Received: 5 April 2021 Revised: 20 June 2021 Accepted: 25 June 2021

DOI: 10.1002/leg3.117

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Physico-chemical and functional properties of legume protein,

starch, and dietary fiber—A review

Semin Ozge Keskin1 | Tahira Mohsin Ali2 | Jasim Ahmed3 |

Marium Shaikh2 | Muhammad Siddiq4 | Mark A. Uebersax5

1
Food Processing Department, Kocaeli
University, Kartepe/Kocaeli, Turkey Abstract
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Legumes have gained increased dietary importance in recent years due to their
University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
recognized health benefits. Recent plant protein revolution has elevated legumes to
3
Environment and Life Sciences Research
Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific the forefront from consumers' and food industry's perspective. Unlike cereal proteins
Research. P.O. Box 24885, Safat, Kuwait and starches, there is a scarcity of information on the structural properties of legume
4
Food Science and Technology Consultant,
starches. Consumption of legume-derived dietary fibers have a positive impact on
Windsor, Canada
5
Department of Food Science and Human
the human health, in particular, gut health, which is a current research focus for
Nutrition, Michigan State University, East nutrition and health professionals. Knowledge of legume ingredients properties
Lansing, Michigan, USA
(e.g., protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, pasting, and thermal properties)
Correspondence could aid in understanding functionality and potential uses of these materials. The
Jasim Ahmed, Environment and Life Sciences
Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific
physicochemical, thermal, and the functional properties of legume proteins, starches,
Research. P.O. Box 24885, Safat 13109, and dietary fibers are elucidated. Both the food ingredient manufacturers and
Kuwait.
Email: [email protected];
research and development professionals in the food industry can benefit from the
[email protected] information provided in this review article.

KEYWORDS
amylose content, flour properties, food protein, food rheology

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N Legume starches are characterized by a higher percentage of slowly

digestible resistant starch (RS), resulting in low glycemic index, and
Legumes (Fabacea family) are dicotyledonous seeds, rich in proteins, act as functional foods. The hypoglycemic effects of legumes
carbohydrates, and dietary fibers (DFs). In recent years, legume-based have been further supported by high contents of DF (Trinidad
ingredients have steadily increased in use in various food applications. et al., 2010).
Legumes have significantly higher protein content than cereal In comparison to wheat, the predominant flour/ingredient used
grains, making legumes among the richest food sources of proteins for many food products, legumes offer improved nutritional quality.
and amino acids for human nutrition. In addition to offering a Legumes have higher proteins and higher total DF content, and lower
source of essential amino acids and bioactive peptides, legume carbohydrates (Dhull, Punia, Kidwai, et al., 2020; Siddiq &
proteins influence many functional properties, which could help Uebersax, 2012). In addition, legume-based ingredients can be used to
expand their potential use in the development of a wide variety of develop gluten-free products, which has been a growing segment of
food products (Boye et al., 2010; Dhull, Punia, Sandhu, et al., 2020). food industry in recent years. Furthermore, legume-extracted proteins
The carbohydrate fraction of legumes is primarily composed of are emerging as a major source of continued global demand for plant
starch (65%–72%) and DF (10%–20%) (Haytowitz et al., 2011). proteins as meat alternative. However, despite many nutritional

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors. Legume Science published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

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F I G U R E 1 Diverse application of legume

protein, starch and fiber ingredients

TABLE 1 Amino acid profiles of selected legume seeds

Amino acids (g/100g seed) Common beansa Chickpeab Cowpeac Lentild Peae
Alanine 0.84–0.89 - 0.94 1.35–1.44 0.99–1.09
Arginine 0.57–1.43 1.57 1.82 1.98–2.56 1.98–2.18
Asparagine - - - -
Aspartic acid 2.59–2.67 0.48 2.56 2.90–3.15 2.77–3.28
Cystine 0.14f 0.23 0.14f - -
Glutamine - - - - -
Glutamic acid 3.13–3.55 - 4.14 4.60–5.00 3.58–4.66
Glycine 0.78–0.93 0.55 1.03 0.86–1.07 0.87–1.14
Histidineg 0.58–0.77 0.44 0.85 - -
g
Isoleucine 0.89–1.04 0.85 0.87 0.91–1.05 1.01–1.12
Leucineg 1.62–1.70 1.60 1.70 1.59–2.14 1.66–1.86
g
Lysine 1.24–2.57 1.27 1.26 1.82–2.03 1.70–1.83
Methionineg 0.24–0.27 0.09 0.37 0.67–0.79h 0.56-0.69h
Phenylalanineg 1.21–1.36 0.97 1.46 1.07–1.52 1.06–1.26
Proline 0.80–0.87 0.05 0.94 - -
Serine 1.16–1.36 1.22 1.22 1.06–1.49 1.11–1.45
Threonineg 0.79–0.95 0.60 0.88 1.02–1.18 1.00–1.09
g
Tryptophan 0.18–0.20 1.32 0.22 - -
Tyrosine 0.70–0.90 0.49 0.87 0.62–0.72 0.62–0.75
Valineg 1.00–1.05 0.84 1.01 1.06–1.31 1.03–1.21
a
Baptista et al. (2017): data are mean of 15 samples; Kose et al. (2019): data are from 2 genotypes—Yenice and Pınarlı.
b
Thakur et al. (2017).
c
Baptista et al. (2017): data are mean values of 9 samples.
d
Ciurescu et al. (2018): data are from 4 cultivars—Eston, Georgy, Berglinse, and Black.
e
Ciurescu et al. (2018): data are from 5 cultivars—Nicoleta, Vedea, Specter, Windham, and Biathlon.
f
Cysteine.
g
Essential amino acids.
h
Methionine + cystine.

benefits, the per capita consumption of legumes is very low in the pulse type; therefore, an understanding of species–specific functional
developed countries. The superior functionality of legume-based properties is important. Our objective is to provide a review of
ingredients can play an important role in expanding legumes research on the physico-chemical and functional properties of legume
consumption beyond traditional products and uses, as shown in ingredients (starch, protein, and DFs) and their functional role in food
Figure 1. There is considerable variation in legume ingredients by product development.
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KESKIN ET AL. 3 of 15

2 | LEGUME PROTEINS purity. The Td and denaturation enthalpies of various bean PIs ranged
from 90
C to 152
C and 32.9 to 134 J/g, respectively (Gundogan &
Legumes are low-cost protein source, used as flours, concentrates, or Karaca, 2020).
protein isolates (PIs), which make them valuable and nutritious The water holding capacity (WHC) and oil holding capacity
ingredients in various food systems (Barac, Pešic, Stanojevic, Kostic, & (OHC) of legume PIs range between 1.8–6.8 g/g and 3.5–6.8 g/g,
Čabrilo, 2015). Protein contents of legumes vary according to respectively. Legume PIs exhibit good foaming capacity, emulsion
legume species, with average contents in pea, lentil, and beans capacity, solubility, and emulsifying activity index (Gundogan &
of 23.3%–26%, 25.6%–28.9%, and 19.3%–23.9%, respectively, Karaca, 2020; Lafarga et al., 2020), and those properties are retained
dry-weight basis (Baptista et al., 2017). The seed proteins can be even at extreme pH (2.0 and 10.0) (Lafarga et al., 2020). Barac, Pešic,
classified as structural, storage, and biologically active. The main Stanojevic, Kostic, and Bivolarevic (2015) observed that the native
biologically active proteins are enzymes, lectins, and enzyme isolates of soybean had the highest and adzuki isolates had the lowest
inhibitors. Globulins (35%–80%) and albumins (2%–37%) are the major solubility at selected pH (3.0, 5.0, 7.0, and 8.0) while the most stable
protein fractions in legume seeds (Hall et al., 2017). Legumin (11S) foams were observed for native soy PIs.
and vicilin (7S) are the major globulins, whereas enzymes, enzyme In addition to food applications, legume proteins have found
inhibitors, and lectins belong to albumins (Boye et al., 2010; extensive use in the encapsulation. Legume PIs (e.g., from pea and
Venkidasamy et al., 2019). Albumins (rich in lysine and sulfur- chickpea) are used to encapsulate vitamin B9 (folate), α-tocopherol,
containing amino acids) and globulins (containing higher content of ascorbic acid, and phytase separately; with significantly high encapsu-
aspartic acid and glutamic acid) have different overall amino acid lation efficiencies of 62%–100% (Ariyarathna & Karunaratne, 2015;
profiles (Venkidasamy et al., 2019). Gharibzahedi & Alavinia, 2017). Encapsulation of phytase with pea PI
Recent research has shown the significance of bioactive peptides resulted in low release rate and high bioaccessibility in simulated
from legume proteins, especially, in the context of diabetes mitigation
and anti-gastrointestinal cancer potential. The generation of bioactive
peptides is considered either from the point of view of regular
gastrointestinal digestion or that of a functional food, that is, by
using proteases such as alcalase (Luna-Vital & de Mejía, 2018;
Moreno-Valdespino et al., 2020).

2.1 | Amino acid profiles of legume seeds

Amino acid profiles are indicators of proteins' nutritional qualities and

functionalities. Essential/nonessential amino acid content is one of
the parameters that provide important nutritional details about the
protein quality of legumes (Table 1). Moreover, functional groups of
amino acids also affect the physicochemical and functional properties
and the protein behavior in foods. Glutamic acid and aspartic acid,
nonessential amino acids, are the most abundant amino acids in the
selected legumes except chickpea, whereas limiting amino acids vary
according to legume species (Table 1).

2.2 | Physicochemical and functional properties of

legume protein isolates (PIs)

Two of the important properties of PIs are their thermal stability

and thermal behavior during the processing. Thermal behavior of
protein denaturation (Td) has been discussed in detail in a separate
review (Ahmed et al., 2021), with a brief discussion here. The Td of
chickpeas at 70% purity and faba beans at 88% purity were 205
C F I G U R E 2 Influence of high-pressure and enzyme treatment on
lentil proteins: (a) steady shear measurement exhibiting thixotropic
and 183
C, respectively; bean isolates at 55% and 75% purity had Td
loop and (b) the apparent viscosity at a constant shear rate at 10 s1
of 211.5
C and 193.8
C, respectively; and lentil isolates at 45%
(LPI: lentil protein isolate; E: alcalase enzyme). Different letters
and 75% purity had Td of 199.5
C and 183.4
C, respectively indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 (reference: Ahmed
(Ricci et al., 2018). Thermal stability of legume PIs increases with the et al., 2019)
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4 of 15 KESKIN ET AL.

TABLE 2 Percent amylose content and molecular weights (Mw) of amylose and amylopectin in selected legume starches

Amylose Mw of amylose Mw of amylopectin

Starch source content (%) (Da) (Da) References
Adzuki bean 27.9–30.61 - - Su et al. (1998); Zhang et al. (2019)
Baby lima bean 32.7–40.24 - 4.68  108 Betancur et al. (2001); Ma et al., 2017
Black bean 23.13–45.4 1.85  105– 4.36  106– Ambigaipalan et al. (2011); Byars and Singh (2016); Du et al. (2014);
4.03  106 3.06  108 Hoover and Ratnayake (2002); Ovando-Martínez et al. (2011);
Simsek et al. (2012); Zhou et al. (2004)
Carioca bean 40.91 do Evangelho et al. (2020)
Chickpea 23.0–35.24 2.15  10 – 5
1.02  10 –
8
Byars and Singh (2016); Hoover and Ratnayake (2002); Huang
1.45  106 2.94  108 et al. (2007); Ma et al. (2017); Miao et al. (2009); Sandhu and
Lim (2008); Yniestra Marure et al. (2019); Zhang et al. (2016)
Cowpea 18.7–49.5 3.0  106– 8.16  107– Adebooye and Singh (2008); Huang et al. (2007); Kim et al. (2018)
3.4  106 8.74  107
Dolichos bean 21.8 - - Acevedo et al. (2020)
Faba bean 24.4–39.9 1.0  105– Doublier (1987); Haase and Shi (1991); Sharma et al. (2020);
2.0  105 Zhang et al. (2019)
Lentil 23.5–38.0 3.28  106 3.33  108– Byars and Singh (2016); Hoover and Ratnayake (2002); Ma
3.81  108 et al. (2017); Sandhu and Lim (2008); Zhou et al. (2004)
Mung bean 31.6–45.3 1.83  106 2.64  108– Hoover et al. (1997); Ma et al. (2017); Sandhu and Lim (2008);
3.54  108 Su et al. (1998)
Navy bean 28.2–43.4 3.27  108 Byars and Singh (2016); Du et al. (2014); Gujska et al. (1994);
Hoover and Ratnayake (2002); Su et al. (1998)
Pigeon pea 25.95–46.9 3.31  106– 3.54  108– Acevedo et al. (2020); Kaur and Sandhu (2010); Olagunju
3.92  106 3.96  108 et al. (2020); Sandhu and Lim (2008); Singh et al. (1989);
Yadav et al. (2011)
Pinto bean 25.21–37.4 1.94  105– 4.34  106– Du et al. (2014); Gujska et al. (1994); Hoover and Ratnayake (2002);
2.46  106 5.28  108 Ovando-Martínez et al. (2011); Simsek et al. (2012);
Su et al. (1998); Zhou et al. (2004)
Red kidney bean 25.33–49.7 8.31  108 Bajaj et al. (2018); Du et al. (2014); Punia et al. (2020);
Reddy et al. (2013); Su et al. (1998)
Smooth pea 23.9–35.09 5.45  106 5.38  107 Aberle et al. (1994); Doublier (1987); Hoover and Ratnayake (2002);
Zhou et al. (2004)

gastric and intestinal fluids (Gharibzahedi & Smith, 2021). Lentil and bean, lentil PI, and protein hydrolysates were increased by HP
red kidney bean PIs are used to encapsulate the vegetable oils and treatment. Emulsion stability of kidney bean protein hydrolysate and
flaxseed and soybean oils, respectively (Joshi et al., 2012; Liu lentil PI decreased, as shown by notable changes in the secondary
et al., 2014). Probiotic bacteria are encapsulated with native and structure with a shift of amide I and amide II after HP treatment
modified soy PI, soy and pea protein concentrates, resulting in (Ahmed et al., 2019; Al-Ruwaih et al., 2019). The thixotropic behavior
improved survivability, storage stability, and tolerance in the in vitro of the kidney bean PI was reduced by enzymatic hydrolysis, and the
gastrointestinal tract conditions (Gharibzahedi & Smith, 2021). Various resultant hydrolysates behaved like a Newtonian fluid at the higher
legume protein concentrates (faba bean, pea, lupin, lentil, and soy) shear rate (Figure 2). HP-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis of legume
have been used for the edible film formulations by blending with the proteins has potential to produce desired bioactive peptides with
plasticizer, glycerol (Hopkins et al., 2019), with the developed films higher functionality and antioxidant activities (Al-Ruwaih et al., 2019).
exhibiting good mechanical and barrier properties (Bamdad High-intensity ultrasound treatment of chickpea PIs significantly
et al., 2006). Saremnezhad et al. (2011) prepared flexible edible films improved their solubility, emulsifying, foaming and heat-induced gel
from faba bean PI and recommended those edible films to be used for properties (Wang et al., 2020). Enzyme hydrolysis is another tech-
packaging of light sensitive foodstuffs. nique to modify legume proteins properties. Alcalase and bromelain
Besides traditional cooking/processing, the functionality of hydrolysis improved antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of
legume proteins can be improved using emerging technologies, for PIs from pigeon pea, lentil, and chickpea (Xu et al., 2021). The legume
example, high hydrostatic pressure (HP), ultrasound, enzymatic proteins modified by different techniques have potential for use in
hydrolysis, and combination of these technologies (Ahmed food and nutraceutical applications because of their improved
et al., 2018, 2019; Al-Ruwaih et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020; Xu nutritional/functional characteristics (Al-Ruwaih et al., 2019; Wang
et al., 2021). The solubility and emulsifying activity index of kidney et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021).
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KESKIN ET AL. 5 of 15

TABLE 3 Percentages of amylopectin (AMP) chain length distribution in starches from different legumes

AMP chain length

Starch source 6–12 13–24 25–36 ≥37 References

Baby lima bean 21.63 59.45 10.61 8.31 Ma et al. (2017)
Black bean 18.05–30.05 51.02–56.24 12.19–18.18 0.48–13.49 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011); Du et al. (2014);
Ovando-Martínez et al. (2011)
Chickpea 38.1–42.65 44.71–47.6 7.35–8.8 4.2–6.5 Ma et al. (2017); Phrukwiwattanakul et al. (2014)
Cowpea 25.0–39.81 39.6–46.73 13.8–16.1 13.9–16.3 Kim et al. (2018); Ma et al. (2017)
Faba bean 19.33–21.69 53.07–53.39 13.74–15.50 10.41–12.10 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011)
Lentil 26.0–26.9 56.2–58.4 10.4–15.6 7.22 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008); Chung, Liu, Pauls,
et al. (2008); Ma et al. (2017)
Mung bean 24.31–29.5 41.6–52.56 11.15–17.21 8.27–15.4 Kim et al. (2018); Ma et al. (2017);
Phrukwiwattanakul et al. (2014); Yao et al. (2019)
Navy bean 24.3–31.09 53.3–59.8 8.99–16.0 6.39 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008); Chung, Liu, Pauls,
et al. (2008); Du et al. (2014)
Pea 20.4–21.1 54.2–54.7 16.0–16.2 8.4–8.9 Chung and Liu (2012)
Pinto bean 20.06–35.21 47.79–55.77 9.63–15.48 0.52–10.44 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011); Du et al. (2014);
Ovando-Martínez et al. (2011)
Red kidney bean 23.65–27.81 51.21–59.7 9.90–16.6 7.05–12.49 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008); Chung, Liu, Pauls,
et al. (2008); Du et al. (2014); Ma et al. (2017)

3 | LEGUME STARCH procedures of starch isolation, and so forth (Kossmann & Lloyd, 2000;
Ovando-Martínez et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2004). A range of molecular
Starch is the most prominent carbohydrate in legumes. In general, weights (Mw) have been reported for amylose (1.0  105 to
legume starch granules are oval-shaped, although spherical, round, 5.45  106 Da) and amylopectin (4.34  106 to 8.31  108 Da)
elliptical, and irregularly shaped granules are also reported (Hoover (Table 2). The average chain length of amylopectin (13–24 DP, degree
et al., 2010). Starch, present as semicrystalline granules in amyloplasts of polymerization) is responsible for the crystallinity for legume
(as alternating crystalline and amorphous layers), consist of two starches (Hoover et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2017). The chain lengths
principal polysaccharides—amylopectin and amylose, which are affect the enzymatic susceptibility and functional properties of
α-D-glucoses linked together in two different configurations. starches (Du et al., 2014). The percent amylopectin chain length
Structural and functional characteristics of these glucan polymers distribution in legume starches (presented in Table 3) followed the
influence the functionality and the end use of starch. order of DP 13–24 > DP 6–12 > DP 25–36 ≥ DP ≥ 37. Chickpea
In comparison with cereal grains, legumes predominantly possess starches, however, are found to be exceptional as it contained very
slowly digestible starch (SDS), which is the most desirable form of high amount of shorter amylopectin chains DP (6–12) compared with
dietary starch because it elicits slow glycemic response and attenuates other legumes.
plasma insulin levels (Chung et al., 2009). This functional property of
legume starch makes it a perfect ingredient for use in healthy food
products. 3.2 | Gelatinization and rheological properties of
legume starches
3.1 | Starch structure: Amylose and amylopectin
Starch rheology is a vast area of research as it has significant
The proportion of amylose (AM) to amylopectin (AMP) in legume impact on food product development. Starch granules gelatinize in
starches depends upon the starch source, that is, variety, growing the presence of water at the appropriate temperature followed by
condition, and origin; however, amylopectin remains the significant gel formation (Ahmed, 2012). The gel rigidity depends on the
component (Punia et al., 2020). The accepted structure of amylopectin concentration of the starch and many other factors. The gelatinization
comprises short amylopectin chains forming double helices and and the glass transition temperature of starch have been described in
combining into clusters (Aberle et al., 1994). These clusters yield a another review article (Ahmed et al., 2021). Table 4 summarizes the
structure that consists of alternating crystalline and amorphous DSC peak gelatinization temperature (Tp) of legume starches. Tp and
lamellae. The amylose content of legume starches varies from 18.7% the gel rigidity, as measured during the rheological tests, vary
to 49.7% (Table 2), which differs widely due to genotypic variation, significantly from the macroscopic (e.g., viscoamylograph) to the
growth conditions, enzymatic activity during biosynthesis of starch, microscopic measurements (e.g., rheometry). The starch gels are
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6 of 15 KESKIN ET AL.

T A B L E 4 Gelatinization temperature and enthalpy, retrogradation enthalpy, resistant starch content and glycemic index of starches from
different legumes

Starch source Tp (
C) ΔHgel (J/g) ΔHr (J/g) RS (%) GI References

Adzuki bean 63.85–69.84 2.39–17.66 3.86–6.36 11.7–55.23 - Gong et al. (2017); Wang et al. (2017);
Xu et al. (2018); Yadav et al. (2019);
Zhang et al. (2019)
Black bean 69.9–76.64 12.1–14.70 6.70–7.48 33.46–74.89 36.40–46 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011, 2014);
Sharma et al. (2020); Zhang et al. (2019)
Chickpea 63.5–77.3 4.46–17.6 4.6 8.4–73.1 47.05–71.7 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008);
Chung, Liu, Pauls, et al. (2008);
Huang et al. (2007); Miao et al. (2009);
Sandhu and Lim (2008); Yniestra Marure
et al. (2019)
Cowpea 73.2–81.82 9.41–15.40 - 3.2–76.15 41.4–48.14 Herath et al. (2018); Kaptso et al. (2016);
Kim et al. (2018); Ratnaningsih
et al. (2017)
Dolichos bean 67.92–75.44 8.44–12.47 7.41 57.7 - Acevedo et al. (2020); Liu et al. (2020)
Faba bean 66.38–68.4 6.68–12.34 - 10.00–49.8 61.30–66.20 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011, 2014);
Sharma et al. (2020); Zhang et al. (2019)
Lima bean 75.3–79.89 8.34–15.2 5.45 3.8–4.5 34.2–39.1 Bello-Pérez et al. (2007); Ma et al. (2017);
Oladebeye et al. (2013); Segura-Campos
et al. (2010)
Lentil 66.1–70.6 11.2–14.3 6.0 9.1–13.2 60.0–66.3 Chung et al. (2009); Chung, Liu, Donner,
et al. (2008); Chung, Liu, Pauls,
et al. (2008); Hoover et al. (2010);
Ma et al. (2017); Sandhu and Lim (2008);
Zhou et al. (2004)
Mung bean 67.0–72.83 5.1–21.30 - 4.04–80.78 41.5–50.7 Herath et al. (2018); Kim et al. (2018);
Li et al. (2019); Phrukwiwattanakul
et al. (2014); Sandhu and Lim (2008);
Yao et al. (2019)
Navy bean 71.9–75.1 13.2–16.1 - 17.2–77.4 67.4 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008);
Chung, Liu, Pauls, et al. (2008);
Du et al. (2014); Hoover et al. (2010);
Ma et al. (2017); Maaran et al. (2014)
Pigeon pea 67.56–80.74 2.6–10.7 5.1–8.07 60.9–76.87 46.8–78.82 Acevedo et al. (2020); Kaur and
Sandhu (2010); Narina et al. (2012);
Olagunju et al. (2020)
Pinto bean 70.14–76.5 13.87–16.2 5.09–5.89 36.57–75.00 29.79–41.10 Ambigaipalan et al. (2011, 2014);
Hoover et al. (2010); Ovando-Martínez
et al. (2011); Simsek et al. (2012);
Zhou et al. (2004)
Pea 60.8–67.7 3.6–14.2 - 67.6–70.7 8.7–12.6 Chung and Liu (2012); Chung, Liu, Donner,
et al. (2008); Chung, Liu, Pauls,
et al. (2008); Ratnayake et al. (2002)
Red kidney bean 67.0–82.1 3.0–14.9 65.8–68.4 17.2–35.0 Chung, Liu, Donner, et al. (2008);
Chung, Liu, Pauls, et al. (2008);
Eyaru et al. (2009); Ma et al. (2017);
Reddy et al. (2013); Wani et al. (2010)

Abbreviations: GI, glycemic index; ΔHgel, gelatinization enthalpy; ΔHr, retrogradation enthalpy after 7 days' storage at 4
C; RS, resistant starch; Tp, peak
gelatinization temperature of starches.

subjected to small/large amplitude oscillatory shear, steady flow, or of mung bean starch by a non-isothermal technique as function of
creep measurements during rheological measurements (Acevedo G0 and G00 against heating time (t) and found a first-order reaction
et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., 2016; Doublier, 1987; Phrukwiwattanakul kinetics. Results showed that legume starches displayed predominant
et al., 2014). Ahmed (2012) employed the small amplitude oscillatory elastic modulus (G0 ) over the viscous modulus (G00 ) resulting in a
shear (SAOS) measurement for evaluating the gelatinization kinetics solid-like behavior (G0 > G00 ) (Ahmed, 2012).
 26396181, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.117 by CochraneArgentina, Wiley Online Library on [04/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
KESKIN ET AL. 7 of 15

Steady flow measurements of starch dispersions/gels are

characterized by non-Newtonian behavior and described by a power
law or the Herschel–Bulkley models. Most of the starches demon-
strate shear-thinning behavior (flow index, n < 1), with yield stresses
and thixotropy (Ahuja et al., 2020). The n values for a pool of legume
starches range from 0.37 to 0.76 (Byars & Singh, 2016). Thixotropic
breakdown of navy bean starch has been reported at 10% and 12%
concentrations during shearing at 85
C and 95
C (Lee et al., 1995).
Other legume starches (faba bean and pea) also showed a lower
thixotropy (i.e., shear dependence) than the cereal starches under
similar conditions (Doublier, 1987).

3.3 | Retrogradation of legume starches

F I G U R E 3 Imitation of RVA pasting measurement protocol in an
The gelatinized starches retrograde during storage and shorten the oscillatory rheometry set up. The complex viscosity as a function of
temperature and time (reference: Ahmed, 2012)
shelf life and acceptability of food products. Retrogradation in pulse
starches have been studied extensively using various techniques
(Betancur-Ancona et al., 2002; Hoover et al., 2010). However, A representative rheometric pasting properties of mung bean starch is
syneresis is the most extensively studied method for pulse starches illustrated in Figure 3, where the complex viscosity is plotted against
with a significant variation of data due to variations in measuring temperature and time imitating the RVA steps including pasting
conditions. Syneresis is directly related to amylose content of temperature (PT), time to peak viscosity (TTPV), peak viscosity (PV),
starches, which reassociates rapidly to form a hard gel and expels out breakdown viscosity (BDV), setback viscosity (SBV), trough viscosity
water present between the adjacent chains (Betancur-Ancona (TV), and final viscosity (FV). The pasting parameters of legume
et al., 2002). starches, which provide the information about the starch gelatiniza-
Syneresis is a concentration-dependent phenomenon and the tion and associated properties, are summarized in Table 5.
syneresis index decreases with increasing the starch concentration Rotational viscometric measurement of gelatinization of navy
for many cultivars of black bean, chickpea, lentils, and navy bean bean starch demonstrated that the torque response of swelling of
starches (Byars & Singh, 2016). Thermal analysis reflect reduction in starch granules approached equilibrium after an increase to a peak
retrogradation enthalpy (ΔHr) of stored starches after gelatinization, followed by a decline during cooking and the viscosity of the paste
which ranged from 3.86 to 8.07 J/g (Table 4). The ΔHr corresponds to increased as the starch concentration and/or cooking temperature
melting of crystals formed through recrystallization of outer branch increased (Lee et al., 1995). The RVA pasting parameters of stored
chains of amylopectin, which fail to regain the same degree of order carioca bean starches at 5
C–15
C for 360 days showed no differ-
as present in native starch resulted in ΔHr < ΔHgel (Gunaratne & ence in the PT and the PV (Rupollo, 2011). The sample stored at 5
C
Corke, 2007). Retrograded starches show reduced mobility compared showed higher SBV and lower BDV because of the lower crystallinity
to gelatinized starches due to formation of crystallites caused by and the presence of higher amylose contents that reassociate easily.
AM-AM, AM-AMP, and AMP-AMP interactions. Influence of germination, soaking-cooking, and microwave treatments
on pasting properties of pigeon pea, dolichos bean, and jack bean flo-
urs reduced the process of retrogradation (Acevedo et al., 2017).
3.4 | Pasting properties of legume starches Hydrocolloids, xanthan and konjac gums, incorporation, conversely
improved the PV, BDV, and FV of mung bean RS (Lin et al., 2021). The
Pasting measures the starch behavior during the heating in excess PV of two varieties of 9% common bean starches did not appear while
water over time. The starch slurry undergoes a series of heating/ adjusted to pH 5, 7 and 9; however, the viscosity improved after hold-
cooling/holding phases during the measurements and the change in pez et al., 1988). At acidic
ing the paste at 90
C for 15 min (Paredes-Lo
viscosity with temperature–time records during the experiment. It and alkaline pH, the paste exhibited a marginal higher degree of set-
provides the information about the suitability of the starch for its back, or retrogradation pattern, compared with the control paste.
industrial application. The most common equipment employed for The HP treatment of lentil starch showed pressure-dependent
the pasting properties of starch measurements are Brabender visco- changes in the pasting properties (Ahmed et al., 2016). At 400 MPa,
amylograph (BVA), rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA), and paste cell the PV increased from 958 BU to 981 but decreased to 520 BU at
attached to rheometer. However, Tsutsui et al. (2005) and 600 MPa. The PT also decreased from 64.1
C to 56.2
C with
Ahmed (2012) recommended that a precise rheometric measurement pressurization. The FV reduced more than 50% after 600 MPa. Such a
has more advantages than BVA/RVA to investigate starch characteris- decrease in the pasting parameters at 600 MPa was attributed to
tics by not rupturing the gel structure during the measurement. the complete gelatinization of starch granules. Both the BDV and the
 8 of 15

TABLE 5 Pasting properties of selected legume starches measured using Brabender viscoamylograph and rapid viscoanalyzer

Viscosity (different units)

Starch source Condition/unit Peak viscosity Hot paste Breakdown Cold paste/final Setback Peak time (min) Pasting temperature (
C) Reference
Pigeon pea RVU 45.42 43.75 1.67 58.86 15.11 6.94 86.54 Oladebeye et al. (2018)
Lima bean RVU 84.67 63.63 21.03 74.28 10.64 5.01 86.54 Oladebeye et al. (2018)
Jack bean RVU 32.52 29.50 3.03 38.92 9.42 5.65 86.31 Oladebeye et al. (2018)
Mung bean mPas 7149 3937 4342 1130 4.10 70.7 Li et al. (2011)
Triangular pea mPas 3261 850 5051 2641 4.80 52.60 Li et al. (2014)
White pea mPas 3331 935 4476 2081 4.47 54.30 Li et al. (2014)
Spotted colored pea mPas 3196 846 4041 1691 4.70 5045 Li et al. (2014)
Small white kidney bean mPas 4794 2156 5122 2529 4.06 50.25 Li et al. (2014)
Lentil* Control; BU 958 586 372 1462 1080 9.00 77.7 Ahmed et al. (2016)
400 MPa; BU 981 651 330 1548 937 10.2 80.2 Ahmed et al. (2016)
600 MPa; BU 520 517 3 635 171 44.4 95 Ahmed et al. (2016)
Pigeon pea Native; mPas 5892 - 2091 7950 4149 - 81.6 Acevedo et al. (2017)
Germination; 3997 - 1542 4431 1976 - 82.8 Acevedo et al. (2017)
mPas
Soaking-cooking 6372 - 1167 6493 1288 - 74.1 Acevedo et al. (2017)
(6 h–60 min);
mPas
Microwave 6324 - 2058 7492 3675 - 82.5 Acevedo et al. (2017)
100%; mPas
Dolichos bean Native; mPas 6134 - 2601 7672 4139 - 75.7 Acevedo et al. (2017)
Germination; 1505 - 551 1362 408 - 76.6 Acevedo et al. (2017)
mPas
Soaking-cooking 5350 - 2425 3550 625 - 65.4 Acevedo et al. (2017)
(6 h–60 min);
mPas
Microwave 6403 - 1812 8308 3717 - 77.2 Acevedo et al. (2017)
100%; mPas
Jack bean Native; mPas 1722 - 948 1407 642 - 85.5 Acevedo et al. (2017)
Germination; 1340 - 763 989 352 - 86.1 Acevedo et al. (2017)
mPas
4292 - 752 5444 1904 - 88.9 Acevedo et al. (2017)
KESKIN ET AL.

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 26396181, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.117 by CochraneArgentina, Wiley Online Library on [04/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
KESKIN ET AL. 9 of 15

SBV decreased systematically as a function of pressure. The decrease

Ovando-Martínez et al., 2011

Ovando-Martínez et al., 2011
in BDV break-down indicates that pressure-modified gel network is
more heat-stable compared with control sample.

Zhang and Zhai (2020)

Acevedo et al. (2017)
3.5 | RS content and glycemic index (GI)
Reference

Legumes are frequently incorporated in food products to reduce

postprandial plasma glucose response after ingestion, which is the key
Pasting temperature (
C)

element for dietary management of people suffering from diabetes

mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Both in vitro and in vivo studies
indicate that the legume starches are capable of lowering the GI
because of the presence of higher RS and SDS content (Hoover &
80.7–84.7
81–81.5

Zhou, 2003; Zhang et al., 2016). Legume flours have lower GI

85.7

compared with extracted/isolated starches (Chung & Liu, 2012;

-

Chung, Liu, Donner, et al., 2008; Chung, Liu, Pauls, et al., 2008) as the
Peak time (min)

former contain both RS-1 (physically inaccessible starch due to

presence of proteins) and RS-2 (ungelatinized/semicrystalline form of
534–1147
119–145
125–134

starch) whereas the latter only contains RS-2 form. For native legume
starches, RS ranges between 3.2% and 80.78% (Table 4).
-

The differences in RS content among legumes occur due to

Setback

variation in amylose contents, amylopectin chain length distribution,

1205

surface morphology, ratio of A/B polymorphic content, degree of

-

molecular order on granular surface, and packing of double helices in

Cold paste/final

crystalline region (Ambigaipalan et al., 2014; Hoover et al., 2010). The

2285–6438

size of the starch granule also influences the enzyme accessibility.

278–316
286–288

Legumes with large granular diameters compared with cereals exhibit

2815

lower GI due to reduced surface area (Acevedo et al., 2020). The GI

values for legumes are listed in Table 4. Extrusion has been found to
6170–6863
Breakdown

decrease the RS content of all legume starches due to gelatinization,

57–105
50–115

which unveils the whole structure of starch making it susceptible to

1112

enzymes. However, the RS content in legume starches was still found

to be higher compared with corn starch after extrusion (Zhang
Hot paste

et al., 2016). A higher RS-3 content is achieved after 24 h in cold

Viscosity (different units)

storage for chickpea and lentil starches (Tovar et al., 2002).

-

-
-
-
Peak viscosity

8614–11,461

4 | LE G U ME FIBE R S
216–275
205–276
2722

4.1 | Dietary fiber (DF)

Soaking-cooking
(6 h–60 min);

DF, a bioactive component of legumes, has proven health benefits.

100%; mPas
Condition/unit

Native; mPas
Native; RVU
Native; RVU

Legume fibers have ability to change textural, rheological, and senso-

Microwave
mPas

rial characteristics of foods related to their physicochemical properties

(Tosh & Yada, 2010). DFs are classified into soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF). The concentration of DF fractions
(Continued)

differs in the hull (seed coat) and the cotyledons, which affects the
*High-pressure treated.

physicochemical properties of legumes (Table 6). Legume hulls mainly

consist of IDF, cellulose and hemicelluloses, and smaller amounts of
Starch source

Adzuki bean

lignin (Tiwari & Cummins, 2011). Legume cotyledons include

Black bean
Pinto bean
TABLE 5

mainly pectic substances, soluble fraction (55%), and lower

amounts of cellulose and nonstarchy noncellulosic glucans (Guillon &
Champ, 2002; Tiwari & Cummins, 2011).
 26396181, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.117 by CochraneArgentina, Wiley Online Library on [04/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 of 15 KESKIN ET AL.

TABLE 6 Dietary fiber contents of selected legume seeds and hulls (g/100 g dry basis)

Legume based
Legume ingredient IDF SDF TDF References
Common beans Seed 9.64–19.80 3.21–9.34 16.21–24.50 Veena et al. (1995); Marconi et al. (2000); Kutoš
et al. (2003); Mahadevamma and Tharanathan (2004);
Martín-Cabrejas et al. (2004); Chen et al. (2016);
Heredia-Rodríguez et al. (2019)
Hull 71.79a,b 5.56a,b 77.35a,b Mannuramath and Jamuna (2012)
Chickpea Seed 8.76–19.05 2.82–8.40 11.58–25.60 Veena et al. (1995); Marconi et al. (2000); Dalgetty and
Baik (2003); Mahadevamma and Tharanathan (2004);
Chen et al. (2016); Grela et al. (2017)
Hull 77.61a 6.50a 84.18a Mannuramath and Jamuna (2012)
Cowpea Seed 14.80–31.00 3.10–3.50 18.20–35.60 Veena et al. (1995); Carvalho et al. (2012);
Benítez et al. (2013)
Hull 69.78a,c 1.08a,c 70.86a,c Mannuramath and Jamuna (2012)
Lentil Seed 11.40–17.30 1.83–6.90 16.70–31.05 Perez-Hidalgo et al. (1997); Dalgetty and Baik (2003);
Silva-Cristobal et al. (2010); Chen et al. (2016);
Grela et al. (2017)
Pea Seed 9.07–16.20 1.05–8.70 10.97–20.10 Dalgetty and Baik (2003); Stoughton-Ens et al. (2010);
Chen et al. (2016)

Abbreviations: IDF, insoluble dietary fiber; SDF, soluble dietary fiber; TDF, total dietary fiber.
a
g/100 g.
b
Phaseolus aureus.
c
Vigna mungo.

T A B L E 7 Physicochemical properties of seed coat (hull) of

4.2 | Physicochemical and functional properties selected raw legumes
of DFs
Water Oil
Swelling absorption absorption
Major physicochemical properties of legume fibers/hull are summa- Legume Solubility power capacity capacity
rized in Table 7. The solubility indexes of legume hulls vary widely. seed coat index (%) (%) (g/g) (g/g)
The highest and the lowest swelling capacity were observed in black Green grama 10.39 5.26 3.4 3.60
gram and green gram, respectively. Black gram and dolichos hulls have Bengal gram a
10.32 5.57 3.7 4.30
the highest WHC, whereas soybean showed the highest OHC
Black grama 13.02 6.74 3.8 3.90
(Mannuramath & Jamuna, 2012). The amount of SDF and IDF a
Red gram 13.04 5.31 3.7 4.20
fractions influences the physicochemical properties of legume
Soybeana 12.99 6.51 3.6 4.80
ingredients. SDF has a significantly higher WHC than the IDF because
a
Dolichos 8.81 6.24 3.8 3.40
of its hydrophilic character (Capuano, 2017). Pectic substances
Peab - 1.88c 5.5d 1.51e
(soluble fractions) are known to be the major fraction responsible for
legumes fiber's water binding. Conversely, the insoluble fractions Chickpeab - 3.61c 6.2d 1.76e

(pectic polysaccharides, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose) have the Lentilb - 2.38c 3.6d 1.63e

ability to enhance the oil-binding capacity of legume fibers (Huang a

Mannuramath and Jamuna (2012).
b
et al., 2009; Vaz Patto et al., 2015). Dalgetty and Baik (2003).
c
DFs have the ability to change physical, rheological/textural, and Swelling capacity (ml/g).
d
Water holding (ml/g).
sensorial properties of food systems according to their physicochemi- e
Oil binding (ml/g).
cal properties (Martens et al., 2017). Pea fiber addition to meat prod-
ucts increased cooking yield without affecting sensorial properties of
the products (Anderson & Berry, 2001; Besbes et al., 2008). Chickpea
and soybean hull addition to white bread formulation reduced weight movement through the colon. High-viscosity DFs (e.g., pectic
loss and firmness during storage and improved shelf life, and rheologi- substances), acting as a cation exchanger, help to absorb and remove
cal, physical, and sensorial properties of white bread (Niño-Medina toxic substances and decrease serum glucose and lipid levels through
et al., 2019). their ability to bind heavy metal ions (Tiwari & Cummins, 2011).
Human health is also influenced by the physicochemical proper- Furthermore, cholesterol binding ability of legume DFs change
ties of legume DFs. For instance, high WHC of legume DFs aids bowel according to the amount of SDF/IDF fractions, particle size of DFs,
 26396181, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.117 by CochraneArgentina, Wiley Online Library on [04/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
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Al-Ruwaih, N., Ahmed, J., Mulla, M. F., & Arfat, Y. A. (2019). High-pressure
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