Electron Flow
Definition and Mechanism
• Electrons as Charge Carriers: Electrons are negatively charged parti-
cles that reside in the conduction band of the semiconductor. Their ability
to move under the influence of an electric field is what allows current to
flow.
Electron Flow Dynamics
• Electric Field Interaction: When an electric field E is applied across
a semiconductor, electrons experience a force given by F = qE, where q
is the charge of the electron. This force accelerates the electrons in the
direction opposite to the electric field.
• Drift Motion: The motion of electrons in response to the electric field
is termed drift motion. The average drift velocity vd of the electrons can
be expressed as:
vd = µE
where µ is the electron mobility, indicating how quickly electrons can move
through the semiconductor when an electric field is applied.
Charge Neutrality
• Concept of Charge Neutrality: In a semiconductor, the total positive
charge (from holes) and the total negative charge (from electrons) must
balance to maintain neutrality. This means that for every electron that
leaves one end of the bar, another must enter to keep the charge state
stable.
Steady-State Condition
• Constant Electron Concentration: In a steady state, the number of
electrons flowing into the semiconductor bar at one end must equal the
number flowing out at the other end. This results in a constant concen-
tration of electrons n throughout the bar.
Hole Flow
Definition of Holes
• Holes as Positive Charge Carriers: Holes are conceptualized as the
absence of electrons in the valence band of a semiconductor. They act as
positive charge carriers. When an electron moves to fill a hole, it creates
a new hole in the original position.
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Hole Dynamics
• Movement of Holes: When an electric field is applied, holes move in the
direction of the field. The movement can be thought of as electrons jump-
ing from one filled state to an adjacent empty state, effectively causing
the hole to move in the opposite direction of the electron movement.
Recombination Processes
• Recombination Mechanism: At the interface of the semiconductor and
an external circuit (e.g., ohmic contact), holes recombine with electrons
supplied by the circuit. This recombination is essential for maintaining
charge neutrality, as for every hole that disappears, a corresponding new
hole must appear elsewhere in the material.
Effects of Temperature on Mobility
Mobility Definition
• Mobility (µ): Mobility quantifies how easily charge carriers can move
through a semiconductor when subjected to an electric field. It is defined
as the drift velocity per unit electric field:
vd
µ=
E
Scattering Mechanisms
• Impurity Scattering: At low temperatures, impurity scattering be-
comes significant due to the reduced thermal agitation of the lattice. Im-
purities disrupt the regular lattice structure and scatter the charge carri-
ers, leading to reduced mobility.
• Lattice Scattering: As temperature increases, thermal vibrations of
the lattice atoms become more pronounced, leading to increased lattice
scattering. This phenomenon affects how frequently charge carriers collide
with the vibrating lattice, again leading to decreased mobility.
Temperature Influence
• Low-Temperature Behavior: At low temperatures, the mobility is pri-
marily limited by impurity scattering. As the temperature rises, lattice
scattering begins to dominate because the increased thermal energy allows
carriers to collide more frequently with the vibrating atoms in the lattice.
• Increased Temperature Effects: As temperature increases, the mobil-
ity of charge carriers tends to decrease because the increased scattering
events outweigh the beneficial effects of enhanced thermal energy.
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High-Field Effects
Drift Velocity and Thermal Velocity
• Comparison of Velocities: The drift velocity of charge carriers can
reach values comparable to their thermal velocity, which is typically around
107 cm/s at room temperature.
Saturation of Drift Velocity
• Saturation Phenomenon: At high electric fields, the drift velocity
reaches a saturation point where further increases in the electric field do
not result in increased carrier velocity. Instead, additional energy input
is dissipated as heat through increased collisions with the lattice, leading
to a constant current despite increasing field strength.
Implications of High Fields
• Constant Current: In a situation where the drift velocity saturates, the
current I remains constant even as the electric field increases. This is
an important consideration in device design, as it limits the operation of
semiconductors in high-field applications.
Hall Effect
Basic Principle
• Hall Effect Definition: The Hall effect occurs when a magnetic field is
applied perpendicular to the direction of current flow in a semiconductor,
resulting in the development of a transverse voltage (Hall voltage) across
the material.
Forces on Charge Carriers
• Lorentz Force: The charge carriers (electrons or holes) experience two
forces: one due to the electric field E and another due to the magnetic
field B. The resulting force on a charge carrier is given by:
Fx = qEx , Fy = q(v × B)
• Equilibrium Condition: At equilibrium, the total force in the y-direction
must balance the forces acting on the carriers, leading to the establishment
of a Hall electric field Ey :
v x Bz
Ey =
q
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Hall Voltage Measurement
• Hall Voltage Calculation: The Hall voltage VAB can be measured
across the width of the semiconductor, and it is related to the current
density Jx and the magnetic field Bz :
Jx
Ey = Bz
qp0
• Determining Carrier Concentration: The Hall effect is a powerful
tool for determining charge carrier density p0 in p-type semiconductors or
n0 in n-type semiconductors. The relationship can be expressed as:
Jx Bz
p0 =
qEy
Other Key Concepts
Resistivity and Resistance
• Resistivity (ρ): A fundamental property that quantifies how strongly a
material opposes the flow of electric current. It is temperature-dependent
and can be affected by doping.
• Resistance (R): Related to resistivity by the geometric factors of the
material:
ρL
R=
wt
where L is the length of the conductor, w is its width, and t is its thickness.
Conductivity (σ)
• Conductivity Definition: The reciprocal of resistivity, indicating how
easily charge carriers can flow through a material:
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σ= = q(nµn + pµp )
ρ
where n and p are the concentrations of electrons and holes, respectively,
and µn and µp are their mobilities.
Fermi Level and Equilibrium
• Fermi Level (EF ): The energy level at which the probability of finding
an electron is 50
• Non-Homogeneous Semiconductors: In semiconductors with varying
doping levels or junctions, the Fermi level must be adjusted to maintain
equilibrium, leading to variations in charge carrier distribution.
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Summary
Each of these concepts plays a critical role in understanding the behavior of
semiconductors under various conditions. Electron and hole flow dynamics, in-
fluenced by electric fields and temperature, dictate how semiconductors operate
in devices. The Hall effect provides a unique method for characterizing ma-
terials, while resistivity and mobility inform us of the material’s efficiency in
conducting electricity. Understanding these principles is essential for the design
and application of semiconductor devices in electronics.
