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The Bioarchaeology of Ritual
and Religion
The Bioarchaeology of riTual
and religion

edited by

aleXandra liVarda, richard MadgWicK

and SanTiago riera Mora

Oxford & Philadelphia

Published in the United Kingdom in 2018 by
OXBOW BOOKS
The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JE

and in the United States by

OXBOW BOOKS
1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083

© Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2018

Hardback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-828-2

Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-829-9 (epub)

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library and the Library of Congress

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact:

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Front cover: Top: Reconstruction of wooden bier, containing a body, flower and other offerings within a hide wrapped with rope from
the late Bronze Age funerary cave site Cova des Pas, Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. © Alex Solé
Bottom: Individual on a wooden bier buried in the late Bronze Age funerary cave site Cova des Pas, Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain.
© Alex Solé
 Contents

List of Tables, Figures and Platesvii

List of Contributorsx
Acknowledgementsxii

Prefacexiii
Alexandra Livarda, Richard Madgwick and Santiago Riera Mora

1. Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives1

Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick
2. Sacred to the Soil: Micromorphology, Geoarchaeology, and the Bioarchaeology of Ritual and Religion,
with Reference to the Iron Age Site of High Pasture Cave, Scotland14
Jo McKenzie
3. Pollen Signatures of a Ritual Process in the Collective Burial Cave of Cova des Pas (Late Bronze Age,
Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain)28
Santiago Riera Mora, Gabriel Servera-Vives, Llorenç Picornell-Gelabert, Manon Cabanis, Marzia Boi and
Yannick Miras
4. The Final Masquerade: Resinous Substances and Roman Mortuary Rites44
Rhea Brettell, Eline Schotsmans, William Martin, Ben Stern and Carl Heron
5. Plant Rituals and Fuel in Roman Cemeteries of Apulia (SE Italy)58
Valentina Caracuta and Girolamo Fiorentino
6. Feasting in a Sacred Grove: A Multidisciplinary Study of the Gallo-Roman Sanctuary of Kempraten, Switzerland69
Pirmin Koch, Örni Akeret, Sabine Deschler-Erb, Heide Hüster-Plogmann, Christine Pümpin and Lucia Wick
7. Ritual Meals and Votive Offerings: Shells and Animal Bones at the Archaic Sanctuary of Apollo at Ancient Zone,
Thrace, Greece86
Rena Veropoulidou and Daphne Nikolaidou
8. Animals and Rituals in Iron Age Iberian Settlements in the Region of Valencia, Spain99
Maria Pilar Iborra Eres
9. Animal Biographies in the Iron Age of Wessex: Winnall Down, UK, Revisited115
James Morris
10. Faunal Remains and Ritualisation: Case Studies from Bronze Age Caves in Central Italy129
Letizia Silvestri, Mario F. Rolfo, Micaela Angle, Robin Skeates and Leonardo Salari
11. Towards an Archaeology of the Social Meanings of the Environment: Plants and Animals at the Prehistoric
Ceremonial and Funerary Staggered Turriform of Son Ferrer (Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain)148
Llorenç Picornell-Gelabert, Manuel Calvo Trias, Jaume Garcia Rosselló, Gabriel Servera-Vives,
Giovanna Bosi, Jordi Nadal Lorenzo, Santiago Riera Mora and Ethel Allué
vi Contents

12. Animals and Worldviews: A Diachronic Approach to Tooth and Bone Pendants from the Mesolithic
to the Medieval Period in Estonia162
Tõnno Jonuks and Eve Rannamäe
13. Birds in Death: Avian Archaeology and the Mortuary Record in the Scottish Islands179
Julia Best and Jacqui Mulville
14. Beyond Bones: Ritual and Social Secrets in Archaeological Remains193
Brian Hayden
 List of Tables, Figures and Plates

Tables
Table 2.1 Table showing presence or absence of key micromorphological indicators against pH, total P and spikes in
associated grain/bone content, resolved to micro-lens and by phase, content and stratigraphic block.
Table 3.1 Main features of the studied individuals, including gender, age and radiocarbon dating, and brief description
of the microcontexts of samples.
Table 4.1 Fragrant plant products mentioned in the primary sources by name or geographical region in relation to
Roman mortuary practices.
Table 4.2 Results of the chemical analysis of samples from Roman period inhumations from continental Europe,
compiled from the literature.
Table 4.3 Burials from Roman Britain found to contain resinous substances.
Table 5.1 Results of the plant macroremains’ analysis in the necropolis of Via Ciotta, 1st century AD.
Table 5.2. Results of the archaebotanical analysis of the necropolis of Masseria Amendola, 1st–2nd century AD.
Table 7.1 Spatial distribution of animal and molluscan remains at the ritual complex of Apollo.
Table 7.2 Fragmentation patterns (based on NISP) in the sanctuary of Apollo.
Table 7.3 Skeletal representation of the main anatomical elements (NISP) at the ritual complex of Apollo.
Table 10.1. Caves with published zooarchaeological reports and the type of information included.
Table 10.2 Age classes of the main domestic taxa (MNI) from Early–Middle Bronze Age caves sites and settlements.
Table 10.3 Animal taxa from the three new Early-Middle Bronze Age caves by Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI).
Table 10.4 Animal species identified in the caves and settlements analysed by Number of Identified Specimens (NISP).
Table 11.1 Bioarchaeological records from Son Ferrer considered in this paper.
Table 11.2 Results of seeds and fruits analysis of the Late Iron Age SU 9/101/Funerary Context I.
Table 11.3 Results of the charcoal analysis at Son Ferrer. Percentages are shown only for Funerary Context I SU 9/101.
Table 11.4 Results of the zooarchaeological analysis by NISP and MNI.
Table 12.1 Tooth and bone pendants (n = 1316) by time period, archaeological site and identified taxon.
Table 13.1 Details of sites producing eagle bones by NISP (Number of Identified Specimens).

Figures
Figure 2.1 a) Plan view of precinct in Phase 3: walkway, stairwell and central hearth; b) View of stairwell base from
cave interior; c) Schematic section of the stairwell as continuing from (a), depicting the link between cave and
precinct, the stairwell backfill stratigraphy and the position of the late stairwell inhumation.
Figure 3.1 Selected pollen taxa from the sedimentological profile 11L and of the moss cushion located near the cave’s
entrance.
Figure 3.2 Selected pollen curves of 40 studied samples ordered following the cluster analysis.
Figure 3.3 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of pollen assemblages.
Figure 3.4 Selected pollen taxa from samples located in different parts of the corpse of individual 33.
viii List of Tables, Figures and Plates

Figure 3.5 Selected pollen taxa from samples located in different parts of the corpse of individual 22.
Figure 5.1 a) The location of the necropolises mentioned in the text in Italy: 1. Lylibaem; 2. Porta Nocera; 3. Piazzetta
Cervi, Epulione and Caserma Roasio. b) Position of Via Ciotta and Masseria Amendola in north Apulia and
other key archaeological sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 5.2 Histogram of the archaeobotanical remains found in the burials of the necropolis of Via Ciotta.
Figure 6.1 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. The sanctuary with its main Roman-period structures
Figure 6.2 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Spatial distribution of the plant macrofossils.
Figure 6.3 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Pie chart showing the frequency (%) of hand-retrieved large
animal bones.
Figure 6.4 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) needles from pit 1334 with detail.
Figure 6.5 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Long bone fragments of fowl.
Figure 6.6 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Equid bones with cut marks.
Figure 6.7 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Spatial distribution of pike (Esox lucius) remains.
Figure 7.1 Map of Greece with the location of ancient Zone and other sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 8.1 Location of the sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 8.2 El Molón (4th–1st c. BC). Location of infant burials and animal deposits. Plan of deposits A5/504 and
C16/16008.
Figure 8.3 EL Molón. Cuts marks on pig bones.
Figure 8.4 EL Molón. Possible human bite marks on pig bones.
Figure 8.5 El Molón. Location and plan of the tower deposit B8 1a/8032.
Figure 8.6 La Bastida. A) Location and plan of the west gate deposit; B) Distribution of the materials; iron weapons;
cloves and iron works door fittings; ceramics; animal bones; charcoal; seeds and fruits.
Figure 8.7 El Puig d’Alcoi. House 200.
Figure 8.8 Area 7000. A) Cuts on distal humerus; B) sheep cut marks on the shaft of the humerus; C) sheep burned
bones; and D) two terracotta loom weights and a sickle-shaped knife.
Figure 9.1 Plan of the partial horse burial from pit 10161, Winnall Down.
Figure 9.2 A simplified schematic biography of the partial horse burial from pit 10161, Winnall Down.
Figure 9.3 Plan of early Iron Age Winnall Down.
Figure 9.4 Plan of middle Iron Age Winnall Down.
Figure 9.5 Plan of pit 4006.
Figure 9.6 Bar chart showing the proportion of cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse and dog from the disarticulated assemblage
NISP (Number of Identified Specimens Present) counts and the ABGs for early and middle Iron Age
Winnall Down.
Figure 10.1 Location of central Italian Middle Bronze Age caves with published zooarchaeological reports.
Figure 10.2 Distribution of animal taxa from Early–Middle Bronze Age caves by Number of Identified Specimens (NISP)
percentage.
Figure 10.3 Plan of Grotta di Mora Cavorso with location of the archaeological soundings and the Middle Bronze
Age deposits.
Figure 10.4 Age classes of sheep/goats by Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) in the three caves under study.
Figure 10.5 Age classes of pigs by Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) in the three caves under study.
Figure 10.6 Plan of Grotta del Pertuso (left) and Plan of Grotticella W2 (right).
Figure 10.7 Pie chart of botanical taxa found at Mora Cavorso (sample of 4179, c. 5% of estimated total).
Figure 10.8 Plan of Grotta Regina Margherita with location of the archaeological soundings.
Figure 10.9 Body part distribution (NISP) for the main taxa identified in ritual deposits from cave and settlement sites
where information is available and for which intentional selections appear more evident.
Figure 11.1 Location map of the Son Ferrer site and the Calvià peninsula in the south-west of Mallorca.
Figure 11.2 Results of pollen analysis.
Figure 12.1 Archaeological sites (n = 78) of the analysed tooth and bone pendants (n = 1316) in Estonia.
Figure 12.2 Selection of tooth pendants and animal figurines from the Stone Age.
Figure 12.3 Selection of animal pendants from the Late Iron Age.
Figure 13.1 Map of Scottish islands showing sites which produced eagle bones.
 List of Tables, Figures and Plates ix

Plates
Plate 1 a) The location of High Pasture Cave, south-east Isle of Skye, Western Isles of Scotland; b) The site under
excavation.
Plate 2 a) The cave entrance with precinct fully excavated and primary walkway visible, looking NE; b) View N
along the walkway towards the cave. Unexcavated precinct deposits and the in-situ stairwell obscuring the
cave entrance; c) SW precinct view from the cave, showing boulder infill into sections of the walkway;
d) Excavation within the cave passage.
Plate 3 a) View NNE through the deep and complex precinct deposits, showing the partially revealed primary
walkway and the natural cave entrance at the base of the limestone face; b) Fuel residue and midden
accumulation near the precinct centre; c) N view of the Phase 3 stairwell, showing retaining wall and paved
landing; d) NE view of the Phase 4 stairwell inserted within the Phase 3 structure.
Plate 4 Micromorphology in context: a) Fuel residues in Slide 7 (C2.15b); b) Section (W), showing Kubiëna
positions; c) Section at (b), alongside d) Schematic illustration of thin section micro-stratigraphies (complex
sections enlarged), and; e) Chart summarising bioarchaeological features of related stratigraphic blocks.
Plate 5 Photomicrographs: a) Micro-lenses showing horizontal lamination of charcoal fragments (ch) in C2.15b; b)
Burnt peat (p) in C2.26a; c) Detail of bone fragment in C2.15b; d) Burnt bone concentration (bb) in C2.15b;
e) Bone fragments (b) in C2.06a; f) Amorphous phosphatic accumulations (ph) in C2.26a; g) Calcium-iron-
phosphate pedofeatures showing radial crystallisation (cp) in C2.16b; h) Detail showing dissolution of bone
in C2.03b.
Plate 6 a) The island of Minorca and the location of Cova des Pas and other funerary caves and hypogea mentioned
in the text; b) view of the Trebalúger cliff-wall and the entrance of the cave; c) plan of the cave showing the
location of the studied corpses and the sedimentological profile; d) view of a plant fibre rope tying the feet of
individual 33; and e) view of individual 33 with plant branches covering the hands and the skull.
Plate 7 Reconstruction of the successive actions that configure the funerary ritual at Cova des Pas and the main plants
used in each step. Selected examples of common Minorcan plants whose pollen grains could correspond to
the identified pollen morphotypes are also shown.
Plate 8 Late Roman inhumation in stone sarcophagus (Grab 107), St. Maximin, Trier, Germany.
Plate 9 Examples of the range of samples and the distribution of Roman burials from Britain analysed as part of
this project.
Plate 10 Total ion current chromatogram showing the range of terpenic compounds characteristic of frankincense
(Boswellia spp. gum-resin) combined with a lesser amount of a Pinaceae resin, in samples from the Roman
period cremation burial, Mersea Island Barrow. Essex, UK.
Plate 11 Rapperswil-Jona, Kempraten Seewiese. Details of thin sections.
Plate 12 Aerial photograph of the ritual complex of Apollo.
Plate 13 Shells.
Plate 14 Animal bones.
Plate 15 EL Molón. Cut marks and possible human bite marks on pig’s left femur.
Plate 16 a) Plan and section of the hypogeum; b) Image of the interior of the hypogeum after excavation; c) Image of
the access of the hypogeum from the entrance corridor; d) Plan of the staggered turriform of Son Ferrer.
Plate 17 Current view of the staggered turrifom of Son Ferrer (Calvià, Mallorca) after excavation and restoration.
Plate 18 Pisum sativum (pea) seed identified in the Funerary Context I (SU 9/101).
Plate 19 Faunal remains of the SU 56, Late Iron Age votive offerings at the exterior of the turriform.
Plate 20 Female inhumation from the settlement-cemetery of Tamula I.
Plate 21 White-tailed eagle in flight.
Plate 22 Image shows vultures defleshing a human cadaver in Tibet.
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 List of Contributors

Akeret, Örni – Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Caracuta, Valentina – Laboratory of Archaeobotany and
Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145, CH-4055 Basel, Palaeoecology (L.A.P.), University of Salento, Via Birago
Switzerland. 64, 73100, Lecce, Italy.

Allué, Ethel – Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology Deschler-Erb, Sabine – Integrative Prehistory and
and Social Evolution – University Rovira i Virgili. Campus Archaeological Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145,
Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), CP 43007, Tarragona, Spain. CH-4055 Basel, Switzerland.

Angle, Micaela – Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici Fiorentino, Girolamo – Laboratory of Archaeobotany
del Lazio, Via Pompeo Magno 2, I-00192, Rome, Italy. and Palaeoecology (L.A.P.), University of Salento, Via
Birago 64, 73100, Lecce, Italy.
Best, Julia – Department of Archaeology, Anthropology
and Forensic Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Garcia Rosselló, Jaume – ArqueoUIB Research Group,
Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole, BH12 University of the Balearic Islands. Carretera de Valldemossa
5BB, UK. Km. 7,5, CP 07122, Palma, Spain.
School of History, Archaeology and Religion, Cardiff
University, John Percival Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, Hayden, Brian – Anthropology Department, University of
CF10 3EU, UK. British Columbia, 213-6303 NW Marine Drive, Vancouver,
British Columbia, V6T 1Z1, Canada.
Boi, Marzia – Department of Biology-Botany, University
of the Balearic Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa Km 7.5, Heron, Carl – Department of Scientific Research, The
CP07122, Palma, Mallorca, Spain. British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, WC1B
3DG, UK.
Bosi, Giovanna – Laboratorio di Palinologia a
Paleobotanica - Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Hüster Plogmann, Heide – Integrative Prehistory and
Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia. Viale Archaeological Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145,
Caduti in Guerra 127 41121, Modena, Italy. CH-4055 Basel, Switzerland.

Brettell, Rhea – Archaeological Sciences, Faculty of Life Iborra Eres, Maria Pilar – C/Conde Olocau, 1–5. 46003,
Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, Valencia, Spain.
BD7 1DP, UK.
Jonuks, Tõnno – Department of Folkloristics, Estonian
Cabanis, Manon – INRAP. Institut National de Recherches Literary Museum, Vanemuise 42, 51003, Tartu, Estonia.
Archéologiques Préventives, 13 bis rue Pierre Boulanger,
63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France. CNRS, Université Koch, Pirmin – University of Cologne/D and
Clermont Auvergne, GEOLAB, F-63000, Clermont– Kantonsarchäologie St.Gallen, Rorschacherstrasse 23,
Ferrand, France. CH-9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland.

Calvo Trias, Manuel – ArqueoUIB Research Group, Livarda, Alexandra – Department of Classics and
University of the Balearic Islands. Carretera de Valldemossa Archaeology, University of Nottingham, University Park,
Km. 7,5, CP 07122, Palma, Spain. Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
 List of Contributors xi

Madgwick, Richard – School of History, Archaeology and Riera Mora, Santiago – Seminary of Prehistoric Studies
Religion, Cardiff University, John Percival Building, Colum and Research Department of History and Archaeology,
Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU, UK. Section Prehistory and Archaeology. University of
Barcelona. C/Montalegre 6. 08001, Barcelona.
Martin, William – Chemistry and Forensic Sciences,
Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, Rolfo, Mario F. – Dipartimento di Storia, Cultura e
West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK. Società, Università “Tor Vergata”, Via Columbia 1, I-00163,
Rome, Italy.
McKenzie, Jo – Archaeological Sciences, Faculty of Life
Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, Salari, Leonardo – Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra,
BD7 1DP, UK. “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5,
I-00185, Rome, Italy.
Miras, Yannick – CNRS, Université Clermont Auvergne,
GEOLAB, F-63000 Clermont–Ferrand, France. Schotsmans, Eline – PACEA, UMR 5199, CNRS-
Université de Bordeaux, Bât. B8, Allee Geoffroy St Hilaire,
Morris, James – School of Forensic and Applied Science, CS 50023, 33615 Pessac Cedex, France.
University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
Servera-Vives, Gabriel – Department of Historical
Mulville, Jacqui – School of History, Archaeology and Sciences and Theory of Art, University of the Balearic
Religion, Cardiff University, John Percival Building, Colum Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa Km 7.5, CP 07122,
Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU, UK. Palma, Mallorca, Spain.
Seminary of Prehistoric Studies and Research Department
Nadal Lorenzo, Jordi – SERP. Seminary of Prehistoric of History and Archaeology, Section Prehistory and
Studies and Research, Department of History and Archaeology. University of Barcelona. C/Montalegre 6.
Archaeology, Section Prehistory and Archaeology. 08001, Barcelona.
University of Barcelona. C/Montalegre 6. 08001, Barcelona.
Silvestri, Letizia – Department of Archaeology, Durham
Nikolaidou, Daphne – Austrian Archaeological Institut University, South Road, DH1 3LE, Durham, UK.
(Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut), Franz Klein-
Gasse 1, A-1190, Vienna, Austria. Skeates, Robin – Department of Archaeology, Durham
University, South Road, DH1 3LE, Durham, UK.
Picornell-Gelabert, Llorenç – Department of Historical
Sciences and Theory of Art, University of the Balearic Stern, Ben – Archaeological Sciences, Faculty of Life
Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa Km 7.5, CP 07122, Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire,
Palma, Mallorca, Spain. BD7 1DP, UK.
Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique: sociétés, pratiques
et environnements, UMR 7209 of the CNRS – Muséum Veropoulidou, Rena – Museum of Byzantine Culture,
National d’Histoire Naturelle – Sorbonne Universités. 55 Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, Leoforos Stratou 2,
Rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France. 54640, Thessaloniki, Greece.

Pümpin, Christine – Integrative Prehistory and Wick, Lucia – Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological
Archaeological Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145, Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145, CH-4055 Basel,
CH-4055 Basel, Switzerland. Switzerland.

Rannamäe, Eve – Institute of History and Archaeology,

University of Tartu, Jakobi 2, 51014 Tartu, Estonia;
BioArCh, Department of Archaeology, University of York,
Environment Building, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD,
United Kingdom.
 Acknowledgements

Several people have contributed to the preparation of this and the generous work they put into improving this volume.
volume to which we would like to express our warm thanks. We would also like to thank Kathy Twiss for insightful
Firstly, to all the authors of the chapters for their excellent conversations relating to the volume. We are also grateful
collaboration during the often lengthy review process and to Alex Solé for providing the images for the front cover, to
for adhering to the tight deadlines of the publication process. Kirsty Harding and Katie Allen for its design and to Hector A.
Also, to all the participants of our session at the 2014 EAA Orengo for his help with processing the figures of the volume.
conference for their contribution to stimulating discussions Finally, many thanks are due to Oxbow Books and particularly
on rituals that formed the springboard of this publication. We to Clare Litt and Julie Gardiner for their guidance and help
are indebted to the 23 reviewers for their insightful comments throughout the publication process.
 Preface

The chapters in this volume derive from invited papers with an emphasis on the often neglected bioarchaeological
and contributions to a session of the same title at the remains. A number of very welcome submissions to this
conference of the European Association of Archaeologists volume provided fine-grained studies on precise practices,
in Istanbul in 2014. The broad objectives of the session revealing patterns of activity that would often be beyond
were threefold. Firstly, to showcase new research on ritual the scope of conventional analyses. The session showcased
and religion relating directly to perishable material culture, research from a comprehensive range of bioarchaeological
with the bioarchaeological disciplines other than human sub-disciplines and included discursive contributions on
osteoarchaeology, being at the centre of research. Secondly, approaches to ritual and religion. Whilst some of the diversity
to build on recent approaches to ritual research in attempting of the session has been lost in this volume, contributions are
to transcend the dichotomy between sacred and profane still presented from zooarchaeology, archaeomalacology,
aspects. Rather than explaining signatures that are contrary to archaeobotany, anthracology, palynology, organic residue
the norm, the session centred on rituals as social phenomena, analysis, soil micromorphology and geoarchaeology.
with performative, prescribed and repetitive actions being Common themes are evident across many of the papers
stressed in the call for papers. Thirdly, to bring together (see also Chapter 1), with analyses often extending beyond
research from a range of bioarchaeological sub-disciplines, the standard approaches employed for a site report in order
that are infrequently presented together, with the aim of to reconstruct social practices in detail. The integration of
crossing boundaries and building links across common multi-factorial data was also a common thread across many
research themes and approaches. A total of 33 presentation papers. Ultimately, this volume aims to showcase the current
proposals were submitted from across Europe covering state of engagement of bioarchaeology with research on
an impressive chronological span, from the Mesolithic to ritual and religion, but also its potential and the need to fully
the post-medieval period. The term ritual still engenders incorporate this line of evidence in order to achieve more
a common focus on the sacred and the vast majority of holistic readings of past worldviews and lifeways.
submissions, as expected, focused on contexts with clear Alexandra Livarda, Richard Madgwick
ceremonial links, such as mortuary or funerary settings, but and Santiago Riera-Mora
 Chapter 1

Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives

Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

Michel Tournier, in his novel Friday, or, the Other Island or other solemn ceremony (ritual, adj./n., Oxford English
(Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique, 1967), rewrites the Dictionary). However, the term has frequently been used to
history of Robinson Crusoe. Tournier’s Robinson, after mean a habitual or customary activity and is thus as likely
a long phase of exhausting loneliness in an island in the to refer to practices in daily routines. It should be noted,
Pacific ‘losing’ himself, constructs an hourglass to control however, that many researchers distinguish between custom
the time. He then enters into a strict regime of activities, and ritual by maintaining that the latter is concerned with the
such as producing grain and legislating, the latter in front supernatural and involves a public aspect (e.g. Groot 2008,
of a lectern while dressed in the best clothes rescued from 99, and references therein). Regardless of the definition,
the shipwreck. All these activities occurred daily until one rituals can be seen as projections of what a social unit, no
day he realises that he can get out of his strict schedule of matter how small or big, considers important, its beliefs,
ceremonies by stopping the hourglass, stopping the time, moral and behavioural systems within specific cultural and
and indulge into dedicating all the time to his inner self and temporal contexts. Even in the case of the ‘habitual’ and
to his reconciliation with the island. The rituals imposed ‘customary’ definition of rituals, these refer to established
by this Robinson were the backbone, the structure framing actions and procedures that have been accepted as important
his new life on a deserted island, much needed to regain or simply socially approved to allow for their repetitive
human qualities as he knew them. Whereas food sustained function at a personal or social level. Rituals, therefore,
the physical individual, these rituals served to sustain his may be considered as the materialisation of a form of group
social being. In the absence of other people and a society to values, which result from a series of negotiations that bridge
live in, Tournier’s Robinson Crusoe at some point felt the potentially conflicting interests and new realities, and can be
need to recreate the norms that he knew, the norms upon experienced and interpreted differently by each participating
which society, as he knew it, was based. agent. Consequently, rituals are complex and multifarious in
It is how this Robinson Crusoe experienced his their rationale and manifestation, depending on the specific
reintroduction into what he understood as social life that context and historicity of a given social group, and do not
perhaps best exemplifies how rituals can be viewed: as thus sit neatly within a single definition.
a performance, a repetitive and formal activity. So far A more practical approach to the subject has been teasing
numerous definitions have been attempted to explain the term out the attributes of ritual as implied in the plurality of its
‘ritual’, a divisive and heavily loaded term in archaeological attempted definitions. Bell’s (2009) list of six such basic
research, bound up with notions of sacredness, symbolism, characteristics, described as ‘neither exclusive nor definitive’
ceremony and the unexplained. Ritual in archaeology (Bell 2009, 138) is currently still the most comprehensive
has long been informally defined almost by process of attempt:
elimination, in opposition to the profane, mundane, optimal
or economic. Research has increasingly challenged these 1) formalism;
dichotomies and there is a common recognition that pursuing 2) traditionalism that includes the element of repetition
a division between sacred and profane is erroneous (see either implicitly or explicitly;
Bremmer 1996 and Bradley 2005 for a brief history). 3) invariance, which describes a disciplined set of actions
In strict terminology, ritual pertains to the performance of imbued with precision and control. Here the elements of
rites, which are prescribed acts or observances in a religious repetition, physical control and often spatiality are key;
2 Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

4) rule-governance; social systems as understood through rituals and religions.

5) sacral symbolism, which is not related necessarily In this context this book is filling a significant gap by
only to the supernatural but also to other activities and demonstrating the great potential of these lines of evidence,
objects that may express certain values, feelings and which are necessary but not always taken into account in
ideals linked to ‘a greater, higher, or more universalized archaeological interpretations.
reality’ (Bell 2009, 159) of not necessarily religious
nature; and
6) performance. The bioarchaeology of ritual and religion
Bioarchaeology has to some extent followed the general
Rituals can, therefore, take many forms, underpinning trend of archaeological research regarding definitions and
the ideological structure of societies. It is also generally priorities in work on ritual. The majority of studies has
accepted that rituals are not exclusively associated with indeed focused on funerary contexts and religious or sacred
religion but, as Verhoeven (2011, 124) aptly stresses, they spaces, areas linked with death, the afterlife and specific
can be placed at any point within a continuum that has at deities. The volume of studies and the depth and variety
its two extremes the holy and the quotidian. Bell’s (2009) of interpretations offered, however, has generally been
seminal work offers another list of the most prominent types limited. This results from the archaeological landscape in
of rituals underpinning most classifications, which include which these sub-disciplines developed throughout much
the rites of passage or ‘life-cycle’ rites; calendrical and of the twentieth century. Bioarchaeological research was
commemorative rites; rites of exchange and communion; rarely integrated, with specialist reports all too often
rites of affliction; feasting, fasting and festivals; and political sitting in isolation. Findings were even less frequently
rites. It is interesting to note that, as Bell acknowledges embedded in social theory or combined with multiple lines
(2009, 94), these forms of rituals are ‘usually associated of enquiry. The sub-disciplines of what is usually referred
with clearly defined religious traditions’. Indeed, religion to as environmental archaeology long found themselves
is still the most common framework under which ritual entrenched in formulaic modes of analysis designed to
is studied in archaeology, perhaps not surprisingly, as it address a prescribed suite of questions surrounding diet,
provides a much easier conceptualisation of rituals and an subsistence, economy, environment and site formation
explicit context of interpretation. This may also partly relate processes. Recent decades have seen a gradual trajectory
to the universalisation of the dichotomy between the sacred of change coupled with new theoretical frameworks and
and profane, following the western modern thought, that has advancement in bioarchaeological methods. Methodological
often been imposed in archaeological research, resulting advancements mean that plant and animal husbandry, food
in the identification of rituals with religion. Religion also processing, mobility, diet, depositional treatment and on-site
has a somewhat fluid meaning, but can be loosely defined activities can all be reconstructed to a higher resolution than
as a particular system of faith and/or worship relating to a has previously been possible. Consequently, the potential for
collection of beliefs, cultural systems and actions, or world the identification of marked patterns of practice, framing
views that are often imbued with narratives, symbols, and (sensu Verhoeven 2002) and activities beyond subsistence has
sacred histories. never been better and there is now widespread recognition of
A comprehensive history of the archaeological research on the under-exploited potential of bioarchaeological research
ritual and religion has been provided by Insoll (2004), while for investigating ritual and religion.
several books and papers discuss the various approaches New theoretical approaches have stressed the importance
to these subjects and the current developments in their of precise social practices, rather than the identification of
study (e.g. Barrowclough and Malone 2007; Bell 2009; atypical archaeological signatures (with only meta-level
Insoll 2011; Kyriakidis 2007; Pauketat 2013; Swenson interpretation), incorporating research on a wider spectrum
2015). The aim of this volume is to specifically explore of past activities and intangible issues (see Handelman 2006;
the positioning of bioarchaeological studies in regards to Morris 2011). Attempts of new definitions of bioarchaeology,
rituals and religion. In this introductory paper we provide moving on from ‘environmental’ archaeologies to ‘social’
an overview of current trends and highlight selected palaeo-ethnobotany, zooarchaeology and so on (e.g. Morehart
avenues in which bioarchaeology can contribute to the and Morell-Hart 2015; Overton and Hamilakis 2013; Russell
field. Bioarchaeological research in this volume refers to 2012), gradually sketch the new paradigms towards which
studies that utilise organic remains or palaeo-environmental the discipline is moving. The aim of these new directions
data to address archaeological questions. Human osteology is to bridge the gap between what has been known as
has been deliberately excluded from its scope to bring the ‘specialist’ work and current theoretical advances in
wider spectrum of the sub-disciplines of environmental archaeology, with a direct impact of how ritual and religion
archaeology to the forefront. These have traditionally is perceived and studied. In this context, an important shift
been marginalised in research on worldviews, belief and in the examination of bioarchaeological remains in rituals
 1. Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives 3

is the extension of the analytical framework to include a towards reconstructing the animal’s life, however, misses a
consideration of the living organisms and not only their major part of the deposit’s biography: the period between
ultimate point of ritual deposition or death. death and deposition. An increased focus on taphonomy
Morris (2011; 2012; Chapter 9 this volume), for instance, has great potential to address this and has been successfully
has put forward a biographical approach to the study of used to reconstruct social practices at a variety of scales
animal burials, which shifts the emphasis from the final (e.g. Madgwick 2008; 2010; 2016; Magnell 2012; 2013;
deposition to the events and the range of transformations Morris 2011; Chapter 9, this volume). This is particularly
that animals undergo during their lifetime (and prior to important in studies on bone, as bones are robust enough to
burial). The point of deposition may be haphazard and of generally survive in abundance, but also soft and malleable
no cultural relevance at all, yet it is almost always that to the degree that they can be altered by a range of processes,
which receives most attention. In other words, it is the thereby taking an imprint of their post-life trajectory
full life and post-life history of the animal that needs to be (Madgwick and Mulville 2012). This important stage is a
considered through a detailed understanding of taphonomic focus for Jonuks and Rannamäe (Chapter 12, this volume).
formation processes to achieve meaningful interpretations The need for moving beyond the dichotomies of nature
of the rituals involved. This is no easy process and a wide versus culture and by implication beyond distinctions
range of demographic, taphonomic and contextual variables between, for instance, sacred and profane, and the symbolic
need to be considered. However, Morris (2011, 172–3) and the practical, is stressed by Overton and Hamilakis (2013)
has demonstrated the potential for improved interpretative in their manifesto for social zooarchaeology. They propose
resolution of Associated Bone Groups (ABGs) by employing that rather than as an opposing approach to economic and
this approach on deposits from various sites in the UK ecological, social zooarchaeology should be seen as a non-
and establishing the varied trajectories of life, death and anthropocentric framework in which the agency of animals
deposition that animals underwent. Sykes (2014), drawing ‘both in life and in death’ is recognised in co-shaping past
on anthropological and historical evidence, similarly practices and decision-making (ibid.). As such, animals in
proposes the introduction of more varied interpretations ritual (and other) contexts cannot be seen as mere identity
of how living animals could shape daily life in which markers, representing or symbolising certain ideas, but they
religion and rituals are an integrated part. She suggests need to be understood through their interactions with people
that in moving beyond strictly religious contexts and the that result in a range of sensorial (ibid.), and we would
compartmentalisation of the sacred and profane that is add, emotional, responses. The agency of plants through
typical of western societies, the study of animals can shed their employment in rituals, actively transforming, creating
light on the dynamics of past societies to a much greater and reinforcing meaning has been also identified as an
extent (ibid., 131). For instance, rituals involving linking important future research direction (Morehart and Morell-
humans and animals in key stages of their life cycle, such Hart 2015). Such an approach has the potential to bring to
as birth, as observed in the anthropological record, can the forefront new and alternative, theoretically informed (re)
help inform on the range of interactions and enhance the interpretations of bioarchaeological assemblages that could
interpretative potential of archaeological deposits (ibid.). open new windows into how we understand the past. In
Ethnoarchaeological work also has an important role to play practice the first step in this direction is taking into account
in this process (Broderick 2012). Similarly, a biographical and disentangling the formation processes that have led to
approach in the study of plants has been suggested as an the creation of an assemblage and its contextual examination
important interpretative framework, taking into account that allows consideration of the cultural setting.
the rich histories of plants to better understand their role in These methodological and theoretical changes mean
rituals (Morehart and Morell-Hart 2015). that bioarchaeologists can be at the very centre of new and
Whilst these new approaches and interpretative novel approaches to complex archaeological questions. Yet,
considerations are of great value, archaeologists must it is rare that bioarchaeological work is fully integrated
recognise the inevitability of an imbalance in interpretation into synthetic studies of rituals. It is often the case that
towards the final material signature. The richness of archaeologists turn to bioarchaeological evidence only if
information that is preserved in the act of deposition often other types of material culture are absent, for instance, from
outweighs the resolution of information on other aspects burials, considering this by implication as a ‘secondary’
of the deposit’s biography. The opportunity to reconstruct type of offering. To make matters worse, in many areas
deposition in detail must be maximised, but every effort the lack of an integrated programme for the controlled
must be made to redress the interpretative imbalance by collection of bioarchaeological remains means that, often,
drawing on a comprehensive suite of data (pertaining to good contextual information is lacking, or that such types
the deposit, its context and associations) to understand of material are still not regularly recovered. The implication
other aspects of an organism’s life and post-life trajectory. of this is the existence of only a partial record of what is
The current trend away from understanding final deposition available in certain areas, preventing the emergence of
4 Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

a ‘bigger picture’. Examples of this include the rarity of it is important to understand the relation of these remains
bioarchaeological assemblages from historical periods to their broader context (e.g. material culture, landscape,
in Greece, and the relatively sparse studies from the depositional environment and so on).
Mediterranean in general. This is largely due to a greater Archaeological work on plant remains across different
focus on impressive architecture and other material culture contexts has evidenced specific associations with ritual
remains and the lack of legislation that recognises the settings and, for historical periods, it has been crucial
need for the collection of all available evidence during in clarifying the range of plant offerings, providing far
archaeological excavation. Silvestri et al. (Chapter 10) in more detail than is afforded in written sources. The study
this volume highlight this problem in the case of the limited of large-scale distributions of plants, for instance, has
faunal remains recovered and recorded from Middle Bronze identified date (Phoenix dactylifera) and pine (Pinus pinea)
Age caves in Central Italy and the meagre information as having strong ritual associations during the Roman period
available on assemblages and contexts. Bringing together (e.g. Bakels and Jacomet 2003; Bouby and Marinval 2004;
zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical data recovered Kislev 1988; Livarda 2011). Analysis of the date and pine
in a controlled manner from three new sites Silvestri distribution in a range of contexts and site types across the
et al. showcase from one hand the value of these lines northwestern Roman provinces (Livarda 2008; 2013) and
of evidence towards more holistic approaches to rituals of the latter in Roman Britain (Lodwick 2015) has indicated
and the use of caves, and on the other hand, the need to their circulation and trade not only as foods, but also as
interpret bioarchaeological remains considering their overall perishable material culture, integral in certain rituals. Dates,
archaeological context. despite their good preservation potential, were found to be
Most bioarchaeological work on rituals has intended to relatively rare and largely associated with burials, selected
reconstruct certain activities and has more rarely focused on ceremonial activities and mystic cults, including that of
in-depth interpretations and the meaning of such activities. Isis (Livarda 2013). The import of this new goddess to the
In the following sections we discuss various ways in which Roman world was thought to have been coupled with the
bioarchaeological evidence can be approached to reconstruct import of a plant native to her country of origin (Egypt),
and understand ritualised activity. While doing so, we have which acquired new significance in these settings. When
deliberately avoided a discussion on how to identify ritual encountered in burials, dates’ value potentially as a symbol
practices, as ritual in all its guises is far too multifarious of resurrection and the afterlife has further been interpreted
to impose a blueprint for identification. The objective of as indicative of changing worldviews forming within new
this introduction is rather to offer some context for the religions and socio-political contexts in the provinces
development of bioarchaeological research on ritual and (ibid.). In the case of pine, its distribution in Roman Britain
religion and to explore how it can provide insights into was examined using detailed taphonomic and contextual
past worldviews, beliefs, lived experiences, social relations, criteria, enabling the identification of its ritual use even in
transformations, historical changes, and power dynamics. some contexts that have no such clear connection (Lodwick
The following sections explore this through case studies, 2015). Across the northwestern provinces pine nut appears
including those presented in this volume. This by no means more often in temples/shrines than in burials, suggesting a
aims to be exhaustive, but rather to provide a flavour of different role compared to date (Livarda 2008). In addition,
trends in bioarchaeological research relating to ritual and the combustible and aromatic properties of pine, potentially
religion, using case studies and approaches that we consider also used as incense, seem to have played an important part
significant. Studies are loosely clustered under some of the in its selection for certain rituals (e.g. Bird 2004; see also
principal themes that underpin these trends: sacred and below). The burning of pinewood (Pinus spp.), possibly
special contexts, sensory experience and performance, and as torches, in a fashion similar to modern-day candles has
power, status and social relations. These categories are also been suggested in the case of ritual ceremonies by the
essentially convenient impositions and much of the research ancient lowland Maya (Morehart et al. 2005).
straddles these thematic boundaries. Strong, although again not exclusive, associations with
specific ritual settings have been identified for a range
of other plants and also animals across time and space.
Sacred and special contexts Examples include cacao (Theobroma cacao) in pre-Columbian
The longest tradition of research on the bioarchaeology Mesoamerica (e.g. Prufer and Hurst 2007), the cockerel
of ritual and religion focuses on burials or contexts of an (Gallus gallus) in Roman Mithraic temples (Lentacker et al.
overtly sacred or religious nature, such as temples and 2004), goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) at the Roman shrine
shrines. At a first level of interpretation, bioarchaeological of Uley, Gloucestershire, UK (Levitan 1993) and fallow
remains from such contexts have often been explained as the deer (Dama dama) at temples of Artemis and Diana (Miller
leftovers of meals or offerings, including sacrifices. In order, et al. 2016). There are also many examples of certain animal
however, to go one step further and tease out their meaning, species having been preferentially selected for deposition in
 1. Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives 5

burial contexts, including horses (Equus caballus) at Anglo- they suggested to represent the Primordial Sea and the First
Saxon Spong Hill, Norfolk, UK (Crabtree 1995) and in Mountain of the Mayan mythology. Taking into account the
Viking Iceland (Leifsson 2012) and horses and dogs (Canis domed lid shape of the caches themselves that could have
lupus familiaris) in Iron Age ‘special’ deposits at Danebury, represented the sky, it was hypothesised that each cache
Hampshire, UK (Grant 1984). In some cases specific elements reflected the Mayan Cosmos of Creation, and was potentially
are targeted for deposition, such as the mass of cattle (Bos used for its re-enactment. The authors also pointed out that
taurus) skulls at Bronze Age Irthlingborough, UK (Davis and all social strata shared the rituals involving the caches, as
Payne 1993) and the sheep (Ovis aries) humeri in Iron Age these were associated to varied social contexts. Therefore,
Arras burials in East Yorkshire, UK (Stead 1991). the caches seem to be a kind of a bundle that linked people
In the Meso-American case cited above, cacao has been with the cosmos, each of which had a collection of material
traditionally seen as an elite item, used also as a currency, culture that could have embodied distinct relations, histories,
but more thorough research combining archaeological, identities and so on (see Pauketat 2013, 43–58). It is rare that
documentary, iconographic, epigraphic and ethnographic these sort of data are recovered, yet this study demonstrates
evidence has indicated its use in a range of rites of passage their potential for shedding light into the way cosmological
and the initiation of shamans (Prufer and Hurst 2007). In beliefs and practices can be entwined.
the case of the cockerel in Roman Mithraic temples, an Many of the plants that were used in the caches at Blue
investigation of a feasting deposit at the 3rd century AD Creek were commonly used in Mayan foodways and this is
temple of Mithras at Tienen, Belgium, identified a large something that has often been observed in ritual contexts. In
quantity of domestic fowl (Gallus gallus), which were this volume the work of Caracuta and Fiorentino (Chapter
thought to be mostly male (Lentacker et al. 2004). Similar 5) on Roman cemeteries in Apulia, Iborra (Chapter 8) on
patterns were identified across other Mithraea, providing Iron Age Iberian settlements, and Picornell et al. (Chapter
new insights into this poorly understood and secretive cult 11) on the Son Ferrer prehistoric ceremonial and funerary
(ibid.). Mithras has been predominantly depicted killing a staggered turriform in Mallorca offer such examples of
bull and in connection with various other animals but not locally available animal and plant resources incorporated
the cockerel. He has, however, been associated with the into ritual activities. Best and Mulville (Chapter 13) also
Invincible Sun, which is in turn interpreted linked to the role discuss the geographical and cultural specificity of avian–
of the cockerel as the announcer of the rising sun (ibid.). human relations in life and how these extended to death
Taking into account data obtained from the age of slaughter ritual. In these studies it is evident that ritual practice is
of other domestic mammals consumed during the feasting often structured using materials and principles from various
event at Tienen, Lentacker et al. (2004) were able to further spheres of activity and the principal change in these instances
determine the timing of the banquet as taking place in June is the actual or perceived context. Quantities of produce
or July and suggested the summer solstice, the longest day necessary for the survival and function of a group, the most
of the year, as the possible day of celebration, allowing a prized cuts of meat, the most succulent fruits, or perhaps the
much more detailed appreciation of the cult’s rituals. most esteemed or, in some way special, individuals, can be
An excellent example that can serve to highlight incorporated into a specifically created context. This may be
the importance of contextualisation and integration of one way that can legitimise the transformation of common
bioarchaeological evidence is also the case of Mayan lifeways into ritualised activities that would in turn feed back
dedicatory caches. These are normally found within the into a group’s social and cosmological system. Therefore,
construction fill of Pre-Classic and Classic Mayan buildings what could be construed as part of the ‘everyday’ becomes
and their symbolic function is debated (Bozarth and Guderjan entwined or reproduced in ‘ritual’ or religious contexts,
2004). They contain materials such as mineral stones, tools which further emphasises the problems arising from the
and shells, although organic survival in general is rare universal imposition of a dichotomy between the sacred
(ibid.). Bozarth and Guderjan (2004) conducted biosilicate and profane. This also highlights the need to understand
(opal phytoliths, sponge spicules, algal statospores, and societies as a whole to appreciate how rituals were entangled
diatoms) residue analysis on nine typical Mayan caches at in specific social meshworks (following Ingold 2011).
Blue Creek, Belize, each comprising two ceramic vessels Swenson (2015, 339) cautions that, for instance:
placed one on top of the other and inverted in a ‘lip-to-lip’
manner. The results indicated the presence of maize (Zea changes in the spatial organization of household ritual
mays), squash (Cucurbita), palm fruits, agave (Agave), and or burials may have had little to do with shifts in power
heliconia (Heliconia), representing food, bags and possibly relations or major alterations in religious worldviews.
wrappings, as well as marine sponges in most caches
(ibid.). Combining these results with other finds, Bozarth He argues that ritualised behaviour can only provide a means
and Guderjan (2004) were able to show that each cache to interpret these aspects of society if fully contextualised
contained important elements of the land and the sea, which within the spectrum of activities in a given cultural context
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6 Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

(ibid.). Contextualised approaches to bioarchaeological process (Picornell et al., Chapter 11). In another funerary
assemblages that also integrate these with other lines of context on the Balearic Islands, at Bronze Age Cova des
evidence (archaeological, historical, etc.) are thus essential. Pas on Minorca, detailed micro-contextualisation of pollen
The clues to the meaning and the positioning of rituals indicated the use of different types of plants and flower
in social settings may also partly lie in disentangling and bouquets at each stage of the corpse’s treatment. These
deciphering the distinct experiences that structured or practices showed no gender or age distinctions, yet a single
dictated ritualised activities, and this is discussed in the adult woman was afforded a different rite, suggesting a
following section. particular role in the community (Riera et al., Chapter 3).
Several other studies have shown the importance of flowers
in burials, such as the case of the dropwort (Oenathe)
Sensory experiences and performance offerings of the Scottish Bronze Age (Clarke 1999; Tipping
A shift in focus to sensory elements has been proposed as 1994). In another context, multidisciplinary work at the
a more fruitful research avenue to understand past human Roman sanctuary at Kempraten, Switzerland, lead to
experience including that of religious and ritual settings the identification of a sacred grove, offering a different
(Hamilakis 2011; 2013). In this regard, the mnemonic dimension in the conceptualisation of the experience of
properties of sensory stimuli are considered to play a the sanctuary landscape (Koch et al., Chapter 6). A quite
key role in imbuing ritual activities with meaning (ibid.). different sensory effect resulted from animal processing
The multi-sensory properties of various plants, animals at Iron Age High Pasture Cave, Scotland (McKenzie,
and their by-products are often the reason for their use Chapter 2). Micromorphological analysis provided detailed
in ritual activities. These sensory stimuli can be integral insights into the use of space and revealed a set of ritualised
components of the performative and experiential aspects activities that possibly involved the killing, defleshing,
of ritual, which in turn enhance the potency of rituals dismemberment and bloodletting of animals near the cave
as vehicles of meaning, whatever their specific role. entrance (ibid.). In these instances, the animal blood and
Bioarchaeological and palaeo-environmental analyses are flesh would have been evocative components of the ritual
well suited to contribute to a better understanding of such performance, central to creating codified emotions and
sensory experiences and performances, although in practice associations in the participants.
sensory attributes are rarely considered and even more rarely The most obvious focus of bioarchaeological research
inform interpretations. on the senses is on food and taste, yet this has received
Several papers in this volume provide evidence for surprisingly little attention. Food is consumed as part
sensory elements, useful for the reconstruction of a range of a wide range of ceremonies, celebrations and other
of past experiences. In combining pollen and charcoal data, ritualised activities (see e.g. section on feasting below).
Picornell et al. (Chapter 11) offer a new dimension to the Therefore, the selection of food items, the preparation
funerary rituals observed at the Late Iron Age necropolis methods, consumption and deposition manners, are all
of Son Ferrer, Mallorca. The authors identified the cultural important factors in unravelling these activities, while
significance of mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), and its selective the examination of tastes can provide another angle to
collection and use in a closed funerary space together with interpretations. Taste in this context is defined following
pine, rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and other members Livarda (2017) as ‘the culturally specific and socially
of the mint family (Lamiaceae). All these have resinous subjective experience of flavour’ rather than as simply the
and/or aromatic properties that would have ameliorated chemical sense (gustation). In this framework, flavour refers
and masked the odour of decaying corpses with specific to the sensation resulting from the combination of different
smells and their burning would also have provided light. attributes of food (gustatory, olfactory, tactile and thermal)
Similarly, to disguise the smell and temporarily delay and is influenced by other somatosensual stimuli, such
the body’s decay, a variety of natural and gum resins as the visual and auditory (ibid. and references therein).
were employed as offerings and for the treatment of the An examination, thus, of past tastes in ritual consumption
corpse in the Roman period as identified through chemical is key to appreciating how this sensory experience was
analyses (Brettell et al., Chapter 4). Acquiring such resinous understood and enmeshed in different contexts. It is not
substances that often involved their long-distance transport only food, however, but also drinks and other intoxicants
was not only for practical purposes, but also as a mark and hallucinogenic drugs that are often part of ritualised
of status, and for enhancing experience and engendering and religious activities, contributing to a range of sensory
memories of the ceremonies (ibid.). Other sensory effects experiences. Substances that alter the mood or consciousness
can be established by identifying the use of flowers, for can engender intense experiences that can be interpreted
example through pollen analysis. In the case of Son Ferrer, within cosmological schemes and as gateways to the
a variety of wild plants with small and colourful flowers supernatural (Sherratt 1991, 51–2) as well as impact social
of similar shape were deposited as part of the funerary structures and relations. A range of psychoactive plants
 1. Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives 7

have been identified in a variety of periods and areas as healing – three closely connected concepts in many past
part of rituals or shamanistic practices, including hemp societies – even though this can be more difficult to identify
(Cannabis sp.), opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), blue archaeologically. Russell (2012, 392–4) suggested that
water lily (Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea) and mandrake in the case of animals this is likely due to the fact that
(Mandragora officinarum), by combining archaeobotany researchers do not look for this evidence, while Sykes
with various other lines of evidence (see Merlin 2003 for (2014, 131) also pointed out that animal-based medicines
a comprehensive review). Few studies, however, have involved a destruction process, for instance pulverisation,
explored their sensory contribution within specific ritualised that would leave no trace. Nevertheless, although rare there
contexts. Hamilakis (1998) was the first to discuss this are instances that allow the plausible inference of such
from an archaeological perspective, suggesting that food practices. Van der Veen and Morales (2014), for instance,
and alcohol consumption were significant components of discuss the use of spices recovered from the port of Quseir
mortuary feasting in Bronze Age Crete, acting as embodied al-Qadim as medicines in the Roman and medieval world.
mnemonic devices. He argued that the combination of the Ciaraldi (2000) interpreted an assemblage of reptiles,
acute emotions resulting from a charged context, such as amphibians, opium poppy and other plants that were
that of burial and death, and those from food and drink recovered at the bottom of a storage vat at the 1st century
would enhance the experience and support the processes of Roman Villa Vesuvio, near Pompeii, as potential residues
remembering and forgetting in relation to death that would of a medical concoction. Karg et al. (2014) found two
in turn actively contribute to the renegotiation of the power chewing-gum like objects that were made of a mixture
dynamics and social relations within the community. Collard of birch tar and plant oil, and three uncharred cloves of
(2012), exploring the consumption of alcohol and opium wild garlic (Allium sp.) in an amulet box discovered in a
in Cypriote Bronze Age mortuary rituals, added that these female grave at the Late Roman Iron Age site of Vellensby,
were also important for the individual in suppressing, if Denmark. Comparing this with other amulet boxes in graves
temporarily, memories of the deceased, thus, reducing grief across Europe, they identified that all derive from wealthy
and allowing the easier transition to social life. female graves of the same period and contained a variety
Animal sacrifice represents another powerful arena of materials, which were interpreted as possibly employed
in which performance and sensory experience come for their healing properties. In addition, Miller and Sykes
to the fore. Sacrifice is a relatively common theme in (2016) present possible evidence for the use of fallow deer
bioarchaeology, particularly relating to classical periods. antlers in medicine in Roman Britain, with some specimens
However, zooarchaeological study has all too often been having had the edges of palmate surfaces removed by
entrenched in traditional approaches focusing on economy blades, potentially for use in potions. In the Andes, at
through species, age and element representation. These the Inca site of Lo Demás, a naturally mummified whole
data have nonetheless often led to insightful interpretations guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) was found sacrificed with a slit
surrounding symbolic selection (e.g. Forstenpointer 2003; stomach longitudinally, possibly for divining future events
MacKinnon 2010; 2013). Element (body part) side, for or illnesses in accordance with ethnohistorical evidence
instance, usually seen as principally useful for purposes of (Sandweiss and Wing 1997).
quantification, has only rarely been investigated in terms Bone and shell pendants are other examples of animal
of symbolic selection in prehistoric deposits outside of parts that have often been linked to magic and healing.
funerary contexts. Examples include the selection of the Such artefacts have been widely found across the world
right side in certain pig elements in deposits at Neolithic and an examination of their origin (the type of animal from
West Kennet Palisade Enclosures, Wiltshire, UK (Edwards which they derive), properties and biography can shed light
and Horne 1997) and of right fore-limb elements of pigs in into their symbolic value but also their social role. Jonuks
Iron Age feasting deposits at Llanmaes, Vale of Glamorgan, and Rannamäe (Chapter 12) in this volume provide an
UK (Madgwick and Mulville 2015a). Studies on sacrifice intriguing, critical overview of animal tooth pendants from
have also often benefited from integration with historical, Estonia, covering a wide timespan from the Mesolithic to
epigraphic and iconographic evidence and consequently the end of the medieval period. They explore the complex
the reconstruction of social practices, rather than meta- relationship between people, animals and worldviews,
level descriptions of sacrifice, have often been possible considering, but also moving beyond interpretations of
(e.g. Chenal-Velarde and Studer 2003; Ekroth 2013; Popkin magic. Several examples of animal-derived pharmacopeia
2013; Trantalidou 2013). However, in spite of more novel and magic are also discussed by Russell (2012) and Sykes
pathways to interpretation, sensory and performative (2014), highlighting once again their complex interactions
elements of sacrifice have invariably been neglected. This with people. The control of products with perceived magical
represents a profitable future avenue for research. or healing properties or the knowledge of their use has an
The ritual use of plants, animals and their products important role in affirming status and power relations, a
are also linked to experiences of magic, medicine and theme expanded in the next section.
8 Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

Power, status and social relations frugal diet indicated by texts (Harlow and Smith 2001). A
Bioarchaeological remains play an important role in range of garden crops were identified in these monasteries
examining aspects of status, power relations, identity, and that would render the everyday diet more variable and
social change in past societies. Arenas of consumption nutritious, which in turn has ramifications for how the
represent important fora for the negotiation, expression and dynamics of these institutions are understood. Ervynck’s
legitimation of power-relations, both within and between (2004) work, which compared zooarchaeological evidence
different groups. Food, drink, adornment and various other of consumption patterns between monks, peasants and the
forms of perishable material culture can also be used to nobility across medieval and post-medieval Belgium, is
challenge established power structures. Ritualised and also noteworthy. Patterns were interpreted according to
religious contexts offer frameworks where these relations differences in religious ideology, land ownership and land
can be played out, and their study thus allows insights into access rights. In this case, the archaeological data showed
such past dynamics. A selection of key areas in this research that meat was generally less common in monastic diet, but
direction is outlined here. when present it differed to that consumed by the nobility,
In certain instances ritual and ceremonial contexts can reflecting the specific position of each group within society.
be treated as ‘focal nodes of social networks’ (Kyriakidis While the elite had access to wild game and pork, the monks
2007, 2), an examination of which can shed light on the would instead consume beef, mutton and fish in an attempt
workings of a society. Examples of papers in this volume to maintain a distinction to the former group (ibid.).
that touch upon this subject include the study of the Archaic Food rules and the adherence to or ignorance of taboos
Sanctuary of Apollo at ancient Zone, Thrace, Greece has long been an important topic in studies of power
(Veropoulidou and Nikolaidou, Chapter 7) and of the relations and social change in anthropology (e.g. Douglas
Gallo-Roman sanctuary of Kempraten, Switzerland (Koch 1966; Tambiah 1969) and has become increasingly valued
et al., Chapter 6). Animal bone and molluscs recovered and in bioarchaeological research. A classic example that has
examined from the sanctuary of Apollo at the Greek colony been widely researched is the avoidance of fish by Neolithic
of Zone demonstrated a great variety of terrestrial and farmers in Britain, as demonstrated by zooarchaeological
marine foods and votive offerings present in the sanctuary and stable isotope research (Richards and Schulting 2006;
(Veropoulidou and Nikolaidou, Chapter 7). The particular Thomas 2003). However, as methods advance, more
selection of these items suggested the interweaving of nuanced interpretations are achieved, with sporadic marine
traditions and beliefs of people from different backgrounds food consumption evidenced in times of hardship through
across the Aegean and a mixing of local and colonial ideas incremental isotope analysis (Montgomery et al. 2013).
and practices, crystallised in ritualised practice at the Other key studies include research on horse consumption
sanctuary (ibid.). In adopting a multidisciplinary approach in medieval England that has demonstrated that horses
Koch et al. (Chapter 6) succeeded in reconstructing not only were consumed in spite of a religious taboo (Poole 2013;
a complex range of activities, but also the ritual landscape at Serjeantson 2000) and the avoidance of pork as a cultural
the sanctuary at Kempraten, where the cult of Magna Mater marker in the southern Levant (e.g. Hesse 1990; Sapir-Hen
appears to have been practised. Much like the Archaic Zone, et al. 2015).
an amalgamation of practices was identified here, fusing Feasting is one of the most common ritualised practices
local and regional traditions, and allowing new insights into that provides a focal point for intra- and inter-community
the plurality of Roman religion (ibid.). social interaction. There remains no consensus on what
One important area for the investigation of power constitutes a feast (see Dietler and Hayden 2001; Jones
relations and identity through consumption practices are 2007), nor how to identify feasting archaeologically
monastic contexts. Here, bioarchaeological research has (see Dietler and Hayden 2001; Kansa and Campbell
provided a critical counterpoint to historical narratives, 2004; McCormick 2009; Miracle 2002; Twiss 2008).
stressing the gap between actual practice and projected In spite of this, numerous researchers have discussed
image. According to St Benedict’s rule for instance, the wide-ranging social role of feasting, particularly in
monastic diet had to be regulated and meat was not to be terms of the negotiation, legitimation and consolidation
eaten, except in special occasions and circumstances, such of power relations, the organisation of production and
as by the ill. Bioarchaeological work, however, has provided distribution and the mobilisation of labour. As Hastorf
a more nuanced view of food consumption practice, (2008) states, feasts condense sociality and contain a
identifying variations and transformations in relation to political edge. Feasting research has a much longer history
monastic dietary regimes and shedding light on the dynamic in anthropology (Hayden and Villeneuve 2011), but recent
nature of these institutions and their changing role within years have seen a proliferation of archaeological studies
society. For example, archaeobotanical data from the Late on the topic, far too many to recount here. Feasting
Antique monasteries of Kom el-Nana, Epiphanius and research in archaeology has generally been hindered by
Phoebammon in Egypt are in stark contrast to the bland and the frequent inability to identify discrete events and to
 1. Ritual and Religion: Bioarchaeological Perspectives 9

access certain performative patterns of practice that remain provide a richness of evidence that extends well beyond
beyond archaeological recovery. The use of a broad suite traditional interpretations. Explorations of wider social
of scientific techniques and greater contextualisation and and cultural issues that are reified through or embedded
integration with ethnographic and historical research has in feasting are increasingly common. The role of feasting
been central to countering this problem and advancing in maintaining power structures has been argued in wide-
feasting studies in archaeology. ranging contexts from Neolithic Mesopotamia (Emberling
A major focus of this development has been striving 2016) to Archaic Greece (Blok et al., 2018). There are
to reconstruct production, preparation, consumption, many more recent examples in which feasting is explored
performance and deposition in greater detail. For example, primarily from a socio-cultural perspective, with economy
the application of isotope analysis has demonstrated the and subsistence being supplementary themes. Feasting
role feasting played in supporting long distance inter- studies have matured considerably in recent years and the
community networks in Late Neolithic Britain, with gulf between research in anthropology and archaeology has
feasts drawing people and animals from afar (Viner et al. narrowed markedly. There is still a long way to go, but this
2010). The application of specific theoretical frameworks trajectory is sure to continue as greater inter-disciplinarity
combined with network analysis has also proved fruitful and methodological advancement means feasting practices
in characterising ‘communities of consumption’ sustained can be reconstructed with ever greater resolution.
by feasting in the pre-Hispanic American southwest (Mills
2016). New statistical approaches to bone taphonomy have
provided improved resolution on the frequency and scale Concluding remarks
of feasting events at an intra- and inter-site level in Early This chapter set the scene of the volume by providing context
Iron Age Britain (Madgwick 2016; Madgwick and Mulville for the development of bioarchaeological research on ritual
2015b). Zooarchaeological analysis has revealed socially and religion. It offered an overview of selected key themes,
circumscribed practices in the age, species and parts of contexts and approaches that have dominated studies. It also
animals consumed in a variety of contexts (Hamilakis and highlighted constraints that have hindered the progress of
Harris 2011; Kansa and Campbell 2004; Madgwick and research, and identified specific weaknesses and profitable
Mulville 2015a; McCormick 2002; Whitley and Madgwick future directions. Bioarchaeological research on ritual and
2018). Similarly, lipid residue analysis has established religion arguably lags behind many other sub-disciplines of
prescribed locations within the site of Durrington Walls for archaeology. Great progress has been made nevertheless and
the consumption of certain products in Late Neolithic Britain bioarchaeological research on these themes is no longer in
(Craig et al. 2015). In addition, detailed contextualisation its infancy. It is perhaps best described as in its adolescence,
and integration of evidence has enhanced the detail with yet to reach full maturity, but progressing rapidly, exploring
which feasts can be reconstructed and has convincingly new themes and employing and combining new approaches.
separated domestic and feasting deposits at Neolithic This volume showcases a range of new research from
Çatalhöyük in Anatolia (Twiss 2012). Combining evidence the traditional to the novel, from the macroscopic to
from historical sources and epigraphy has also provided the molecular. Some studies explore well-trodden paths
a more nuanced understanding of the role of feasting in in ritual studies and others go well beyond the beaten
expressing and reinforcing new identities in Archaic Greece track. Several other volumes address these themes from a
(e.g. Brisart 2015; Huber and Méniel 2015). Ethnographic bioarchaeological perspective. Ryan and Crabtree (1995)
research is also of great value and Hayden (Chapter showcased papers on the symbolic role of animals in a
14) draws on this to explore feasting and power from a book that was ahead of its time. Miracle and Milner (2002)
novel perspective – the phenomenon of secret societies. presented a collection of papers on the social context of food
Multidisciplinary approaches to feasting have indeed shown consumption and more recently Hastorf (2016) published
particularly strong potential in illuminating socio-political a thought-provoking monograph on the social archaeology
processes. Examples include the examination of feasting in of food. The volume by Jones-O’Day et al. (2004),
Viking Age Iceland that was linked to changes in the chiefly though just zooarchaeological, represented a step change
economy and the production of barley (Hordeum vulgare) in the breadth of studies thematically, chronologically
as a political choice (Zori et al. 2013), and the identification and geographically that had ritual and religion as a focus.
of feasting in Neolithic Makriyalos, Greece, which was Campana et al. (2010) show further advancement on the
interpreted as a regional gathering where social hierarchies topics of colonialism, complexity and transformation.
were consolidated (Pappa et al. 2004). More recently zooarchaeological volumes have had a more
These studies have demonstrated that novel and defined focus including Pluskowski (2012) on ritual animal
multi-factorial approaches are of great value in providing killing and Ekroth and Wallensten (2013) on animals in an
higher resolution information on how feasts played out in ancient Greek context. In addition, Sykes (2014) and Russell
practice. Moving beyond single dataset analyses can thus (2012) have both produced excellent monographs on social
10 Alexandra Livarda and Richard Madgwick

aspects of faunal studies, including sections on ritual. The Campana, D., Crabtree, P., de France, S., Lev-Tov, J. and
papers by Palmer and van der Veen (2002) and Morehart Choyke, A. (eds.) (2010) Anthropological Approaches to
and Morell-Hart (2015) focusing on plants in archaeology Zooarchaeology: Complexity, Colonialism, and Animal
are very good examples of reviews of social approaches to Transformations. Oxford, Oxbow.
Chenal-Velarde, I. and Studer, J. (2003) Archaeozoology in a ritual
these data, including ritual aspects.
context: The case of the sacrificial alter in Geometric Eretria.
These volumes and papers have been instrumental in
In E. Kotjabopoulou, Y. Hamilakis, P. Halstead, C. Gamble and
advancing the discipline. However, they have all been confined P. Elefanti (eds.) Zooarchaeology in Greece: Recent Advances,
largely to single sub-disciplines, generally zooarchaeology, 215–20. London, British School at Athens.
or to specific themes, such as the social context of food. This Ciaraldi, M. (2000) Drug preparation in evidence? An unusual
volume, therefore, fills an important gap by bringing together plant and bone assemblage from the Pompeian countryside,
and showcasing a cross-section of new research from across Italy. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9, 91–8.
the sub-disciplines of bioarchaeology, some of which rarely Clarke, C. (1999) Palynological Investigations of a Bronze Age
focus on these themes. The scope is intentionally broad Cist Burial from Whitsome, Scottish Borders, Scotland. Journal
and by drawing together this spectrum of research in one of Archaeological Science 26, 553–60.
volume, it is hoped that it might act as a springboard for more Collard, D. (2012) Drinking with the dead: psychoactive
consumption in Cypriote Bronze Age mortuary ritual. In
interdisciplinary studies in the future. Ultimately, this volume
D. Collard, J. Morris and E. Perego (eds.) Food and Drink in
endeavours to highlight the significance of bioarchaeological
Archaeology 3, 23–32. Blackawton, Prospect Books.
data in interpretations of ritual contexts, and to contribute Crabtree, P. (1995) The symbolic role of animals in Anglo-Saxon
to the paradigm shift towards more holistic interpretations England: evidence from burials and cremations. In K. Ryan and
of past lifeways, embracing a comprehensive range of past P. Crabtree (eds.) The Symbolic Role of Animals in Archaeology,
experiences, worldviews and social approaches. 20–6. Philadelphia PA, MASCA.
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Cleal, R., Ixer, R., Jay, M., Marshall, P., Simmons, E., Wright,
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evidence. World Archaeology 34(3), 542–57. Davis, S. and Payne, S. (1993) A barrow full of cattle skulls.
Barrowclough, D. A. and Malone, C. (eds.) (2007) Cult in Context: Antiquity 67, 12–22.
Reconsidering Ritual in Archaeology. Oxford, Oxbow. Dietler, M. and Hayden, M. (2001) Digesting the feast – good
Bell, C. (2009) Ritual. Perspectives and Dimensions. Oxford–New to eat, good to drink, good to think. In M. Dietler and
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Bird, J. (2004) Incense in Mithraic ritual: the evidence of the Perspectives on Food, Politics, and Power, 1–22. Washington
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