Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin phrase which means "reduction to the absurd".
The
phrase describes a kind of indirect proof. It is a proof by contradiction and is a common
form of argument. It shows that a statement is true because its denial leads to
a contradiction, or a false or absurd result. It is a way of reasoning that has been used
throughout the history of mathematics and philosophy from classical antiquity onwards.
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The ridiculous or "absurdum" conclusion of a reductio ad absurdum argument can have
many forms. For example,
Rocks have weight, otherwise we would see them floating in the air.
Society must have laws, otherwise there would be chaos.
There is no smallest positive rational number, because if there were, it could be
divided by two to get a smaller one.
Modern deductive logic
Modern deductive logic is a system that establishes that a conclusion must be true by
connecting a propositional statement with a conclusion statement. A valid deductive argument is
defined as one where the premises cannot all be true while the conclusion is false.
Here are some characteristics of modern deductive logic:
Direction
Modern deductive logic arguments have direction, unlike classical logic arguments, which are not
asymmetrical.
Correction
Modern deductive logic attempts to correct the incomplete connection of classical arguments, which do not
lead to proof.
Robert John Ackermann wrote a book called Modern Deductive Logic: An Introduction to Its
Techniques and Significance that was first published in 1970. The New School for Social
Research also offers a course on modern deductive logic that covers syntax and semantics.
Deductive logic is also known as deductive reasoning or deduction. It is a precise and well-
ordered system that provides definite support for a conclusion.
Propositional logic is a branch of logic that studies how statements, or propositions, are
combined and modified to create more complex statements. It also examines the logical
relationships and properties that arise from these methods.
Here are some key points about propositional logic:
Propositions
Statements that are either true or false.
Logical operators
Used to combine propositions and create more complex statements. Examples include "and", "or", and "not".
Truth-functional propositional logic
The most researched branch of propositional logic. It assumes that every statement is either true or false, and
not both.
Logical connectives
A specific class of logical operators that determine the truth or assertability conditions of sentences.
Application
Propositional logic is useful in many fields, including computer science, game strategies, and designing
electrical systems.
Inclusive or
In logic, "or" always means the inclusive or, unless otherwise specified. For example, in a restaurant menu,
"soup or salad with a meal" means the customer can choose both.
Propositional calculus is a branch of logic that deals with propositions and their relationships,
including how to construct arguments based on them. It's also known as propositional logic,
statement logic, sentential calculus, or zeroth-order logic.
Here are some key aspects of propositional calculus:
Symbols
"and", ∨ represents "or", ⊃ represents "if . . . then", and ∼ represents "not".
Uses symbols for unanalyzed propositions and logical connectives. For example, the symbol · represents
Formation rules
Specify which sequences of symbols are acceptable formulas, or well-formed formulas (wffs).
Modus ponens
A famous deduction rule that states that if P→Q and P are both true, then Q must also be true.
Consistency
There is no formula in propositional calculus where both A and ∼A are provable.
Completeness
Adding any unprovable formula as a new axiom would introduce a contradiction.
Applications
Used in many fields, including computer science, game strategies, designing electrical systems, and workflow
problems.
Syntax and semantics are both important parts of language philosophy, but they have different
meanings:
Syntax
The grammatical rules that govern the structure and order of words in a sentence. Syntax ensures that words
form a valid expression and the sentence is grammatically correct.
Semantics
The meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language. Semantics explores how words and their
combinations convey meaning, and how context can influence interpretation.
Readers can use both syntax and semantics to increase their reading comprehension. For
example, if a word is unknown, the meanings of surrounding words can give clues to its
probable meaning
