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An Overview of Nickel Mineralisation in Africa with Emphasis on the

Mesoproterozoic East African Nickel Belt (EANB)

Article in Episodes · June 2016

DOI: 10.18814/epiiugs/2016/v39i2/95780

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 319

An overview of nickel mineralisation in

Africa with emphasis on the Mesoproterozoic
East African Nickel Belt (EANB)
D. M. Evans1, J. P. P. M. Hunt2, and J. R. Simmonds3
1
Carrog Consulting, 21 rue Jean de la Bruyère, 78000 Versailles, France. E-mail: [email protected]
2
Council for Geoscience, Private Bag X112, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
3
Nyiici Pty Ltd, 64 McKenzie Street, Wembley WA 6014, Australia

DOI: 10.18814/epiiugs/2016/v39i2/95780

Nickel production in Africa takes place principally they remain undeveloped due to their distance to the coast
in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe, with much of and a lack of transport and energy infrastructure. The
the South African and Zimbabwean production being a Kabanga sulphide deposit now comprises a total mineral
by-product of platinum-group element mining in the resource of 58 million tonnes grading 2.6% nickel. The
Bushveld Complex and Great Dyke. Several large nickel Musongati laterite deposit comprises an overall resource
deposits have been discovered elsewhere in Africa but of 122 million tonnes with a grade of 1.4% nickel.
until recently, their development has been hindered by
political risk and limitations in energy and transport Introduction and geological setting
infrastructure. Most of the continent is significantly of nickel deposits
underexplored with respect to base metals, including the
The vast majority of nickel deposits worldwide are hosted by or
area covered by the East African Nickel Belt (EANB).
related to rocks of mafic to ultramafic composition, either as products
The known nickel deposits of the EANB all occur in of crystallization from primitive mantle melts (picritic and tholeiitic
mafic-ultramafic intrusive rocks of the Mesoproterozoic- basalt or komatiitic magma) or, tectonically-emplaced slices of upper
age Kibaran igneous event. These intrusive bodies take mantle (ophiolites and alpine-type ultramafic bodies). Certain time
the form of medium to large layered intrusions, small periods such as the late Archaean and late Palaeoproterozoic appear
to have been more conducive to the formation of significant deposits
dynamic magma conduits (chonoliths and sills) and dyke
than others (Naldrett, 2010). Two main types of nickel deposit are
swarms. Laterite deposits are developed over exposed currently exploited: sulphide (in which nickel is associated with copper
dunite and peridotite lithologies in the basal sequence and platinum-group elements) and laterite (in which nickel is
of larger layered intrusions, whereas nickel sulphide associated with cobalt). A third type, metal-rich nodules on the deep
sea floor, is poorly quantified and uneconomic to exploit at the present
deposits are developed at the base of the small chonoliths.
time (Mudd, 2010). Examples of significant sulphide and laterite
Geochronological and geochemical data suggests that deposit types occur throughout Africa (Mudd and Jowitt, 2014). This
all intrusions in the EANB formed in a single magmatic paper reviews the status of nickel exploration and production in Africa,
event (1350 to 1400 Ma) and were derived from a picritic before focusing on the Mesoproterozoic-aged (Kibaran) East African
parental magma, which was variably contaminated in Nickel Belt (EANB), sometimes also known as the Central African
Nickel Belt.
mid to upper-crustal staging chambers by metasedi-
mentary rocks. As a result, nickel sulphide mineralisation An Overview of Nickel in Africa
was formed in all of the intrusions, but in most, the grades
and tenors are too low to be considered economic in the History of exploration in Africa
foreseeable future. Gold, copper and iron have been searched for and exploited in
In the 1970s, government-led regional surveys Africa for centuries. Nickel (Ni), however, was not known or exploited
identified a large nickel laterite deposit at Musongati in in Africa before the advent of colonialism except fortuitously, due to
its association with iron or copper. For example, the gossans over the
Burundi and a nickel sulphide deposit at Kabanga in the
Selkirk and Phoenix nickel deposits of northern Botswana were
northwest of Tanzania. These deposits have subsequently exploited for their copper and iron by pre-colonial metal-workers
been explored and delineated by mining companies, but (Johnson, 1986).

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Prior to the Second World War, exploitation of nickel was Table 1. Major centres of nickel production in Southern Africa
restricted to small high-grade deposits such as at Bon Accord Country Mine/ Ore Contained Head Year
(Mpumalanga, South Africa: De Waal, 1986), or as a by-product of Site (Mt) Ni (t) grade Ni
other metals, for example, copper (Cu) at Waterfall Gorge (Eastern
Botswana Tati Ni 11.67** 8,100 0.15% 2013 1
Cape, South Africa: Maske and Cawthorn, 1986) or cobalt (Co) at
Selebi-Pikwe 2.81 * 17,800 0.63% 2010 2
Bou-Azzer (Morocco: Gandini, 2011). The 1920s also saw the
beginnings of production of nickel as a by-product of mining and S. Africa Nkomati Ni 7.93 * 22,874 0.39% 2014 3
refining of platinum-group elements (PGE) from the Bushveld Bushveld Pt 29.3 * 29,954 0.10% 2014 4
Complex (Wagner, 1929). Zimbabwe Bindura Ni 0.59 * 7,026 1.38% 2014 5
The Second World War and its aftermath greatly enhanced the Gt. Dyke Pt 10.65 * 9,859 0.09% 2014 4
demand for nickel as a highly strategic metal, used both in armaments 1 – Norilsk-Nickel 2013; 2 – Bamangwato Concessions Ltd. 2014; 3 –
(tanks, guns, warships) and increasingly in everyday life (stainless African Rainbow Minerals 2014; 4 – Anglo-American Platinum 2014 and
steel and coinage). The post-war demand and an upsurge in exploration Impala Platinum 2014; 5 – Mwana Africa 2014. * - milled ore; ** - mined
in the 1950s, led to discoveries of Ni-Cu sulphide deposits in ore.
Zimbabwe: Empress in 1956 (Anderson, 1986), Trojan in 1959
(Chimimba and Ncube, 1986), Madziwa in 1959 (Chimimba 1986) is contained in the combined resources of the Phoenix-Tati and Selebi-
and in Botswana - Selebi in 1963 and Phikwe in 1966 (Gordon, 1973). Pikwe deposits in Botswana (Bamangwato Concessions Ltd., 2014).
The worldwide nickel boom of the 1960s and a technological and Most of the Zimbabwean primary nickel mines have been depleted
fiscal spur by the sanctions-hit Rhodesian government, led to further or temporarily closed due to political and economic factors, but they
discoveries (Epoch and Shangani) and development of mining, still contain at least 0.4 Mt of Ni as defined mineral resources (Mwana
smelting and refining centres in Botswana and Zimbabwe in the late Africa, 2014). In northwestern Zambia, a new type of hydrothermal
1960s and early 1970s (Mikesell, 1984; Marchand, 1996). Ni sulphide deposit (Enterprise) is being developed, which contains
Until the early 1970s, African nickel exploration outside of approximately 0.5 Mt of Ni with an average grade of about 1% (First
southern Africa was quite limited. One can cite the systematic Quantum, 2014).
investigation of known mafic-ultramafic intrusive bodies throughout The major African Ni laterite deposits discovered in the 1970s
Africa by the International Nickel Company (INCO), from 1950 to have for the most part remained undeveloped, principally due to their
1959, that resulted in the discovery and drilling of surface Cu-Ni distance from suitable deep-water ports, and the lack of infrastructure
showings at the Kapalagulu Complex and at Ntaka Hill, both in (power and transport links) within their host countries. Only the laterite
Tanzania (Van Zyl, 1959; Tirschmann et al., 2010). In the early 1960s, deposit at Ambatovy in Madagascar, has been developed and was
the large Ni laterite deposit at Ambatovy (Madagascar: Ambatovy brought into production in 2012 by a multinational consortium
JV, 2014) was discovered and further deposits of Co-Ni-arsenides (Ambatovy J.V., 2014).
were found in Morocco as a result of systematic exploration (Gandini,
2011). The East African Nickel Belt (EANB)
Subsequent to the independence of many African countries,
mineral exploration was accelerated throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Location and infrastructure
particularly with the direct aid of multilateral organisations (e.g. United
Nations Development Program/Programme des Nations Unies pour The major component of the EANB is located in Burundi and
le Développement - UNDP/PNUD). This led to the discovery of large western Tanzania (Fig. 1A), with poorly documented probable
nickel deposits in African countries that had not previously been extensions into adjacent areas of eastern Rwanda, southern Uganda
prospected for base metals. Among the major discoveries of the 1970s and east-central Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Most of the
were those of the Sipilou-Foungbesso (Biankouma) Ni-Co laterite outcrop is located in a rugged uplifted plateau area adjacent to the
deposits in western Côte d’Ivoire, the Nkamouna Ni-Co-manganese western branch of the East African Rift Valley, where the natural
(Mn) laterite in Cameroon, the Musongati Ni-Cu-Co laterite deposits vegetation is grassland savannah with riverine forests and sparse
of Burundi, and the Kabanga Ni sulphide deposit of northwest woodlands. Critically, the region is landlocked, with poor transport
Tanzania (the latter two in the EANB). links to the Indian Ocean coast via a narrow-gauge railway in central
Tanzania, a standard-gauge railway through Uganda and Kenya or
Production and new developments by 2-lane paved and unpaved roads (Anonymous, 2012). Power in
the region is mainly generated by small to medium sized hydroelectric
Currently, African nickel is produced mainly in Botswana, South schemes (e.g. on the Ruzizi river in Rwanda and DRC), or by small
Africa and Zimbabwe (Table 1). All of the primary Ni producers are scale and costly diesel generation (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).
of low to very low average Ni grade (< 1.5%) and thus their operations
are adversely affected when Ni prices are low (Mikesell, 1984). Background and early history of the EANB
In southern Africa, the largest estimated resources of nickel are
in the sulphide-bearing platinum reefs of the Bushveld Complex, from The Kapalagulu layered intrusion in western Tanzania was
which nickel is produced as a by-product of PGE mining (estimated identified before the First World War by German geologists who noted
7 to 10 Mt contained nickel metal) (Cawthorn, 1999). However, the its potential for nickel-copper sulphide mineralisation on the basis
largest individual resource of nickel as a primary product is that of of its similarity to the Sudbury intrusion (Teale, 1932). Further
the Nkomati deposit in South Africa (0.82 Mt contained Ni at 0.34% reconnaissance mapping at Kapalugulu was undertaken by the British
Ni, African Rainbow Minerals, 2014). Approximately 1 Mt of nickel administration in the 1930s, but it was not until the 1950s that

June 2016
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Figure 1. (A) Location of the East Africa Nickel Belt, showing the extent of the Karagwe-Ankole Belt metasedimentary rocks (KAB),
Kibaran granites (Granite) and mafic-ultramafic intrusions (M-UM). Country abbreviations: B. - Burundi; D.R.C. - Democratic Republic
of Congo; R. - Rwanda. (B) Location map of Ni deposits and prospects in the Kabanga-Musongati Alignment (KMA) (numbered as in Table
3). Area underlain by Archaean crust is in pale pink, and by Paleoproterozoic crust is in pale orange. Intrusion type abbreviations: GAB -
gabbroic; UM - ultramafic. (C) Location of the Kapalagulu intrusion in the Wakole terrane of the Ubendian Belt. Maps after Evans et al.
(2000), Tack et al. (2010), Fernandez-Alonso et al. (2012), Boniface et al. (2014), Mäkitie et al. (2014).

commercially-focused exploration began, resulting in the 1951 of doleritic and gabbroic rocks associated with granite batholiths were
discovery by the Canadian company INCO, of nickeliferous sulphides noted within the metasediments of the Karagwe-Ankole belt. More
in a basal “picrite” or olivine-rich norite (Van Zyl, 1959). Further systematic geological mapping of the region commenced in the 1960s
investigations at Kapalagulu and other parts of the Palaeoproterozoic- (Waleffe, 1966; Grey, 1967), resulting in the recognition of a large
age Ubendian Belt, were carried out by Anglo-American Corporation Mesoproterozoic bimodal igneous province (Cahen et al., 1984).
and other organizations through the 1950s to early 1970s, resulting During this mapping, a small occurrence of garnierite (bright green
in the discovery of lateritic Ni and Cr mineralisation at Kapalagulu Ni silicate) was found near Nyabikere in Burundi (Deblond, 1992).
(Bursill, 1959). This garnierite occurrence, combined with the mapping of large
Burundi, Rwanda, the adjacent areas of northwestern Tanzania gabbroic bodies in central and southern Burundi, led to the initial
and southern Uganda, were first geologically mapped on a broad scale UNDP-assisted exploration program, which resulted in the discoveries
in the 1930s and the terms Burundian and Karagwe-Ankole series of Ni-laterite mineralisation at Musongati and Nyabikere in 1972
were introduced for the folded metasedimentary rocks that dominate and at Waga in 1973 (Programme des Nations Unies pour le
this area (Combe, 1932; Salée, 1932). Outcrops and scattered boulders Développement, 1977). A similar UNDP-aided exploration

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Table 2. Published mineral resources for some nickel deposits of the East African Nickel Belt.

Deposit Ore Grade Contained Cutoff Year Category

Mt Ni % Co % Ni kt Ni %

Musongati 122.5 6 1.43 1,746 0.8 1985 1,2 U*Ind&Inf

3
Nyabikere 46 1.45 667 0.8 1975 U*
3
Waga 38 1.38 483 0.8 1975 U*
4
Kapalagulu 55.1 0.96 0.05 529 0.8 2005 J*Inf
7 5
Kabanga 58.2 2.62 0.2 1,526 1.0 2013 N*M&I&I

1 Buminco (1990); 2 Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement (1979); 3 Programme des
Nations Unies pour le Développement (1977); 4 Goldstream Mining (2005); 5 Glencore (2014); 6 Includes
a high-grade portion of 29.1 Mt grading 1.62% Ni; 7 Cut-off uses a Ni-equivalent calculation that
approximates to 1% Ni. Abbreviations: Cont Ni – contained Ni metal: U* - unclassified resource: J* -
JORC-compliant resource: N* - NI43-101-compliant resource : Inf – Inferred : Ind&Inf – indicated and
inferred: M&I&I – Measured and indicated and inferred.

programme began in the adjacent Kagera region of Tanzania, which voluminous Kibaran granites, and by the absence of any recognizable
identified laterite-covered ultramafic rocks at Kabanga in 1976. Using primary sediment-basement relationship. The transitional boundary
soil geochemistry and ground geophysics, a follow-up UNDP drilling between the two domains, which coincides with the interpreted
programme confirmed the presence of massive nickel sulphides some boundary between Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic lithospheric
5 km to the north of the lateritized ultramafic rocks at Kabanga in domains (Fig. 1A), is marked broadly by a NE-SW-trending line of
1978 (United Nations Development Program, 1980). mafic-ultramafic intrusions known as the Kabanga-Musongati
Subsequent commercial exploration in the belt since 1990 has Alignment (KMA: Tack et al., 1994; Deblond and Tack, 1999). It is
followed up on the UNDP discoveries. The significant nickel laterite noteworthy that Kibaran S-type granitoids occur only to the west of
deposits that overlie ultramafic portions of layered intrusions at this trendline (Tack et al., 1994), whereas a large arcuate mafic dyke
Musongati, Nyabikere and Waga in Burundi, and at Kapalagulu in swarm (the Lake Victoria Dyke Swarm of Mäkitie et al., 2014) occurs
Tanzania, have had their resources defined and beneficiation only to the east of this trend line (Fig. 1).
characteristics quantified (Table 2) (Buminco, 1990). Nickel sulphide The stratigraphy of the Karagwe-Ankole belt metasedimentary
mineralisation has been identified throughout the region, with the rocks has been recently formalized on a regional scale by Fernandez-
most significant deposit at Kabanga having been the subject of multiple Alonso et al. (2012) and we broadly follow their proposed
scoping and feasibility studies (Barrick Gold, 2007; Lindsay, 2010). nomenclature (Fig. 2). These authors propose a sharp geographical
division into two distinct sedimentary sub-basins, containing the
Regional geological setting Akanyaru Supergroup (sedimentary rocks of the WD), and the Kagera
Supergroup (sedimentary rocks of the ED). Both of these Supergroups
The EANB can be divided into northern, central and southern consist of alternating arenaceous and pelitic rocks, including
sectors, their possible continuity being interrupted by the Cainozoic quartzites, schists, greywackes and conglomerates, deposited in long-
to Recent western arm of the East African Rift Valley, now occupied lived shallow-water intracratonic or pericontinental basins. Analysis
by Lake Tanganyika (Fig. 1A). The EANB straddles the western of detrital zircon from the sedimentary rocks show that deposition
boundary of the Archaean Tanzania craton with the Palaeoproterozoic in the Kagera Supergroup basin occurred between 1.78 Ga and
Ruzizi-Ruwenzori metamorphic belt in the north, and with the 1.37 Ga, whereas in the Akanyaru basin, deposition was confined to
Ubendian metamorphic belt in the south (Fig. 1). In the northern and between 1.42 Ga and 1.37 Ga, with no apparent correlation between
central sections, a thick package of Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic them (Fernandez-Alonso et al., 2012).
metasedimentary rocks known as the Karagwe-Ankole Belt (KAB) The Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks comprise a mafic-ultramafic
overlies this boundary, within which occurs a suite of broadly coeval, intrusive suite (dykes, sills and layered intrusions) and a coeval felsic
bimodal igneous intrusions (Fig. 1). These igneous rocks belong to suite (granitic intrusions). The nickel deposits are exclusively found
the Kibaran tectonothermal event and province, which is a widespread within the mafic-ultramafic intrusions, particularly along the Kabanga-
magmatic and metamorphic event that affected the Karagwe-Ankole Musongati Alignment (KMA) (Fig. 1B) (Deblond and Tack, 1999;
and Kibara belts between 1350 to 1400 Ma (Kokonyangi et al., 2006; Evans et al., 2000). This narrow belt contains well-differentiated
Tack et al., 2010). lopolithic layered intrusions (dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite,
The distribution of these intrusive suites, and of the metamorphism gabbronorite and anorthosite), as well as chonoliths (small, narrow,
and tectonism related to them, led Tack et al. (1994) to divide the tube-like sills, often concentrically zoned), whereas poorly-
KAB into a Western Domain (WD) and an Eastern Domain (ED), differentiated dykes and sills of a more evolved gabbronoritic
separated by a narrow Transitional Domain (TD). The ED is composition occur on a regional scale outside of the KMA belt (Fig.
characterized by relatively lower degrees of metamorphism and 1A, B). The Lake Victoria Dyke Swarm (LVDS) occurs in Archaean
tectonism, by the absence of granitic intrusions of the Kibaran event, and Palaeoproterozoic basement rocks to the east of the exposed KAB
and by the lowermost sediments lying unconformably on Archaean (Fig. 1A). The dykes have been dated by Mäkitie et al. (2014) to
crust. The WD, by contrast, is characterized by higher degrees of between 1368 ± 41 Ma and 1374 ± 42 Ma, and Westerhof et al. (2014)
metamorphism and of polyphase deformation, the intrusion of group them with the Kibaran magmatism within the KAB.

June 2016
 323

Figure 2. Synthetic stratigraphy of the Karagwe-Ankole belt after Fernandez-Alonso et al. (2012), with emplacement position and ages of
various Kabanga-Musongati Alignment intrusions associated with laterite or sulphide Ni deposits. Radiometric age dates are referred to in
the text. U-symbol in column - unconformity; V-symbol in column - volcanic rock. Indicated scale is very approximate. Note that we
tentatively maintain the lateral correlation between Migogo Formation of the Kagera Supergroup and the Nyabikere Formation of the
Akanyaru Supergroup (Waleffe, 1966).

The larger intrusions are considered to be Bushveld-type Ankole belt, whereas the southern group is situated within the
intracontinental layered igneous complexes with largely cumulate Ubendian belt. The northern sector comprises largely sulphide deposits
textures, displaying magmatic layering and contact metamorphic hosted in small ultramafic chonoliths, including the Muremera,
aureoles in the host rocks (Deblond, 1994; Duchesne et al., 2004). Kabanga, Luhuma and Kibamba deposits or occurrences (Fig. 1B).
The intrusions are thought to have been derived from a magnesium- The central sector comprises mainly the well-known Burundian nickel
rich mantle-derived magma, emplaced between 1374 and 1403 Ma laterite deposits that are associated with larger layered lopolith bodies,
(Maier et al., 2007; Tack et al., 2010). but does include some sulphide deposits associated with smaller mafic-
Two types of parental magma influxes have been invoked by ultramafic intrusions such as Ranga, Nyabiraba and Rutovu (Fig. 1B).
Duchesne et al., (2004) for the mafic-ultramafic intrusions: a magma, The southern sector comprises the sulphide and laterite mineralisation
broadly picritic in composition and a more evolved basaltic magma, of the Kapalagulu layered intrusion, plus some smaller sulphide-
geochemically similar to the Bushveld Main Zone magma, both bearing intrusions along strike to the southeast (Fig. 1C).
believed to come from enriched subcontinental lithospheric mantle. Five of the deposits have had sufficient exploration and evaluation
Maier et al. (2008, 2010), however, postulate a single picritic (ca work completed on them to allow the estimation of sizeable mineral
15% MgO) parental magma for all the mafic-ultramafic intrusions, resources (Table 2). These include one deposit each from the northern
which they believe was derived from the deeper asthenosphere and and southern sectors and three from the central sector. In the following
which was then variably contaminated by continental crustal material section, the major deposits with estimated resources from each of the
during its ascent. three geographic groupings will be described in more detail. These
descriptions will also refer to geological and exploration work
Classification of deposits undertaken on nearby or related intrusions or anomalies during the
evaluation of the major deposits.
The nickel deposits of the belt are of two types: lateritic and
sulphidic. The lateritic deposits are developed over the olivine-rich Kabanga Nickel Sulphide Deposit
ultramafic portions of the larger, layered intrusions (lopoliths), where
a thick weathered blanket has been preserved from uplift and erosion. Background
Weak, low grade sulphide mineralisation is ubiquitous in almost all
known mafic-ultramafic intrusions of the belt. The sulphidic deposits Subsequent to the discovery in 1978 of massive sulphide
occur as more concentrated segregations of massive or semi-massive mineralisation at Kabanga by the Tanzanian government-UNDP team,
sulphide within the smaller tube-like sills (chonoliths). commercial exploration has been carried out almost continuously since
Geographically, the deposits can be divided into three groups, 1991. Various foreign mining and exploration companies, including
the northern, the central and the southern sectors (Fig. 1A, B and C). Sutton Resources Ltd., BHP Minerals International Ltd., Anglo-
The northern and central sectors are situated within the Karagwe- American Corporation Ltd. and Barrick Gold Corporation have held

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324

the exploration licences through ownership of a Tanzanian-registered sulphides, however, have grades at or below 1% Ni and are not
entity, Kabanga Nickel Company Ltd. included within the mineral resources (Glencore, 2014).
In 2005, Falconbridge Ltd. (now owned by Glencore Plc) entered The external sulphides are located at, or just within, the lower
into a joint venture with Barrick Gold Corporation to carry out scoping margin of the chonolith and form the bulk of the defined mineral
and feasibility studies on the Kabanga deposit. The deposit is currently resources (Fig. 3B). External sulphides take the form of sub-
held under a retention licence that was renewed in 2014 for a period conformable layers or lenses of massive or semi-massive sulphide
of five years (Glencore, 2014). and often contain chaotic fragments of metasedimentary or
gabbronoritic wallrocks, suggesting forceful and dynamic
Deposit Geology emplacement. The external sulphides vary in tenor to a similar degree
as the internal sulphides. At Kabanga it is found as a general rule that
The intrusions that contain the deposit are hosted within steeply- the smaller intrusive bodies (in terms of cross-sectional area) that
dipping to overturned metasediments adjacent to the Bushubi foliated occur lower in the sedimentary stratigraphy, such as Kabanga North
S-type granite (Fig. 3A). The sedimentary package is made up of and Tembo, are more richly endowed with external massive sulphide
about 90% metapelites and metasiltstones, and the remaining 10% of mineralisation (Fig. 3B and C). The mineralisation within these smaller
the stratigraphy comprises relatively clean arenitic metasandstones chonoliths is located more distally from the intrusion, has a higher
(quartzites). The metapelite rocks are graphitic in places and can proportion of massive sulphide, and the pyrrhotite/pentlandite ratio
contain up to 5 modal % of pyrrhotite as thin layering-parallel laminae within the sulphide is lower (Maier et al., 2011).
and lenses. They are schistose to phyllitic, with the metamorphic fabric
dipping steeply to the WNW. The metamorphic grade decreases in Mineral resources and exploration
intensity from amphibolite facies adjacent to the granite, to lower
greenschist facies to the east (Grey, 1967). Both the tonnage and the grade estimates of the mineral resources
The deposits are contained within and at the bottom margin of at at Kabanga have increased dramatically since the first resource
least two and perhaps three or four, mafic-ultramafic chonoliths that estimate on the Kabanga Main body which was carried out by the
are emplaced into the banded semipelite and micaceous phyllite UNDP in 1979 (21 Mt grading 1.0% Ni: United Nations Development
subunits. At their lateral margins, and above and below them, thinner Program, 1980). The discovery by electromagnetic (EM) ground
doleritic or gabbronoritic sills extend conformably into the adjacent surveys of the nearby Kabanga North body in 1993 and the Tembo
metasedimentary rocks. The chonoliths themselves have a body in 2006 and more than 500,000 metres of drilling, have allowed
gabbronoritic margin and an olivine-orthopyroxene-enriched cumulate a dramatic increase of the size and quality of defined mineralisation
core zone (Fig. 3A). This core zone varies in rock type from sulphidic in the current mineral resource estimate (Table 2).
dunite, plagioclase-peridotite, orthopyroxenite, to olivine melanorite, Exploration drilling was also carried out at the Nyabiraba,
and shows a crude modal and grainsize layering parallel to the bedding Muremera, Rujungu, Luhuma, Kibamba, Ruiza and Burigi chonolith
of the enclosing metasedimentary rocks (Evans et al., 2000; Maier et clusters, in all of which Ni sulphide mineralisation was encountered
al., 2010). (Fig. 1B; Table 3). However, no mineral resources were estimated at
The marginal rocks vary from gabbronorite to melanorite, these prospects due to the generally low grade and low tenor of this
usually with a predominance of orthopyroxene over clinopyroxene. sulphide mineralisation. The best drill intersection at Luhuma was
Quartz and phlogopite are common accessories, interstitial to the 8.4 m of massive sulphide with a grade of 1.1% Ni (Macheyeki,
more idiomorphic plagioclase and pyroxene. The marginal rocks 2011), whereas at Rujungu it was 7 m of massive sulphide at 0.7% Ni
often contain partly-digested xenoliths, and show evidence of (Dwyka Resources, 2008).
hybridization with partial melts of metasedimentary rock (Maier et
al., 2010). Zircons extracted from a marginal gabbroic rock of the Musongati Nickel Laterite Deposit
Kabanga North intrusion were dated by the Sensitive High-Resolution
Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP) method at 1403 ± 14 Ma by Maier et al. Background
(2007).
From 1971 until 1986, the Burundian government carried out
Description of mineralisation several exploration projects, funded by the UNDP and other agencies,
to explore for Ni laterite and Ni sulphide at a number of prospects
Sulphide mineralisation occurs both within the Kabanga (Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement, 1977, 1979;
chonoliths as disseminated to net-textured interstitial sulphides within Deblond, 1994). These projects resulted in the delineation of three
the cumulate core zone, as well as externally, as massive and semi- main Ni laterite deposits developed on ultramafic rocks: Musongati,
massive bodies along the lower or side margins of the chonolith (Evans Nyabikere and Waga (Table 2). The most important of these, the
et al., 1999; Maier et al., 2010). The internal disseminated sulphides Musongati deposit, comprises three adjacent incised plateaux for
partially enclose cumulate olivine and poikilitic orthopyroxene which mineral resources were calculated separately: Buhinda, Rubara
crystals, displacing the normal interstitial assemblage of plagioclase, and Geyuka. The high-grade portion of the Buhinda plateau was the
clinopyroxene and phlogopite. This suggests that the sulphide was focus of a closely-spaced drilling campaign (128 drillholes on a 100
emplaced interstitially in the molten form at the time of accumulation m x 100 m spaced grid), to produce the first classified resource in the
of olivine and orthopyroxene. The composition of the internal indicated category (Buminco, 1990). Since that time, recurrent
sulphides varies considerably resulting in tenors of 5 to 6% Ni near political instability has limited further commercial development, but
the basal margin, to tenors of only 0.5 to 1% Ni in the upper cumulates in 2008 a development licence for the Musongati deposit was issued
(Evans et al., 1999; Maier and Barnes, 2010). Most of the internal to Burundi Mining and Metallurgy, a subsidiary of Samancor Nickel.

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Figure 3. (A) Map of Kabanga prospect area, showing location of cross-section (X-X’) and longitudinal section (Y-Y’) figures, the positions
of subsurface intrusions and massive sulphides projected to surface. (B) Cross section X-X’ (local grid 12,200 m N) of Kabanga North. (C)
Projected longitudinal section Y-Y’ looking west showing massive sulphide true thickness contours and sinuous shape of chonoliths. Contact
ore refers to external sulphide mineralisation and UM ore refers to internal sulphide mineralisation. Authors’ interpretations from
Evans et al. (1999), Lindsay (2007, 2010) and Maier et al. (2010).

Trial mining and processing was planned to start in 2014 (Anonymous, extends ten to fifty metres into the country rocks (Tack and Deblond,
2014). 1990).
The Musongati intrusion is divided into a lower Ultramafic Zone
Deposit geology and an upper Mafic Zone, each with two main subzones (Deblond,
1994; Bandyayera, 1997). The Ultramafic Zone comprises the
The Musongati intrusion has been emplaced into folded Karagwe- Peridotitic and Pyroxenitic subzones, in which olivine and
Ankole Belt (KAB) metasedimentary rocks near to a presumed deep orthopyroxene are the main cumulus minerals respectively. Euhedral
crustal or lithospheric discontinuity (Fig. 1) (Tack et al., 1994, 2010). chromite and anhedral interstitial sulphide grains also occur in minor
These metasedimentary rocks (Musongati Formation) are dominantly amounts throughout. The Mafic Zone is subdivided into the lower
metapelites with a weakly-developed schistose fabric and are noted Noritic and upper Gabbronoritic subzones, in which plagioclase
to be sulphidic (Fig. 4A). Most of the contacts at Musongati are poorly becomes a major cumulus phase (Deblond, 1994; Bandyayera, 1997).
exposed and often tectonic in nature (Deblond, 1992). Locally, Amphibole norite from the Mafic Zone at Musongati has been
however, a recrystallized hornfels rock containing biotite poikiloblasts, dated by SHRIMP analysis of zircons to 1374 ± 14 Ma by Tack
cordierite and sillimanite, is developed around the intrusions and et al. (2010).

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Table 3. The principal nickel prospects of the East African Nickel Belt, keyed to the location numbers in Figure 1.
No. 1 Name Sector Discovery Method 2 Type Activity 3 Best result Ref.
1 Musongati Central 1972 Map/Geochem Laterite Feasibility Indicated Resource a, b
2 Waga Central 1973 Magn/Geochem Laterite Drilling Inferred Resource a
3 Nyabikere Central 1972 Map/Geochem Laterite Drilling Inferred Resource a
4 Kabanga North 1974 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Feasibility Indicated Resource c, d
5 Kapalagulu South 1962 Map/Geochem Laterite Drilling Inferred Resource e
6 Rutovu Central 1980 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Semi-massive suls f
7 Geyuka Central 1974 Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls f
8 Nyabiraba Central 1975 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls f
9 Ranga South Central 1975 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls f
10 Muremera A North 1980 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls g
11 Muremera B North 1980 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Semi-massive suls g
12 Rujungu North 1984 Magn/EM Sulphide Scout drilling Massive sulphides g
13 Nyanzali North 1993 Magn/EM Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls h
14 Luhuma (UN29-08) North 1976 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Massive sulphides i
15 Kibamba (UN296) North 1976 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Semi-massive suls j
16 Ruiza (UN18-01) North 1976 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls j
17 Burigi North 1995 Magn/Geochem Sulphide Scout drilling Disseminated suls j
18 Makambo South 1951 Map/Geochem Sulphide Drilling Semi-massive suls k
19 MC6 anomaly South 2005 Magn/EM Sulphide Scout drilling Semi-massive suls m
20 Ikulu Hill South 2006 Map/Geochem Sulphide Chip sampling Disseminated suls n
21 SE Lubalisi South 2006 Map/Geochem Sulphide Chip sampling Disseminated suls n
22 Mwese South 2006 Map/Geochem Sulphide Chip sampling Disseminated suls n
1 - Refers to location in Fig. 1B, C; 2 - Discovery method(s); 3 - Most advanced exploration activity. Abbreviations: Geochem - geochemical survey; Magn -
magnetic survey; Map - surface mapping; EM - electromagnetic survey: suls - sulphides. References: a PNUD (1979); b Buminco (1990); c Barrick Gold (2007);
d Glencore (2014); e Goldstream Mining (2005); f Deblond (1992); g Dwyka Resources (2008); h Maier et al (2010); i Macheyeki (2011); j Kabete (1996);
k Goldstream Mining (2003); m Goldstream Mining (2006); n IMX Resources (2011).

The olivine-rich rocks of the Peridotitic and Pyroxenitic Subzones ore it is contained in a variety of Ni-rich clays (pimelite and
described above are often pervasively altered to serpentine and nontronite), serpentine group minerals (chrysotile and antigorite) and
magnetite along a reticulated fracture network (Bandyayera, 1997). talc minerals (Bandyayera, 1997). Discrimination between the limonite
The timing and abundance of this serpentinization is an important (higher than 38% Fe) and saprolite (lower than 38% Fe), zones can
consideration for the depth and intensity of lateritization, as well as also be made on a geochemical basis (Fig. 4B) (Programme des
in exploration, when considering the direction and intensity of natural Nations Unies pour le Développement, 1977, 1979). The two types
remnant magnetism of the rock. of mineralisation, limonite and saprolite, occur in approximately equal
proportions (Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement,
Description of mineralisation 1977).
Weak base metal sulphide mineralisation is documented within
The Musongati Ni laterite deposit was formed by prolonged the Ultramafic Zone of the Musongati intrusion, as well as other
weathering, since at least the Miocene, of the ultramafic rocks above related intrusions along the KMA line. This varies from fine-grained,
a fluctuating water table. The progressive breakdown of olivine, weakly disseminated sulphides (pentlandite > pyrrhotite) throughout
sulphide and serpentine during this weathering liberated Ni, Cu and the Buhinda and Rubara dunites and peridotites, to greater
Co, which were then concentrated in stable weathering products concentrations of coarser interstitial sulphides (pyrrhotite >
underneath a lateritic capping and leached zone (Golightly, 1981). At pentlandite), that are found in the harzburgites and pyroxenites of the
Musongati, the laterites were derived from weathering of the Geyuka unit (Deblond, 1994; Bandyayera, 1997; Maier et al., 2008).
serpentinized dunites and harzburgites of the Peridotite Subzone, In some localities such as Rutovu, net-textured and semi-massive
which have primary nickel contents of about 0.25 to 0.5% Ni. sulphides have been observed and commonly develop near the
The Burundian laterites conform to a standard profile (Fig. 4B) footwall margins of the intrusions (Table 3) (Deblond, 1992).
commencing with either a soil or duricrust (residual ferricrete, iron-
cap, canga or cuirasse) at the top, followed by a limonite or ferralite
zone consisting primarily of goethite, clays and occasional residual The Southern Sector: The Kapalagulu
rock fragments. At the base of the profile is the saprolite zone in Intrusion
which the main nickel concentrations occur. Co, Cu and PGE are
mainly concentrated in the goethite of the limonite zone with lower Commercial exploration of the Kapalagulu intrusion commenced
concentrations of Ni (Bandyayera, 1997; Maier et al., 2008). Nickel in the 1950s, and continues today, with several encouraging
is associated with goethite in the limonite ore, whereas in the saprolite prospects having been discovered. The Kapalagulu intrusion and other

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Figure 4. (A) Geological interpretation of the Musongati intrusion showing lateritic mineral resource outlines and evaluation drill holes
(black dots) overlaid on igneous subzones. Authors’ interpretation based on Deblond (1992) and 1:100,000 scale geological maps published
by the Burundi government. (B) Schematic section of a lateritic profile and chemical variations from the Buhinda plateau (after Buminco,
1990).

dyke-like satellite bodies related to it are believed to have been lithologies similar to those of the Musongati intrusion in Burundi
emplaced at 1392 ± 26 Ma (Maier et al., 2007), into amphibolite (Maier et al., 2008). Three main types of mineralisation have been
facies biotite-garnet-kyanite schists and gneisses of the dominantly identified within the mafic-ultramafic rocks of the Kapalagulu
metasedimentary Wansisi series of the Wakole Terrane (Fig. 1C) Intrusion and its marginal bodies. These are the lateritic enrichment
(Boniface et al., 2014). of nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co) and platinum group elements
Nickel mineralisation of both laterite and sulphide type is known (PGE) over the main outcrop of the Ultramafic Zone of the Lubalisi
from the Kapalagulu intrusion, a deformed layered intrusion with and Lubalisi Extension Sectors; PGE mineralisation associated with

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thin and discontinuous sulphidic chromitite seams within the lower Styles of sulphide mineralisation and formation of
part of the ultramafic Basal Zone at Lubalisi and disseminated to
massive textured Ni-Cu bearing sulphides within the upper olivine
economic deposits
cumulates of the Basal Zone and within associated marginal bodies Within the EANB there are two main styles of Ni sulphide
(Table 3). A good overview of the mineralisation is provided by mineralisation: (1) weak disseminations (0.5 to 10 modal %) of
Wilhelmij and Cabri (2015). sulphides in all bodies including the large, lopolithic layered
intrusions, and (2) high relative abundances (40 to 100 modal %) of
Summary and Discussion net-textured to massive sulphide found mainly in the small, chonolithic
tube-like sill (or dyke) intrusions. It should be emphasized that all of
Theories on the origin of the deposits the ultramafic-bearing EANB intrusions (those with olivine and
pyroxene cumulates) contain medium to large tonnages of magmatic
The Ni laterite deposits of the EANB were generated much in sulphides of the first style, however, these are all uneconomic due to
the same manner that has been described for the classic laterite their low grades (< 1% Ni). Only a handful of chonolith intrusions
deposits of New Caledonia, Cuba or the Philippines (Golightly, 1981). are known to contain mineralisation of the second style. Kabanga is
Most of the nickel derives from the intense tropical weathering of currently the only one of these intrusions with potentially economic
olivine-rich lithologies such as dunite, harzburgite or serpentinite, in Ni sulphides. We will discuss here what characteristics make Kabanga
which nickel substitutes for magnesium in small quantities. With the potentially economic, how these originated and whether there could
variation of the water table during alternate wet and dry seasons, or be other rich deposits still to be found.
wetter and drier long term periods, nickel is leached from the near- Essentially, the Kabanga deposit is valuable because it has both a
surface layers of oxidized rock and carried downwards to precipitate sufficient tonnage (>50 Mt) to warrant the necessary capital
in newly forming nickel-rich iron hydroxides in the ferralite zone expenditure, and a high Ni grade (2.6%) that would ensure low mining,
and clay, talc and serpentine-like minerals in the saprolite zone. Given milling and concentration costs, relative to the value of the concentrate
sufficient time and a very stable tectonic environment, such as product (Glencore, 2014; Mudd and Jowitt, 2014). The high grade at
occurred in central Africa during the Mesozoic and Cainozoic, Kabanga is due to a combination of the high abundance of sulphide
important concentrations of nickel can be built up in the saprolitic in the rock (75 to 100 modal %) and the relatively high tenor of these
and ferralitic zones of the weathering profile (Bandyayera, 1997). sulphides (2 to 4% in 100% sulphides). Neither of these features is
Unlike the ultramafic protoliths of most currently exploited Ni common in the other intrusions.
laterite deposits, which are developed on the mantle section of At this point, it is important to define some terms that are used in
ophiolites, the protoliths of the EANB laterites are derived from magmatic sulphide geology to help in understanding their genesis,
sulphide-bearing layered intrusions, and are thus already enriched in but also that have relevance for development planning of mining
copper and platinum group elements, as well as nickel and cobalt. methods and metallurgical beneficiation. The grade of a rock or
The PGE and Cu are preferentially enriched in the ferralite zone, deposit means the absolute content of the metal of interest (e.g. Ni)
along with Co, whereas Ni is preferentially enriched in the saprolite in the rock, as measured by standard whole-rock assaying
zone. However, it is not yet known whether these other metals can be methods. The tenor of a mineralised rock comprising a mixture of
extracted commercially with the Ni. sulphides and silicates means the metal content of the sulphide
The mode of formation of large magmatic Ni sulphide deposits is component only (Naldrett, 2004). This distinction between tenor and
well understood now (Naldrett, 2004) and can be summarized as grade is important in understanding magmatic sulphide deposits, as
follows. Nickel is released from the mantle by large-degree partial most are derived from the variable unmixing of an emulsion of distinct
melting and is carried up in primitive (picritic or komatiitic) magmas sulphide and silicate melts. The tenor is mainly controlled by the
(Arndt et al., 2005) along deep lithospheric-scale structures (Begg et high-temperature geochemistry of the sulphide-silicate emulsion,
al., 2010). In the crust, these superheated magmas interact with crustal whereas the grade is controlled by the physical separation and
material, resulting in selective or bulk assimilation and contamination concentration of these molten sulphides during the flow and
of the magma. This interaction causes sulphur to exceed its saturation emplacement of the liquid sulphide and magma mixture. Practically,
limit in the contaminated magma, and it then forms a fine emulsion the tenor is estimated from the measured metal grade and sulphur (S)
of a separate immiscible molten sulphide liquid in the silicate magma, content by recalculation to 100% sulphides using a specific formula
like the suspension of oil droplets in vinegar of a salad dressing. The or procedure (Naldrett, 2004) that is appropriate for the range of
chalcophile elements, particularly nickel, copper and the PGE, rock types being considered and that takes into account the metal
preferentially partition into the sulphide liquid (Naldrett, 2004). The bound in silicates (e.g. Ni in olivine). Another way of envisaging Ni
sulphide liquid has different density and viscosity characteristics to tenor that is useful for metallurgical studies, is to estimate the
the silicate magma and thus fluid dynamic processes can lead to pentlandite to pyrrhotite ratio of the sulphides by modal mineralogical
physical segregation and enrichment of the molten sulphide and its analysis.
emplacement as discrete massive sulphide bodies, either within or at The high abundance of sulphides at Kabanga and at other
the base of its parental intrusive body, or in the adjacent host rocks chonolith intrusions with style 2 mineralisation can be explained by
(Naldrett, 1999; Gauert, 2001; Arndt et al., 2005). After solidification massive incorporation of barren sedimentary sulphides (mainly
and cooling, the sulphide crystallizes into its low-temperature pyrrhotite) into the magma during ascent and emplacement.
mineralogy comprising pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS), pentlandite ((Ni,Fe)9S8) Based on lithogeochemistry, Maier et al. (2010) estimated that the
and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). This general model can be applied magma at Kabanga had incorporated up to 20 to 30% of S-bearing
successfully to the Ni sulphide mineralisation of the EANB (Maier et sedimentary material by bulk assimilation. Their sulphur isotope data
al., 2011). shows that more than 50% of the sulphur in the deposit was derived

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from the sedimentary rock. It is this high degree of incorporation of encountered worldwide, whereas others are specific to the EANB.
sedimentary sulphides at an early stage of the magma emplacement, These can be listed as follows:
together with subsequent physical concentration during entrainment — The economic massive sulphide mineralisation has a small
in irregular, constricted channels (Evans-Lamswood et al., 2000), “footprint” area, due to the upright folding style which has
that has resulted in the high proportion of net-textured and massive resulted in most bodies being steeply plunging.
sulphides (style 2) within the intrusions at Kabanga. — High grade mineralisation does not necessarily have a
Normally this level of assimilation would imply a low silicate to widespread “halo” of low-grade mineralisation or alteration, as
sulphide liquid ratio (R-factor), resulting in low metal tenors of the it often occurs in small, discrete chonolith bodies.
sulphide (Campbell and Naldrett, 1979; Evans et al., 1999; Maier — There are a large number of strong magnetic anomalies in the
and Barnes, 2010). The addition of large amounts of barren (Ni-Cu- region due to the predominance of ferromagnetic minerals in
poor) sedimentary sulphide in a relatively small volume of silicate both ultramafic rocks (magnetite from olivine alteration) and
magma acts to dilute the associated magmatic sulphides, thus reducing host metasedimentary rocks (monoclinic pyrrhotite laminae).
the Ni tenor of the sulphides. In effect, the limited quantity of nickel — The sedimentary pyrrhotite laminae and graphitic horizons can
brought up from the mantle in a batch of magma is spread within a be strongly conductive in some structural circumstances, leading
larger quantity of molten sulphide. In fact, this is the case for most of to large numbers of false anomalies in airborne EM surveys.
the other small intrusions that contain style 2 massive sulphides, such — The strong tropical weathering has mobilized the elements of
as the Luhuma and Rujungu chonoliths, whose sulphides have tenors interest in the lateritic profile and resulted in strongly leached
of about 1.1% Ni and 0.8% Ni respectively. true gossans and a multitude of false “gossans” derived from
Another mechanism is required to explain the simultaneous high ultramafic and Fe-rich metasedimentary rocks.
proportion of massive sulphides with relatively high tenor (2.0 to — Subsequent drainage incision due to recent tectonics has led to
3.5% Ni in sulphides) at Kabanga. Maier and Barnes (2010) and strong contrasts of geochemical background levels between
Maier et al. (2011), proposed a mechanism for upgrading sulphide- different regolith regimes, making the identification of real
bearing magma within the conduits of the smaller chonoliths such as anomalies more difficult.
Kabanga North and Tembo, whereby repeated pulses of magma
scavenged metals from earlier-emplaced dense sulphide pools with The optimum direct detection method for massive sulphide
more Ni-rich compositions. Similarly, Kerr and Leitch (2005) propose mineralisation is based on its very high conductivity. On the regional
that a later batch of primitive S-undersaturated magma in the conduit scale, however, airborne EM surveys, which necessarily operate at
can redissolve earlier-formed trapped sulphides, thereby upgrading medium to high frequencies (>20 Hz), have been ineffective in
metal tenors. The passage of multiple pulses of magma through distinguishing “superconductors” such as massive Ni sulphide bodies,
individual conduits at Kabanga suggests a structural focussing from structurally-controlled barren metasedimentary conductors
mechanism, such as intersection of fractures with a deep lithospheric (Wolfgram and Golden, 2001). The most effective airborne
boundary (Begg et al., 2010). Thus there are several factors that are geophysical method for regional-scale exploration has proven to be
necessary to upgrade the size or quality (grade/tenor) of a mineralised relatively close-spaced magnetic surveys, combined with high
body, and only those few intrusions that have experienced all or most resolution radiometric measurement, which can reliably detect olivine
of these factors are likely to be economic. These factors may not be and sulphide-bearing ultramafic rocks at surface and to depths of
unique to Kabanga, but future exploration in the belt must take account 500m. The airborne anomalies have to be followed-up on the
of these constraints when evaluating results from empirical exploration ground and for this, low-frequency time-domain EM techniques,
methods. particularly those methods adapted for measuring response from
“superconductors”, such as the UTEM system and the step-response
Exploration methodologies and success rates measurement pulse EM systems (Ravenhurst, 2001), are still the best
on a prospect-scale.
Exploration for the Ni laterite deposits of the EANB has been Apart from the initial regional exploration carried out by
relatively straightforward. The formation of these deposits by governmental agencies in the 1970s, geochemical methods have
weathering of ultramafic portions of large layered intrusions means tended to be used in a secondary role to airborne and ground
they are necessarily large and exposed at surface, making their geophysical methods, for verification or ranking of magnetic or EM
discovery by standard regional geochemical survey methods quite targets. Geochemical identification of mineralised intrusions has
straightforward. Additionally, their parent rocks are olivine-rich, often generally relied on standard aqua regia digestions of soil and stream
serpentinized and thus make large intense magnetic anomalies that sediment media and multi-element analysis by inductively coupled
can be easily identified by airborne magnetic surveys. All the major plasma (ICP)-atomic emission spectrometry, with anomalies being
laterite deposits were discovered within 2 or 3 years of the signalled by coincident Ni-Cu-Co highs. Modern partial digest
commencement of exploration in Burundi, and it is unlikely that any techniques and low-level analysis of the PGE and Au by ICP-mass
large deposits remain to be discovered. spectrometry, do show promise in distinguishing higher tenor
In contrast, exploration for high-grade Ni sulphide deposits in magmatic sulphide mineralisation from lower tenor sulphide and
the EANB has proven to be rather difficult and expensive. After the ultramafic-dominated geochemical signatures but have not been tested
initial discovery of massive sulphides at the Kabanga Main intrusion in the EANB.
in 1978, the next major discovery was in 1993 at Kabanga North, In summary, exploration for Ni sulphide deposits in the EANB
and Tembo was only found in 2006, after years of near-continuous has been most successful using a combination of airborne magnetic
exploration effort. There are a number of difficulties in exploring for surveys to locate the olivine-rich bodies that invariably accompany
high-grade Ni sulphides, some of which are fairly frequently sulphides, and ground EM methods supplemented by geochemistry

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330

to locate the actual massive sulphides. As always, a thorough cheap nickel pig iron production, investment decisions on these high-
knowledge of regional and local geology is needed to interpret the risk deposits have been postponed. If this situation changes, and if
anomalies generated by these methods. the above-described infrastructure projects come to fruition, then these
deposits and others that have yet to be discovered in the belt, will be
Development potential of the EANB well placed to meet future demand from Asian and other markets.

Neither the large laterite at Musongati, nor the large sulphide Acknowledgements
deposit at Kabanga has yet been developed, to the continuing chagrin
of the host countries. Their development has been consistently The authors wish to record their debt to the many governmental,
postponed because of inadequate regional infrastructure, in particular company and academic geologists and engineers that have worked
the lack of a sufficient and reliable power provision in the region, on and carefully accrued the data on which this review is based. We
and because of the poor state of transport links to the coast, some also acknowledge the management of companies who retain interests
1,200 km away (Lindsay, 2010). Other negative factors weighing in mineral rights on the ground in the East Africa Nickel Belt for
against the early development of the deposits have been political their kind permission to publish aspects of their exploration work.
upheaval in Burundi, the negative public perception of large-scale Notably we thank Phil Hoskins, Acting CEO of IMX Resources
foreign-owned mining operations in Tanzania, the lack of trained and (Perth) and Kevin Olshefsky of Kabanga Nickel Company Limited
experienced managers and operators for large, mechanized open-pit (Dar es Salaam). We are grateful to Mike Wilson and Luke Longridge
or underground mining operations in both host countries, and the for their judicious reviews of the initial manuscript and to Andy Killick
commercial uncertainty in the global nickel market, posed by the rise and the editor for later suggestions.
in production of relatively cheap nickel pig-iron in China since 2007
(Lennon, 2007). However, development of both laterite and sulphide References
deposits is mainly contingent on the enhancement of the power supply
and transport links to this land-locked region. African Rainbow Minerals (2014). ARM Integrated Annual Report
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electricity grid to Mwanza and the Lake Victoria goldfields, and key Hedenquist, J. F. H. Thompson, R.J. Goldfarb, and J.P. Richards
road links from Dodoma to Mwanza and from the rail head at Isaka (Editors), Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, Society
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default.aspx. in Second Phase Drilling. Corporate press release dated 27th

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David Evans obtained BSc and PhD John Simmonds holds Honours and PhD
degrees at Imperial college (University of degrees from the University of Wales,
London). After completing post-doc Cardiff and an MBA from the University
research on the surface mobility of of Western Australia. After 20 years with
platinum-group elements from the Great WMC Resources, he continued to focus on
Dyke, Zimbabwe, he joined BHP Minerals early-stage exploration for Ni-Cu-PGE
Exploration based in London and Cape mineral systems with several major and
Town. During his time with BHP he junior exploration companies in Africa and
participated in the discovery of the high- Asia. Since 2007, his role as Managing
grade nickel resource at Kabanga North Director of Newgenco Group, has focused
and also consulted internally on nickel and on greenfield discoveries in Canada,
platinum projects in Finland, Russia, Scandinavia and West Africa.
Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia.
Since 1999 he has been an independent
consultant specialising in the management
of projects, training of personnel and 3-D
geological modelling for resource
estimation.

John Paul Hunt holds an MSc in

Economic Geology from the Economic
Geology Research Unit of the University
of the Witwatersrand (U Wits) and post-
graduate qualifications in Geostatistics
and Resource Evaluation from U Wits and
U Alberta. He has spent much of his career
studying and working on magmatic nickel
sulphide mineralisation on 5 continents,
including 3 years developing non-laterite
nickel projects in Burundi for Norilsk
Nickel Africa. He is currently a specialist
scientist at the Council for Geoscience,
involved in target generation and
prospectivity modelling across all
commodities and deposit types.

Episodes Vol. 39, no. 2

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