Total: B = .385* Anxiety
GAD: B = .273*
* p < .05 Social: B = .285*

Fig. 1 Empirical model of the mediating role of self-perceived competence in the relationship between
maternal overcontrol and child anxiety total score, generalized, and social, controlling for maternal anxiety,
with appropriate standardized Betas. Note (a) remains constant for all analyses

investigate this model (see Fig. 1). In addition, because some studies have found over-
control to be related to subtypes of anxiety [28], we examined both overall levels of
anxiety as well as specific domains of anxiety linked to DSM-IV anxiety disorders. It is
important to note that though the arrows point in a singular direction in this model, the
correlational nature of this research means that claims about causation or directionality
cannot be made and reciprocal and bidirectional effects may occur (e.g. child anxiety level
affects maternal control and children’s self-perceived competence). Based on extant theory
and literature, it was hypothesized that maternal overcontrol and childhood anxiety levels
would be mediated by the child’s self-perceived competence, after controlling for maternal
anxiety.

Method

Participants

Participants were 89 mother–child dyads. Of the 89 mothers, 54 of them met criteria for a
DSM-IV anxiety diagnosis, generalized anxiety disorder (n = 41), panic disorder with
agoraphobia (n = 4), specific phobia (n = 4), social phobia (n = 3), panic disorder
without agoraphobia (n = 2), and 35 did not meet criteria for any psychiatric disorder. The
presence or absence of diagnoses was determined by trained evaluators using the Anxiety
Disorders Interview Schedule-Client Version [29]. Mothers ranged in age from 27 to 54
(M = 40.16, SD = 5.60). The majority of mothers had a college degree or higher (73%), a
family income of 80,000 or more (64%), and were married (87.6%).
Child age ranged from 6 to 13 years of age (M = 9.58, SD = 2.0) and children were
primarily Caucasian (84.3%, 6.7% African American). There was an even split between
male and female children (51.7% male). None of the children were diagnosed with an
anxiety disorder, or any other psychiatric or medical condition needing treatment or
contraindicating study participation (e.g. suicidality), or were receiving psychological or
pharmacological treatment aimed at reducing anxiety. Non-anxious children were selected
for the current study as research has shown that parenting behaviors may be influenced by
excessive child anxiety [20, 30]. Thirty-four percent of the children had total Screen for

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Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders—Child Version (SCARED-C) scores 25 and

over (the suggested clinical cut off); the range of scores was 0–61.

Procedure

Anxious mothers were recruited as part of a larger study examining the impact of an
anxiety prevention program on their non-anxious offspring [31]; nonanxious mothers were
recruited as a community sample of controls. All families who contacted the study com-
pleted a preliminary phone screen to determine their eligibility, prior to an in-person
evaluation. Families that were deemed eligible based on this phone screen were scheduled
for an in-person assessment in which all the measures of the present study were admin-
istered. Prior to completing their initial evaluation, all participants, both children and
parents, completed a written informed assent/consent.

Measures

Maternal Anxiety

Maternal anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait Version)
(STAI; [32]), a 20-item questionnaire measuring the stable, enduring symptoms of anxiety.
The measure uses a 4-point likert scale from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always) and
yields a total score. Scores range from 20 to 80, where higher scores indicate greater
anxiety. The STAI correlates highly with other measures of adult anxiety (rs = 0.73–0.85)
and has shown excellent test–retest reliability (rs = 0.73–0.86). The internal consistency
for this scale in the current sample was .64.

Maternal Overcontrol

Maternal overcontrol was measured using child reports on the Egna Minnen av Barndoms
Uppfostran—My memories of upbringing—Child version (EMBU-C, [33]), a 40-item
scale used to asses perceptions of parental behaviors. The questionnaire includes 4 sub-
scales, each with 10 items; overprotection/control, emotional warmth, rejection, and
anxious rearing. Each item is answered using a 4-point likert scale from 1 (no) to 4 (yes,
most of the time). For the purposes of this study only the overprotection/control subscale
was used. Scores range from 10 to 40, where higher scores indicate greater overcontrol. A
sample item of this subscale is ‘‘your parents watch you very carefully.’’ The internal
consistency for the 10-item subscale for the current sample was .66.

Child Perceived Competence

Child self-perceived competence was measured using the three subscales of the Harter
Self-Perception Profile for Children [34] that assess the most important domains of chil-
dren’s functioning: scholastic competence, social acceptance and global self-worth. Each
scale contains six items and the child chooses one of two contrasting statements (‘‘Some
kids would like to have a lot more friends BUT Other kids have as many friends as they
want.’’) that describes them better and then rates whether that statement is partially true or
really true for them. A composite score of perceived competence was used based on the
mean of the three subscale scores. Scores range from 1 to 4, where higher scores indicate

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greater perceived competence. The internal consistency for the composite score for this
sample was .81.

Child Anxiety

Child anxiety was measured using the SCARED-C [35]. The SCARED-C is a 41-item
measure of pediatric anxiety shown to differentiate between clinically anxious and non-
anxious psychiatrically ill youth [35]. Children answer questions using a 3-point likert
scale indicating to what degree a statement about themselves is true, from 1 (not true) to 3
(very or often true). The SCARED-C yields a total score, obtained by summing the 41
items, and five subscale scores which correspond to some of the DSM-IV anxiety disorders
(panic, generalized anxiety, separation anxiety, social anxiety and school phobia). For the
purposes of this study the SCARED-C Total score was used to assess overall anxiety
levels. Total scores range from 0 to 84, where higher scores reflect higher overall levels of
child anxiety. Internal consistency for the Total score for this sample was .92. Because
several of the domain-specific subscales scales were too highly skewed (i.e., more than
twice the standard error of skewness [36]), we were only able to examine the social and
generalized anxiety subscales. Internal consistencies for these scales were .75 and .74,
respectively; and higher scores reflect higher anxiety.

Results

Descriptive and Correlational Analyses

Means and standard deviations on all measures appear in Table 1. In order to establish
basic relations between variables needed for meditational analyses, first order correlations
were calculated between the IV, DV, mediator and covariate. Table 2 shows the first order
correlations between child anxiety, parent anxiety, maternal overcontrol and child per-
ceived self-competence. Child anxiety was significantly and positively associated with
levels of maternal overcontrol but negatively associated with child perceived self-com-
petence. Levels of child perceived self-competence were significantly related to levels of
maternal overcontrol.

Mediational Analyses

Mediation was tested by determining the significance of the indirect effect of the indepen-
dent variable (maternal overcontrol, X) on the dependent variable (child anxiety, Y)

Table 1 Range, means, and

Variable (n = 89) Range M SD
standard deviations for all
variables
Maternal anxiety 21.00–71.00 39.83 11.41
Maternal overcontrol 18.00–36.00 5.88 4.21
Child perceived competence 2.00–4.00 3.19 0.47
Child anxiety total 0.00–61.00 19.84 12.02
Child anxiety-social 0–13 4.5 3.40
Child anxiety-GAD 0–14 5.29 3.40

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Table 2 First order correlations for all variables

Child anxiety- Child Child Maternal Maternal Perceived
total anxiety- anxiety- anxiety overcontrol competence
social GAD

Child anxiety-total –
Child anxiety-social 0.74** –
Child anxiety-GAD 0.81** 0.48** –
Maternal anxiety 0.17 0.12 0.24* –
Maternal overcontrol 0.37** 0.28* 0.26* -0.06 –
Perceived competence -0.45** -0.42** -0.49** -0.18 -0.28* –

* p \ .05, ** p \ .001

Table 3 The effect of perceived competence on child anxiety through maternal overcontrol, controlling for
maternal anxiety
r2 B SE t Sig (two)

Child anxiety-total to maternal overcontrol (c) 0.15 1.10 0.28 3.92 0.001
Self-perceived competence to maternal overcontrol (a) 0.09 -0.03 0.01 -2.91 0.005
Child anxiety-total to self-perceived competence, 0.11 -8.93 2.53 -3.53 0.001
controlling for maternal overcontrol (b)
Maternal overcontrol to child anxiety-total, 0.07 0.81 0.28 3.93 0.004
controlling for self-perceived competence (c0 )

(c) is the total effect of maternal overcontrol on child anxiety total score, (a) is the effect of self-perceived
competence on maternal control, (b) is the effect of self-perceived competence on child anxiety total score
while controlling for maternal overcontrol, and (c0 ) is the direct effect of maternal overcontrol on child
anxiety total score while controlling for self-perceived competence

through the mediator (child competence, M), quantified as the product of the effects of Y
on M and M on X, deducting the effect of Y. The Sobel test was used to determine if the
indirect effect was statistically significant [37, 38]. The following analyses were completed
after statistically controlling for maternal anxiety. As Table 3 shows, the total effect of
maternal overcontrol on child anxiety was significant (t = 3.92, p \ .001). Also, there was
a significant effect of maternal overcontrol on child perceived self-competence (t =
-2.91, p = .005) as well as child perceived self-competence on child anxiety, when
controlling for maternal overcontrol (t = -3.53, p = .001). This resulted in a significant
indirect effect (z = 2.29, p = .02). That is, when controlling for maternal anxiety, child
perceived self-competence was a significant mediator of the relation between maternal
overcontrol and child anxiety (Fig. 1). Despite significant mediation, the direct effect (c0 )
remained significant, suggesting that child perceived self-competence was a partial
mediator of the relation. When gender was entered as a covariate it did not influence the
results. Although gender was significantly correlated with child anxiety, it was not sig-
nificantly correlated with either maternal overcontrol or child perceived competence.
When conducting the same analyses described above, for each gender, no significant
results were discovered.

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The Sobel test [37, 38] was also used to determine if child perceived competence
mediated the relationship between maternal overcontrol and two subscales of the
SCARED-C, social and generalized anxiety. As Fig. 1 shows, there was a significant
indirect effect (z = 2.44, p = .01) for the mediating role of perceived competence in the
relation between maternal overcontrol and child generalized anxiety disorder symptoms.
Also, there was a significant indirect effect (z = 2.27, p = .02) for the mediating role of
perceived competence in the relation between maternal overcontrol and child social anx-
iety symptoms. However, unlike SCARED-C Total scores, the direct effect (c0 ) for gen-
eralized and social anxiety were not significant, suggesting that perceived competence
completely mediated the relation between maternal overcontrol and these domains of child
anxiety.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to empirically examine the mediating role of child perceived
competence in the relation between maternal overcontrol and child anxiety. Based on
theoretical models (e.g. [2]) it was hypothesized that child perceived competence would
mediate the relation between maternal overcontrol and child anxiety. Overall, our data
partially supported this model for overall anxiety and fully supported the model for social
and generalized anxiety. Mothers that exhibited higher levels of overcontrolling behaviors,
such as demanding to know what the child is doing, not allowing the child to decide what
they want to do, and watching the child very carefully, had children with lower levels of
perceived competence and higher levels of anxiety. Overcontrolling parents may increase
levels of worry and social anxiety in children as this parental behavior may communicate
to youths that they do not have the skills to successfully navigate challenges in their
environment, generally or in social situations, thereby causing the child to worry about his/
her abilities. This increased worry may increase avoidance and reduce the opportunities for
youth to develop appropriate social or problem-solving skills. Although our inquiry into
anxiety subtypes was limited to two domains, it remains an important avenue of further
research.
These findings support and build upon previous research. For example, our study, using
child report of overcontrol, found significant negative associations between maternal
overcontrol and child perceived competence, consistent with research examining parent
and child report of parental control [26, 27]. Also, our findings were consistent with studies
that have shown low levels of perceived competence in children being related to symptoms
of child anxiety [22, 23] in older children (i.e., adolescents). Thus, it appears that this
pattern of association can also be found in younger children.
Maternal overcontrol may have a twofold effect on child anxiety. First, it may
directly affect the level of anxiety a child experiences, as a parent’s overcontrolling
behaviors could communicate to the child that his/her environment is threatening or
uncontrollable. Second, it appears to affect the child’s anxiety through lowering the
child’s self-perceptions of competence. When the parent intervenes in the child’s
environment, in an attempt to control it for a beneficial outcome, the child may learn
that he/she is not capable of dealing with that environment, thus lowering his/her level
of competency. In turn, children’s lower perceived competence, may increase their
anxiety as they may feel they lack the tools to deal with or master situations they
encounter in their daily lives.

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Limitations

The present study used correlational analyses and cannot claim causal associations. Thus, it
may be that child anxiety leads to reductions in child competence and higher overcontrol in
mothers. Furthermore, findings that parental overcontrol may be influenced by levels of
child anxiety [15, 17, 39, 40], suggest a reciprocal relation between maternal overcontrol,
child perceived competence, and child anxiety. Because child perceived competence
accounted for only 10% of the variance in child anxiety, and maternal overcontrol
accounted for 15% of the variance in child anxiety, additional variables that help explain
the development of anxiety (e.g. locus of control, coping skills, peer rejection) are worth
examining. Examination of anxiety subtypes was limited to generalized and social anxiety
because data were skewed, thus limiting our knowledge of whether these patterns hold true
for separation or other domains of anxiety not specifically examined in this study.
Another limitation is that all measures were self-report and completed by the child.
While children’s perceptions of these constructs are critical, relying on a single reporter
can introduce reporter bias and can cause statements to be influenced by a number of other
factors (e.g. the child’s comprehension, social desirability). Also, the internal consistencies
for the measures of maternal overcontrol (EMBU-C) and maternal anxiety (STAI) were
low, which may have reduced the reliability and magnitude of findings. Furthermore, the
questions on the measure of maternal overcontrol, the EMBU-C, ask about ‘‘parents’’ not
specifically about mothers. Thus, it is possible (though unlikely) that children completed
the measure in reference to their father rather than mother. Having an independent and
objective measure of child anxiety, maternal overcontrol and child perceived competence
could strengthen the empirical support for the models examined.
Lastly, characteristics of our sample limited the generalizability of our study. The
sample primarily consisted of two-parent upper middle class families of Caucasian descent.
A replication using a more diverse sample is imperative to understand how maternal
overcontrol affects child anxiety symptoms among families from diverse backgrounds.
This sample was also comprised of only non-anxious children. Replication using a wider
range of child anxiety levels, including clinical levels, is important in understanding how
maternal overcontrol and child perceptions of competence relate to child anxiety at clinical
levels. Data were obtained using only one parent and all parents were mothers. Finally, our
sample consisted of 6–13 year olds and as such it was impossible to examine age differ-
ences in the model. There is some research [41] that the effect of parental control on child
perceived competence and child anxiety may change as a result of the child’s age.
Although we controlled for child gender, future studies with increased samples should
investigate the effect of child gender on parental overcontrol and child anxiety, through
perceived competence.

Conclusions

Findings from the current study expand our understanding of the interplay between par-
enting behaviors, child perceived competence, and child anxiety and provide the first
empirical support for the etiological model of anxiety proposed by Chorpita and Barlow
[2].
The implications of these findings suggest that the treatment and prevention of anxiety
should not only focus on the child’s behaviors and cognitions but also on those of the
parent. There is growing literature that family-based treatments are quite effective at

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targeting anxiety symptoms in children (for a review see [42, 43]). As stated above,
parental behaviors (e.g. overcontrol) not only are directly associated with anxiety symp-
toms but are associated with children’s self perceptions, which themselves are associated
with anxiety. Strategies aimed at reducing parental overcontrol and increasing children’s
sense of mastery and competence may be important in the prevention and treatment of
child anxiety [31].

Summary

In support of theory [2], this study showed that child perceived competence partially
mediated the relation between maternal overcontrol and child anxiety (and fully mediated
this relation for symptoms of generalized and social anxiety). Theoretically, overcontrol-
ling parents may signal to their children that their environment is threatening and that the
child does not have the skills to deal with that threat, thereby increasing the child’s
dependence on the parent for assistance in dealing with their environment and anxiety
level. Maternal overcontrol was also found to be directly associated with higher child
anxiety. Interventions aimed at reducing and preventing child anxiety should focus on both
the behaviors and cognitions of the child as well as those of the parents.

Acknowledgment This study was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health
(K23MH63427-02 and R01MH077312-01) awarded to Golda S. Ginsburg.

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