Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

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Construction and Building Materials

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Long term durability assessment of self-compacting concrete made with

crushed recycled glass and metakaolin
Harvinder Singh *, Rafat Siddique
Civil Engineering Department, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology (Deemed University), Patiala, Punjab 147004, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sustainable production in construction industry can only be possible through a proper management and con­
Self-compacting concrete servation of limited natural resources such as fine aggregates. This challenge can be tackled by efficient utili­
Crushed recycled glass zation of discarded waste material such as glass in production of sustainable concrete. This paper investigates the
Metakaolin
use of crushed recycled glass (CRG) and metakaolin (MK) in development of durable self-compacting concrete
Durability
TGA
(SCC). Four groups of SCC mixtures were prepared using different proportions of CRG (0–50%), while keeping
FE-SEM MK concentration equal to 0%, 4%, 8% and 12%. Durability performance of SCC was accessed using water
Interfacial micro-crack absorption, sorptivity, chloride ion permeability, drying shrinkage, water penetrability under pressure and alkali-
silica reaction (ASR) tests. As the CRG content increased, group 4 (having 12 % MK) was most efficient in
improving drying shrinkage and pressurized water penetration results; whereas Group 1 (0% MK mixtures)
exhibited a minimal change. Raising CRG content in the mix resulted in decrease of water absorption and
chloride ion penetration for all groups with group 4 exhibiting maximum reduction. ASR testing revealed that
incorporating glass at a higher concentration (40% and 50%) resulted in excessive expansion (more than pre­
scribed limit of 0.1%), which can be suppressed by partially substituting cement with MK. FE-SEM and TGA
analysis were carried out to understand the mechanism behind these changes, which revealed that the secondary
hydration products formed by addition of MK in concrete can densify the pore structure and refine CRG particle-
cement paste interfacial micro-crack width (was evident from FE-SEM micrographs), thus improving the dura­
bility of concrete. Indeed, simultaneous incorporation of CRG and MK proved to be advantageous for develop­
ment of green SCC.

1. Introduction aggregate. Moreover, effective utilization of such waste materials in

development of SCC can reduce total volume of solid waste getting
Construction industry has witnessed a major revolution since the disposed of in the soil, thus providing solution to environmental threats
introduction of self-compacting concrete (SCC) [1]. A significant prop­ [11,16,17]. Besides, flow-ability, mechanical, microstructural and
erty of SCC is that it can robustly pass through congested reinforced durability properties of resultant SCC can be modified up to a significant
sections without any vibrational efforts [2]. SCC can flow freely under extent. Crushed recycled glass is one among discarded waste materials
mere action of gravity to fill in the forms of desired shape while retaining that has been used by numerous researchers in order to study its effect
its homogeneity [2–5]. The use of SCC eliminates the requirement of on the aforementioned properties [17–20].
costly vibrational equipment and excessive labour cost [6,7]. SCC has Glass is considered to be an inevitable source of the nation’s Infra­
been a prime interest of research world-widely since last two decades structure. However, universal recycling rate of glass is very low. As of
[2,8–10]. Researchers over the globe proposed the use of various sources 2018, global annual production of glass is approximately 130 million
to substitute one or more constituents of SCC [11]. Usually, discarded metric ton, out of which only 21% is recovered [21]. Out of total volume
waste materials such as crumb tyres, rice husk ash, copper slag, steel slag produced, 32% is accounted for container glass. In India, only 45% of
and waste plastic are used to partially or completely replace aggregates the total glass produced is recycled [22]. It is evident from these figures
[3,11–15]. This practice can reasonably reduce the construction ex­ that there is perpetual growth of unrecovered glass, which needs to be
penses and conserve scarce natural resources such as sand and managed consistently. Usually, reutilization of waste glass for

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (H. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132656
Received 27 January 2023; Received in revised form 6 May 2023; Accepted 28 July 2023
Available online 5 August 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

manufacturing of new products is not feasible as its chemical composi­ increase in amount of waste glass replacement in SCC mixture. Besides,
tion may vary significantly [23–25]. The discarded glass that is not sorptivity is another method to access the durability characteristics of
recovered is usually disposed in the landfills, which take a long time to concrete, has been used in several studies to investigate the effect of
get decomposed [26–28]. Glass is chemically inert as compared to other crushed recycled glass on penetrability of SCC. Ling et al. [46] analysed
conventional solid waste; hence non-biodegradable over a million year, the behaviour of water and air curing on durability properties of recy­
if embedded in soil [19]. The slower decomposition rate of glass can be a cled glass incorporated SCC mixtures. The authors observed that incre­
major environmental threat as it occupies the valuable space that could ment in glass percentage in the SCC mixture can lead to reduction in
otherwise have been utilized by biodegradable sources. The concern of sorptivity values in case of both air as well as water cured specimens.
rising global waste glass volume requires induction of new alternatives Wang and Huang [45] reported a drop in permeability ratio as the glass
through which waste glass can be efficiently utilized. sand content increased in the mix. The small particle size of glass sand
A rational way proposed by many researchers is the inclusion of (as compared to standard sand) has ability to fill the pores and refine the
waste glass in development of concrete [29–32]. Major constituent concrete skeleton, as a result of which the resistance to water perme­
component of glass is silica (SiO2), whereas other constituents may vary ability increased.
significantly [26,30,32,33]. Usually, glass in its crushed or powdered Other than permeation properties of SCC, determination of reactivity
state is used to replace either sand/aggregate or cement in the concrete of aggregates in detrimental environment is also a major durability
[19,32,34–37]. When incorporated in powdered form, glass may react concern, has been a prime interest of researchers since last two decades
with constituent elements of cement in fresh state and qualitatively [49–51]. Glass, being amorphous silica in nature, has tendency to react
change the hardened state cement phases. However, when glass, in its and produce a swelling agent, when placed under high alkaline envi­
crushed form, is used to replace natural sand and aggregates, mechan­ ronment. This phenomenon is called as alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and
ical and durability properties may be effected due to its morphological resultant compound is known as ASR gel. The gel so formed can absorb
and particle shape characteristics [36,38–40]. Besides, behaviour of water and expand causing deleterious expansion in concrete. It is for this
glass incorporated concrete in its fresh state is also a prime interest for reason that many researchers study alkali-silica reactivity of various
researchers. Though the studies revealed contradictory results; wherein glass aggregates intended for use in concrete [18,51,52]. It was observed
some reported decline in workability with increase in crushed glass that glass particle size, glass colour, presence of supple. mentary
content in the mix [34–36], whereas others reported that glass incor­ cementitious material (SCM) are some governing factors of substantial
porated mixtures were more workable than control [37,41]. Smooth ASR expansion [18,49]. As reported in numerous studies, increase in
glass texture and sharp edges were accredited for change in workability concentration of glass can further aggravate the ASR expansion [19,45].
of concrete. In case of SCC, workability is accessed by flow-ability However, the excessive expansion can be supressed by incorporating
properties such as slump flow, V-funnel and U-box test [42,43]. An SCMs such as fly ash and metakaolin (MK) [53].
improvement in flow-ability properties was observed when SCC is made MK has its wide application in cement based composites. Its advan­
using crushed recycled glass as sand replacement[27,44–46]. In most tage of imparting high strength and enhanced durability to the concrete,
cases, a gradual increase in trend is observed as glass percentage is has been well established in the existing literature[54,55]. Besides, the
increased in the mix [27,46]. ability of MK to supress ASR has also been addressed [18,53]. Authors
In general, a decline in compressive strength is observed with in­ from previous studies found that the secondary hydrates resulting from
crease in glass percentage in SCC mixtures [27,47,48]. Kou and Poon pozzolanic reactivity of MK acts as a barrier between deleterious alkali
[47] observed that there was a marginal reduction in compressive ions (present in pore structure of concrete) and siliceous aggregates,
strength as the recycled glass content increased. The reduction in which slows down the ASR reaction [52]. As a consequence of this, the
strength was attributed to poor bond between recycled glass and cement formation of expansive alkali-silica gel inside the concrete gets reduced,
paste. Ling et al. [46] proposed similar results, wherein compressive and thus reducing the crack inducing stresses inside the concrete.
split tensile strength was decreased with increase in recycled glass Durable concrete is determined by its ability to retain its quality and
content. Weak adhesion between cement paste and glass aggregate was serviceability when exposed to environment. In case of SCC made with
the reason for reduction in strength. But, to the contrary, SCC mixtures crushed recycled glass (CRG), alkali-silica reaction could be a major
containing 20% and 30% crushed waste glass, as tested by Wang and durability concern as it causes crack inducing stresses inside concrete.
Huang [45], depicted slight improvement in 90-day compressive This can be overcome by adding a suitable quantity of MK to the mix. To
strength as compared to control mix. achieve this objective, the authors used CRG and MK to develop green
Several investigations studied durability properties of flow-able and durable SCC. Simultaneous effect of CRG and MK on durability
mixtures incorporating varying quantities of crushed recycle glass and properties such as water absorption, sorptivity, rapid chloride perme­
proposed that a promising SCC can be developed without any long-term ability, drying shrinkage, water penetrability under pressure and alkali-
detrimental effects. The inclusion of recycled glass improved the ability silica reaction was studied. To substantiate the findings of the study,
of SCC to resist the penetration of chloride ions [45,47]. Non-porous field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and thermo-
nature of glass particle was the reason for reduction in chloride ion gravimetric (TG) analysis were carried out. The micro-cracks at the
permeability. Kou and Poon [47] reported that the finer particle size interface of aggregate and cement paste are considered as vital factor
distribution of recycled glass could also be a contributing factor, which from mechanical as well as durability perspective, was investigated
in turn improved the packing efficiency of concrete. Wang and Huang using FE-SEM to determine the bonding characteristics at CRG-cement
[45] observed combined effect of addition of waste LCD glass and fly ash paste interface. TG analysis was carried out for phase quantification of
to SCC, which resulted in insignificant amount of chloride ion penetra­ cement paste made with and without MK.
tion (less than 100 Coulombs) at 180-day curing period. They reported
that the addition of pozzolanic material can consistently improve the 2. Experimental program
microstructure over a long period and can prevent the ingress of chloride
ions. Other than chloride ion permeability, drying shrinkage of glass 2.1. Materials
incorporated SCC mixtures was also reported in a few investigations.
Kou and Poon [47] observed that the drying shrinkage values decreased The cement used in all the SCC mixtures was ordinary Portland
as the glass content increased in the SCC mixture. Lower water ab­ cement (OPC) of grade 43 confirming to IS 8112:2013 [56]. Chemical
sorption characteristics of glass particles could be the probable cause of properties of OPC are presented in Table 1. Metakaolin (MK) obtained
reduction in drying shrinkage values. Similar were the findings of Wang after calcination of kaolinite clay over 1100˚C was used as a cement
and Huang [45], wherein, rate of drying shrinkage reduced with substitute material. The colour of MK is off-white and average particle

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Table 1 Table 2
Chemical composition of MK, cement and CRG. Physical properties.
Composition (%) Cement MK CRG Material Specific Unit weight Water Fineness
gravity (kg/m3) absorption (%) modulus
CaO 64.8 0.2 11.7
SiO2 21.5 51.3 76.2 Coarse 2.42 1695 1.52 6.42
Al2O3 6.1 43.8 1.5 aggregate
Na2O 0.1 0.1 9.2 Fine 2.58 1254 3.45 2.65
Fe2O3 2.2 1.5 0.5 aggregate
K2O 0.6 0.4 – CRG 2.42 1236 Nil 2.45
MgO 0.8 0.3 0.2
SO3 1.92 0.05 –
CuO – – < 0.1 determine the reletive proportions of various constituents. Initially, a
reference mix was designed to target the compressive strength equal to
40 MPa. To fulfil this purpose, an adequate water/cement ratio was
size is less than 3 µm. The small particle size and larger surface area of
selected following guidelines of IS:10262-2019 [58]. Thereafter, pro­
MK can instigate the pozzolanic reactivity subsequent to hydration of
portion of each constituent such as cement content, fine aggregate and
cement. Chemical properties of MK are presented in Table 1. As per the
coarse aggregate was worked out. Subsequent to initial trial, adjust­
chemical composition of MK (Table 1), silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3)
ments were made in superplastisizer content, aggregate ratio, water and
are the dominant compounds. The specific gravity is 2.56 and loss on
cement content to achieve satisfactory performance of the mix.
ignition (LOI) is 0.91%.
Once the flow-ability criteria for given strength was met, SCC mix­
The coarse and fine aggregates used for producing SCC complied
tures were prepared with varying percentage of MK as partial cement
with guidelines of IS 383-2016 [57]. The maximum size of coarse
substitute upto 20% replacement level (at interval of 4%). As seen in
aggregate used was 12 mm. Fine aggregates used for casting of SCC was
Table 3, maximum strength was achieved at 12% replacement (51.2
in accordance with grading zone-II as per IS 383-2016 [57]. Crushed
MPa). Replacing cement with costlier MK at higher concentration levels
recycled glass (CRG) was used to partially replace fine aggregate at
(16% and 20%) resulted in uneconomical mix as there was decline in
different replacement levels (up to 50%) to study its effect on properties
strength. Thus, the study was further continued with only up to 12% MK
of resultant SCC. Crushed glass particles had smooth and glassy texture.
replacement levels. Thereafter, at each MK concentration (0%, 4%, 8%
CRG has negligible water absorption which is related to its highly ho­
and 12%), CRG was used to replace fine aggregate by volume at 0%,
mogenous matrix and non-porous surface. The percentage finer of CRG
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% replacement levels, comprising of total
and fine aggregates are presented in Fig. 1. Chemical properties of CRG
of 24 SCC mixtures. Beyond 50% CRG replacement level, all groups
are given in Table 1. Physical properties of coarse aggregates, fine ag­
witnessed a significant reduction in compressive strength below the
gregates and CRG are given in Table 2.
target value (40 MPa). Therefore, fine aggregate replacement was
To impart high fluidity to the fresh mix and reduce its water content,
ceased at 50%. Mix proportions of various SCC mixtures are presented in
a poly-carboxylic chain based superplasticizer namely, auramix-400 was
Table 4.
used as the chemical admixture. It is slightly viscous and a light yellow
coloured liquid in appearance. It has a pH of 6.0 and mass density of
2.3. Mixing procedure and casting
1.09 kg/litre.

Mixing was carried out in three stages. Initially all the dry constit­
2.2. Mixture proportions uents were mixed in the pan mixer to attain uniformity. In second stage,
half the water was added along with mixing for some time until the
The objective of the study was to investigate the simultaneous effect whole mix was homogeneously wetted. Lastly, remaining water along
of CRG and MK on durability properties of SCC. Therefore, trials were with the superplasticizer was added and mixing was further continued
performed to access the constituent composition of various mixtures, for several minutes. Fresh concrete tests such as slump flow diameter,
while abiding flow-ability requirements as per EFNARC [43] recom­ T50, sieve segregation, L-box and air content were conducted subsequent
mendations. Codal guidelines of IS:10262-2019 [58] were used to to mixing of SCC. Then the moulds were filled with concrete and was
allowed to set for twenty four hours. 150×150×150 mm3 cubes were
casted for testing compressive strength and water penetrability under
pressure. Cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height 200 mm were pre­
pared, from which 100 mm diameter × 50 mm height cylindrical discs
were cut out for testing water absorption, sorptivity and rapid chloride
permeability (RCPT) of SCC. Prisms of size 285 mm × 75 mm × 75 mm
were casted for assessing rate of drying shrinkage.

Table 3
Mix trials with various MK replacement levels.
Cement MK W/B CA FA Sp Compressive
(kg/m3) (%) ratio (kg/ (kg/ (%) strength (MPa)
m3) m3)

500 0 0.42 760 960 1.1 40.2

480 4 1.15 44.7
460 8 1.2 48.4
440 12 1.3 51.2
420 16 1.4 50.5
400 20 1.55 48.8
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of CRG and sand.

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Table 4
Mix proportions of various SCC mixtures.
Group Mix designation W/B ratio Cement (kg/m3) MK (%) Sp (%) CA (kg/m3) Fines (kg/m3)

sand CRG

Group 1 M0-G0 0.42 500 0 1.1 760 960 0

M0-G10 864 90
M0-G20 768 180
M0-G30 672 270
M0-G40 576 360
M0-G50 480 450

Group 2 M4-G0 0.42 480 4 1.15 760 960 0

M4-G10 864 90
M4-G20 768 180
M4-G30 672 270
M4-G40 576 360
M4-G50 480 450

Group 3 M8-G0 0.42 460 8 1.2 760 960 0

M8-G10 864 90
M8-G20 768 180
M8-G30 672 270
M8-G40 576 360
M8-G50 480 450

Group 4 M12-G0 0.42 440 12 1.3 760 960 0

M12-G10 864 90
M12-G20 768 180
M12-G30 672 270
M12-G40 576 360
M12-G50 480 450

2.4. Testing methods as cement substitute. The ratio by weight of binder: fine aggregates:
water was kept as 1:2.25:0.47. Twenty four hours after casting, all the
Slump flow diameter, T50, sieve segregation and L-box tests were mortar specimens were unmoulded and transferred to an 80˚C water bath
conducted on fresh concrete using methods described in EFNARC [43]. for additional one day. Then, zero reading of all the specimens were
Air content of the fresh mix was examined by pressure method using taken before immersing into 1 N NaOH solution at 80˚C. Expansion of
Type-B air meter as covered in ASTM C231 [59] with some exceptions mortar bars were determined at 1, 4, 10, 14 and 28-day immersion
for filling of concrete. Instead of compacting fresh concrete in layers, it period.
was poured inside the measuring bowl of the apparatus all at once and To investigate the effect of CRG and MK at microscopic scale, field
was allowed to consolidate under its own weight. emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) was carried out.
SCC was allowed to harden for twenty four hours, then unmoulded Whereas, thermo-gravimetric (TG) analysis was performed on cement
and immersed in curing tanks till testing age of specimens. Eventually, paste specimens to examine the chemical activity of MK, when used as
the specimens, after completion of curing period, were removed from partial cement substitute.
curing tanks and tested as per following codal provisions. Compressive
strength was carried out on 28, 90 and 365 days water cured specimens 3. Results and discussion
as per guidelines of IS 516: 1959 [60]. For each mixture, average value
of three cubes was considered as the resultant value of compressive 3.1. Flow-ability properties
strength. Water absorption, sorptivity and RCPT were conducted on 28,
90 and 365 days water cured specimens and their testing procedures The results of slump flow diameter, T50, L-box and GTM screen sta­
followed complied with ASTM C642 [61], ASTM C1585 [62] and ASTM bility test, which are indicator of flowing and filling ability of SCC, are
C1202 [63] respectively. summarised in Table 5. As the CRG percentage increased, a monotonic
To access the water penetrability of concrete under pressure, pro­ increase in slump flow diameter was observed with maximum value
cedure described in IS 516-2:2018 [64] was followed as per which 150 obtained at 50% replacement level. The results were consistent with
mm cubes, after 28 days of water curing, were subjected to 1-dimen­ those reported by Ling et al. [46] and Ouldkhaoua et al. [48], in which a
tional downward flow of tap water under constant pressure of 0.5 reduction in superplasticizer demand was observed as the glass per­
MPa for 72 h. Subsequent to this stage, the specimens were immediately centage increased. However, a converse flow-ability trend was exhibited
split into two equal halves and maximum depth of penetration (in mm) by SCC mixtures incorporating MK as cement substitute; wherein,
was noted. For evaluating drying shrinkage, three 285 mm × 75 mm × superplasticizer demand was increased as the MK dosage increased in
75 mm prisms were casted for each mixture as per specifications of the mix. The raise in Superplasticizer demand was intended to keep
ASTM C157 [65]. The reading were taken up to 220 days, while the slump flow diameter in range 650 mm to 750 mm. Madandoust and
samples were stored in environmental chamber having relative humid­ Mousavi [67] reported a reduction in flowability at higher proportion of
ity of 50% and a temperature of 23˚C. MK replacement owing to larger surface area of MK particles as
To investigate ASR expansion, accelerated mortar-bar test was car­ compared to cement.
ried out on specimens of size 285 mm × 25 mm × 25 mm following T50 test is the indicator of viscosity of the fresh SCC, is the time taken
guidelines of ASTM C1260 [66]. A total of 24 mortar mixtures were (in seconds) by fresh concrete to reach 500 mm diameter mark. The T50
prepared with varying CRG concentration (0% − 50%) to replace fine values of all the SCC mixtures lied between 2 and 5 s, which is the
aggregate while keeping MK percentage equal to 0%, 4%, 8% and 12% adequate range as prescribed by EFNARC [43] guidelines. The timings of

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Table 5
Flow-ability properties and compressive strength results of various SCC mixtures.
Designation Slump flow diameter T50 L-box Segregation ratio Air Content (%) Compressive strength (MPa)

28-day 90-day 365-day

M0-G0 675 3.7 0.85 3.9 3.0 40.2 45.8 50.6

M0-G10 683 3.2 0.86 4.2 3.4 37.7 42.7 47.8
M0-G20 703 3.6 0.87 4.8 3.0 36.5 40.7 47.1
M0-G30 711 2.7 0.89 7.2 3.2 32.7 36.9 46.4
M0-G40 725 2.6 0.9 6.1 3.3 31.1 34.1 34.8
M0-G50 745 2.4 0.93 8.2 3.4 29.2 33.1 36.2
M4-G0 663 3.9 0.83 4.2 2.9 44.7 50.7 55.4
M4-G10 675 3.8 0.86 4.5 2.7 41.5 47 50.8
M4-G20 690 3.6 0.86 5.2 2.8 40.6 45.8 49.4
M4-G30 705 3.2 0.88 6.1 2.9 37.5 42.5 47.1
M4-G40 716 2.6 0.89 6.3 3.1 33.4 37.6 41.4
M4-G50 730 2.5 0.91 7.4 3.0 31.2 35.2 40
M8-G0 647 4.1 0.84 3.1 2.6 48.4 54.3 59.4
M8-G10 660 3.9 0.84 2.8 2.7 44.8 50.6 55.2
M8-G20 670 3.5 0.85 3.7 2.8 43.5 49.4 53.7
M8-G30 685 3.1 0.86 4.6 2.7 40.1 45.1 46.5
M8-G40 700 3.1 0.88 4.9 2.9 36.6 41.5 47.1
M8-G50 714 2.5 0.88 6.4 2.9 32.6 36.6 43.4
M12-G0 642 4.3 0.82 2.6 2.4 51.2 57.8 63.5
M12-G10 652 4.7 0.83 3.4 2.5 46.8 53.3 59.5
M12-G20 663 3.9 0.84 2.8 2.6 44.1 49.7 52.4
M12-G30 675 3.2 0.86 3.3 2.6 41.1 47.1 51.8
M12-G40 693 3.2 0.85 4.2 2.8 39.2 43.7 48.1
M12-G50 710 3.0 0.87 6.5 2.6 38.6 40.5 47.4

Note: corresponding author details missing.

SCC mixtures containing higher concentration of CRG were noticeably monotonic decline in trend of compressive strength was observed with
lower than those having lesser or no CRG content. This can be accredited the maximum reduction observed at 50% glass replacement level. Un­
to morphological characteristics of CRG particles which allowed the like natural aggregate, glass surface exhibits impermeable and even
fresh cement paste to readily flow over its smooth texture without any texture that weakens the cohesive force between cement paste and CRG
resistance. For L-box test, a minimum acceptable value of 0.8 is rec­ particles; as a result of which compressive strength decreases. At a given
ommended by EFNARC [43]. As seen in Table 5, L-box ratio values of all CRG replacement level, a significant improvement in strength is
the SCC mixtures are above 0.8 which is appropriate as per codal observed as the MK content was increased. At 50% CRG replacement
guidelines. level, 28-day strength of mix containing 4%, 8% and 12% MK was 6.8%,
GTM screen stability test is used to assess segregation resistance of 11.6% and 32.2% higher respectively, as compared to M0-G50.
fresh SCC. Fifteen minutes after the mixing, fresh concrete is poured on Numerous investigations corroborate these results, which undoubtedly
5 mm sieve and its mortar fraction is allowed to pass through sieve for 2 revealed that partial substitution of cement with MK can improve the
min. Segregation ratio is the ratio of mass passing the sieve to that of strength of concrete by undergoing its pozzolanic reaction with hydra­
total poured onto sieve, is then calculated. EFNARC [43] recommends a tion product (portlandite) of cement [31,48,67,70].
value less than 15%, is deemed satisfactory for SCC to have sufficient
segregation resistance. In the present study, the segregation ratio of 3.3. Water absorption
various SCC mixtures ranged between 2 and 9. Increase in glass content
lead to substantial increase in ratio with maximum value of 8.2 obtained Durability of concrete is substantially related to its water absorption
corresponding to mix M0-G50. At a given glass replacement level, a characteristics. To determine the amount of water absorbed by the
marginal drop in segregation ratio was observed as the concentration of concrete, a change in mass of an oven dried specimen after it has been
MK increased in the mix. In general, all the mixtures exhibited appro­ immersed in water for a sufficient time is determined. Sufficient time,
priate resistance to segregation as all the ratio values were lower than here implies to immersion time of the sample until no significant in­
that specified in EFNARC (15%). Ling et al. [46] reported a decrease in crease (more than 5%) in mass is observed between two successive
segregation resistance as the recycled glass content increased, is related readings. It is generally presumed that lesser is the water absorption of
to impermeable nature of glass particle which is prone to segregation. concrete, better is its durability.
The presence of entrapped air in fresh SCC has a significant effect on In the present study, both CRG and MK resulted in decrease in water
its durability properties. The air content of various concrete mixtures in absorption of SCC as evident in Fig. 2. However, the results obtained by
its fresh state ranged between 2.4% and 3.4%. As evident in Table 5, all addition of CRG were not as significant as those obtained by incorpo­
mixtures containing higher concentration of MK (8% and 12%) exhibi­ rating MK in the mix. As the MK content raised from 0% (M0-G0) to 12%
ted lower values as compared to 0% and 4% MK mixtures. It clearly (M12-G0), water absorption reduced by 22.2 %, whereas water ab­
indicates that addition of MK marginally reduces the air content of SCC. sorption of mix M0-G50 was only 7.7% lower than M0-G0 at 28-day
Similar observations can be found in previous studies [68,69]. The finer period. The reduction in water absorption with increase in MK content
size of MK particles, owing to its filler effect, can result in enhanced is obviously due to pozzolanic reactivity as proposed in previous studies
packing of concrete with reduced entrapped air. [67,71,72]. However, contradictory results have been reported by
various authors when glass is used as partial sand substitute. In certain
3.2. Compressive strength studies, it is anticipated that hydrophobic or non-absorbent character­
istic of glass can abate water absorption of CRG incorporated concrete
The compressive strength testing was carried out up to 365 days. [40,73,74]. Whereas other reported that inclusion of glass in crushed
Results of various SCC mixtures incorporating CRG and MK are pre­ form can alter this trend, wherein angular shape and smooth texture of
sented in Table 5. With increase in CRG percentage in the mix, a waste glass was accredited for rise in water absorption [36,38]. They

5
H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 2. Water absorption of SCC mixtures.

presumed that high angularity of crushed glass particles can lead to

increase in volume of voids, thus providing more space for water to
penetrate.
The dichotomous behaviour of glass concerning water absorption
can be illustratively explained using Fig. 3. Fig. 3(a) depicts absorption
characteristics of natural sand particle while concrete specimen made
using conventional sand is immersed in water for sufficiently long time.
Fig. 3(b) illustrates a water immersed concrete specimen prepared using
CRG as sand substitute; emphasis is made on water-glass interaction of a
CRG particle embedded near one of the face of concrete specimen,
assuming its surrounding has been predominantly saturated. Being non-
porous in nature, glass particle itself is unaffected by water; however,
owing to angular shape and smooth texture of CRG, water can accu­
mulate in vicinity of glass particle as shown in Fig. 3(b). Besides, angular
shape of glass particles can reduce the packing efficiency as compared to
conventional fine aggregates which results in generation of voids,
eventually permitting more water to penetrate in concrete. Though, in
case of present study, this effect might not be as pronounced as that
characterized by natural sand particle (Fig. 3(a)) i.e. the amount of
water collected in the pore spaces around CRG particle, because of
aforementioned reasons, could be lower than that absorbed by fine
aggregate itself. This might be the cause of reduction in water absorption
of CRG incorporated SCC.
It is worth noting that among all the series of SCC mixtures, group 4
exhibited highest reduction in water absorption with increase in CRG
content, i.e. at 28-day period, water absorption of mix M12-G50 was
13.9% lower as compared to M12-G0; whereas group 1 underwent Fig. 3. Behaviour of natural sand particle and CRG embedded SCC specimen
lowest reduction as water absorption of mix M0-G50 was only 7.7% subjected to total immersion in water.

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

lower than M0-G0. Corresponding to group 2 and 3, the values of M4- consequence of which mobility of deleterious chloride ions inside con­
G50 and M8-G50 were 9.2% and 10.6% lower than M4-G0 and M8-G0 crete matrix got drastically reduced.
respectively. MK, as a result of pozzolanic reactivity, can refine the Besides, a small reduction of about 15% in chloride ion permeation
cement matrix micro-structure as well as fill in the ITZ region around was observed as the CRG content was raised from 0% to 50%; total
CRG particles. It is for this reason, the CRG incorporated SCC, when charge passed reduced from 1846C (M0-G0) to 1567C (M0-G50). In case
supplemented with MK, restricts the water to permeate inside it and of SCC mixtures containing 12% MK, total charge passed corresponding
results in lower water absorption of SCC. to mixtures M12-G0 and M12-G50 was 612C and 387C respectively,
which represents 36.8% reduction in chloride ion permeability as CRG
3.4. Sorptivity content raised from 0% to 50%. Kou and Poon [47], owing to non-
porous nature of glass particles, proposed its use as fine aggregate sub­
To examine the denseness of inner concrete matrix, sorptivity test stitute to mitigate the ingress of chloride ions. Similarly Wang and
was conducted on 28, 90 and 365-day water cured specimens. For each Huang [45] reported reduction in charge passed with increase in glass
mix, one-dimensional upward flow of water under capillary action was sand replacement ratio. Besides, the investigation by both Kou [47] and
examined up to 6 h. The rate of flow is calculated from the slope (S) of Wang [45] agree on a common consensus that finer particle size of
linear fit obtained from i vs. t1/2 graph, where i is the total water crushed glass as compared to fine aggregates can fill in between larger
absorbed per unit area (mm3/mm2) till time period t measured in sec­ sand particles and results in better packing efficiency of concrete. In case
onds. For better understanding, only the S values of various SCC mix­ of present study, it can be inferred from Fig. 1 and Table 2 that CRG
tures were evaluated and compared. As seen in Fig. 4, no strict trend is particles are finer than conventional sand; thus filler action of glass
observed as the CRG percentage is increased in the mix. However, all the particles along with its impermeable characteristics can hinder the flow
SCC mixtures incorporating 50% CRG exhibited a slight reduction in S of chloride ions through concrete.
values as compared to their corresponding 0% CRG mixtures. For
instance, 28-day sorptivity values of mix M0-G50 was 6% lower when 3.6. Drying shrinkage
compared to M0-G0. Likewise, the values of M4-G50, M8-G50 and M12-
G50 were decreased by only 6.1%, 13.1% and 17.8% when compared to To estimate drying shrinkage of hardened SCC, a length change in
mixtures M4-G0, M8-G0 and M12-G0 respectively. Therefore, it is 285 mm × 75 mm × 75 mm concrete bars were measured using digital
reasonable to say that incorporating CRG in the SCC as sand substitute length comparator. Fig. 6 presents shrinkage strain in various SCC
can marginally reduce the rate of water absorption. mixtures up to 220 days. With increase in MK content in the mix, rate of
Castro and Brito [75] found that inclusion of crushed glass as 5% and shrinkage strain reduced with 12% MK mixtures exhibiting least
10% sand substitute lowered the sorptivity of concrete whereas it was shrinkage values. Hassan et al. [79] used MK to replace OPC up to 25%
increased at 20% replacement level. The results documented by Tahwia replacement level to investigate its effect on drying shrinkage of con­
et al. [76] corroborated with findings of the present study, who deduced crete upto 400 days. Incorporating MK in concrete resulted in remark­
that sorptivity coefficients of all the mixtures incorporating waste glass able reduction in shrinkage with best results indicated by mixtures
were slightly lower than control mixtures owing to minimal water ab­ having higher dosage of MK (15 %, 20 % and 25 %). Similar findings
sorption ability of glass. On the contrary, Bisht and Ramana [38] re­ were reported by Shen et al. [54] who observed three times reduction in
ported an increase in rate of water absorption with increase in waste shrinkage of mixtures made with MK when referred to non-MK mixture.
glass content which is related to higher void ratio of concrete resulting MK can refine the pore structure of concrete (as discussed in previous
from angular shape of glass aggregates. Indeed, the explanation for sections) as a results of which lower amount of water is lost from dense
change in sorptivity of glass incorporated mixtures is same as that pro­ and compacted concrete; which can lead to reduction in shrinkage of
vided for its water absorption. concrete [54,79].
Increase in MK content significantly lowered the rate of water ab­ Addition of CRG in the mix did not significantly affect the rate of
sorption with SCC mixtures containing 12% MK exhibiting least flow shrinkage in concrete. The effect was minimal in case of 0% MK mix­
rates. At 28-day curing period, sorptivity of M12-G0 was 46% lower than tures; wherein change in drying shrinkage was insignificant as glass
M0-G0. In fact, all 12% MK mixtures showed almost half the rate of percentage was increased. This might be related to the fact that absence
water absorption as compared to 0% MK mixtures. MK reacts with of MK resulted in porous cement paste which compromised the effect of
portlandite, a hydration product of hardened cement, forms addition glass particles on drying shrinkage. However, in case of mixtures con­
CSH gel and refine the pore structure of concrete. As a result of densi­ taining MK as cement substitute, a marginal reduction in shrinkage was
fication of concrete matrix, the secondary gel so formed can discontinue observed as CRG content was raised. Lower water absorption charac­
the permeable capillary pores and subside the rate of flow in concrete teristics and high elastic modulus of glass particles could be the probable
[72,77]. cause of reduction in drying shrinkage, as justification provided by
various researchers [45,47,80].
3.5. Chloride penetrability of SCC It is worth noting that incorporating MK in SCC proved to be ad­
vantageous as its addition to concrete, apart from abating shrinkage on
Rapid chloride ion permeability test (RCPT) was conducted to access its own (because of dense microstructure), can further reduce the drying
the ingress of deleterious chloride ions into the concrete. Total charge shrinkage when supplemented with CRG (Fig. 6). These findings are
passed (in coulombs) up to 6 h was evaluated for 28, 90 and 365-day consistent with Du and Tan [80]; as per their study, three series of
water cured specimens using test setup prepared as per specifications crushed glass incorporated concrete mixtures were developed having
of ASTM C1202 [63]. As evident from Fig. 5, curing period of concrete, 28-day compressive strength of 30, 45 and 60 MPa. In each of the series,
increase in Glass percentage and MK content contributes to reduce the glass replaced up to 100% of sand. Drying shrinkage decreased with
penetrability of chloride ions. However, MK was found to be most sub­ increase in glass content in case of mixtures targeting 45 and 60 MPa
stantial in mitigating this effect. At 28-day curing period, almost three- strength. Mixtures intended for 30 MPa compressive strength were un­
fold reduction in total charge passed is observed as MK dosage increased affected as the glass concentration was increased, owing to highly
from 0% to 12%. Sujjavanich et al. [70], through experimental inves­ porous concrete matrix.
tigation, observed that mixtures rich in MK showed improved resistance
from chloride permeability as compared to control specimen. Kannan 3.7. Water penetrability under pressure
[78] found that inclusion of MK in SCC can hinder the continuity of pore
structure through its pozzolanic reactivity with Ca(OH)2; as a After the application of 0.5 MPa water pressure on SCC cubes for 72

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 4. Sorptivity of various SCC mixtures.

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 5. Rapid chloride permeability of SCC mixtures.

h, cubes were split into two halves and average penetration depth of smaller particle size. Contrary to this, Tanwar et al. [36], in their
three cubes was examined for each mix. Inclusion of MK decreased the investigation on the effect of crushed beverage glass waste on perme­
penetration depth up to a significant extent. Moreover this reduction ation characteristics of concrete, observed an increase in water pene­
effect was more pronounced at higher MK levels with 12% replacement tration depth as a consequence of permeable spaces present between
indicating maximum reduction in penetration depth. As evident from cement paste matrix and glass particles.
existing literature, MK, aside from imparting enhanced strength to
concrete, is substantially effective in improving its durability properties
[67,77,79]. Specifically, permeation properties can be considerably 3.8. ASR expansion
improved. The results of present investigation agree with their findings.
As seen in Fig. 7, incorporation of CRG did not significantly affect the Fig. 8 represents expansion results of mortar bar specimens made
penetration depth of water inside concrete. The depth up to which water with various CRG and MK replacement levels. Evidently, ASR expansion
penetrates when forced to flow inside concrete depends dominantly on increased with increase in CRG content. This increment in length change
hardened cement paste pore structure. In case of group 1 mixtures (MK (of mortar bars) was drastic in case of 0% MK mixtures (Fig. 8(a)) with
0%), the high porosity of concrete might have impaired the effect of CRG mix M0-G50 exhibiting highest expansion (more than 400% as
replacement in concrete; consequently, the change in water penetration compared to 0% CRG specimen). As per the guidelines of ASTM C1260
depth as CRG content raised was trivial. However, in case of MK [66], an expansion less than 0.1% after 14 days of immersion is deemed
incorporated mixtures (especially group 3 (MK8) and group 4 (MK12) innocuous. However, the values of mix M0-G40 and M0-G50 exceeded
mixtures), penetration depth was decreased imperceptibly with increase the prescribed limit which is indicative of its potentially deleterious
in CRG content. The simultaneous effect of finer CRG and pozzolanic performance as per durability standards. The unacceptable expansion is
reactivity of MK could be related to this reduction in water permeability. related to amorphous silica present inside CRG particles in abundance,
Incorporation of CRG in SCC, because of its finer particle size as which gets dissolved by hydroxyl ions present in alkaline pore solution
compared to sand, fills in the smaller pores and improves the packing and forms ASR gel [49]. It swells by absorbing surrounding moisture and
efficiency. This effect of CRG when accompanied with MK can result in causes crack inducing stresses inside the concrete.
denser concrete matrix and hinder the downward flow of water inside It was apparent from Fig. 8(b – d) that incorporation of MK as partial
concrete. Aghabaglou et al. [81] reported a slight improvement in water cement substitute suppressed the excessive expansion of CRG particles.
penetrability of fine glass aggregate incorporated concrete mixtures On comparing 14-day expansion of different mixtures made with 50%
with increasing glass content. Similarly, Wang and Huang [45] reported CRG, M12-G50 witnessed maximum reduction in length (75%) as
a drop in permeability ratio as glass sand content increased owing to its compared to M0-G50; whereas in case of M8-G50 and M4-G50 the
expansion was 68% and 40% less than M0-G50 respectively. The

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 6. Drying shrinkage of various SCC mixtures.

Fig. 7. Water penetrability of various SCC mixtures.

probable cause behind the slackened ASR reaction is the pore structure efficiently supress the deleterious reaction between CRG and alkalis
densification of matrix through pozzolanic reactivity of MK which de­ present in the pore solution making it as effective supplement for miti­
celerates the mobility of moisture and harmful hydroxyl ions. Besides, gating ASR expansion in concrete.
the secondary hydration products formed from pozzolanic reaction
provides adsorption sites for binding ASR causing alkalis, thus limiting
the formation of alkali silica gel [53,82]. Thus it can be said that MK can

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H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 8. ASR expansion of various mortar mixtures.

3.9. Thermo-gravimetric (TG) analysis improvement in durability properties of MK incorporated SCC mixtures
(as discussed in section 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8) is reasonably
TG analysis was performed on cement paste specimens to identify consistent with TG analysis results.
different hydration products present. Two types of paste specimens were
prepared having cement replacement ratios of 0% and 12% by meta­
3.10. FE-SEM analysis
kaolin. Water/binder ratio was kept equal to 0.42. 24 h after mixing,
hardened cement paste specimens were allowed to cure inside condi­
Field emission scanning electron microscopic (FE-SEM) analysis was
tioning chamber set at 25 ◦ C and relative humidity of 90% for 28 days
used to examine the mechanical interaction between different constit­
(as per procedure followed by Mao et al. [83]). Thereafter, the samples
uent components of hardened concrete. The samples, in form of small
were crushed into powder form for performing TG analysis. The samples
chunks, were collected from 28-day water cured specimens. Fine
were kept under protection environment of N2 and heated from 30 ◦ C to
aggregate and CRG particle embedded specimens were cautiously ob­
850 ◦ C range; heating rate was 10 ◦ C/minute.
tained for investigation of their interfacial bonding characteristics with
The mass loss curves obtained after conducting TG analysis are
hydrated cement paste. With an intent of comprehensible comparison
presented in Fig. 9, wherein MK-0 and MK-12 represents cement paste
between sand particle vs. CRG particle, scale was kept constant while
specimens made using MK as 0% and 12% cement substitute. In general,
capturing images of their interface with hardened cement paste.
the mass loss related to decomposition of CSH and ettringite is usually
Fig. 10(a) represents FE-SEM micrograph of M0-G0 mixture, depicts
below 450 ◦ C [84,85]; and Ca(OH)2 is dehydrated in temperature range
interfacial micro-crack between natural fine aggregate particle and
of about 400 ◦ C to 500 ◦ C [83–85]. As seen from TG curves (Fig. 9(b)),
cement paste. As anticipated, sand particles exhibits uneven surface and
the mass loss below 450 ◦ C was higher in case of MK-12 specimen as
develops a better interlocking with the cement paste; whereas CRG
compared to MK-0. This signifies that more hydration products (CSH
possess impermeable smooth surface as evident in Fig. 10(b – d).
and ettringite) were formed when MK was supplemented with cement,
Therefore, a relatively weak interface between glass particle and cement
even though the total binder content is same as that of MK-0. Further­
paste was observed in case of M0-G50 mix (Fig. 10(b)), when compared
more, a considerably smaller peak was found in interval 400 ◦ C to 500 ◦ C
to sand-cement paste ITZ (Fig. 10(a)). However, incorporating MK in
for MK-12 when compared with MK-0 (Fig. 9(a)), which implies that a
SCC, besides improving cement paste pore structure, can also refine
significant amount of Ca(OH)2 was consumed during pozzolanic reac­
CRG-cement interface by developing secondary CSH in vicinity of glass
tivity with MK, sparing behind a lesser amount at the time of TG anal­
particle. This was evident in Fig. 10(d), which represents interfacial
ysis. These results firmly corroborate with the previous findings, which
micro-crack between glass-cement paste of mixture M12-G50; revealed
suggest that additional CSH formed by incorporating MK in cement
a better interface packing than that of M0-G50 (Fig. 10(b)). The com­
based materials can refine the pore structure, impart additional strength
bined effect of impermeable CRG particles and reduced micro-crack
and improve its durability [83,84,86,87]. Moreover, the remarkable
width at CRG-paste interface could be the probable reason of

11
H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

Fig. 9. TGA plots indicating mass loss of various hydration products.

Fig. 10. SEM images showing interfacial micro-cracks of mix (a) M0-G0, (b) M0-G50, (c) M8-G50 and (d) M12-G50.

12
H. Singh and R. Siddique Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132656

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