CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METALS AND NON–METALS

The materials present around us are grouped widely into metals and non–metals.
There is probably no industry people operate in that does not involve some sort of
machinery or pieces of equipment made of metal. Metals are vital and they come in
different shapes and forms such as – important raw materials, incredibly useful
infrastructures, decorative interior elements, and even as complex medical
instruments like the scalpel.
Without the sophisticated metalworking processes, none of these applications
would be possible today. Metal processing is a fundamental part of the
industrialized world.

4.1 METALS
Metals are materials holding or possessing the characteristics of being shiny, hard,
fusible, malleable, ductile, etc.
Few examples of materials referred to as metals include – Gold, Silver, Aluminum,
Copper, Iron, etc.

4.2 NON METALS

Non–metals are materials not holding the characteristics of metals. This means
they are not shiny, hard, fusible, malleable, ductile, etc. Many materials like coal
and sulphur are very soft and dull in appearance. They break down into very fine
thin powdery mass on tapping with the hammer. They are not in–sonorous and also
are a very poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Few examples of non–metals are Carbon, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc.

4.01 PHYSICAL MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

4.01.1 LUSTER [SHINY]

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The property of metals which in the pure state usually shines. The shine on the
metallic surface is the metallic luster.

They shine in light due to the reason that the metals possess free electrons that
vibrates on getting in contact with light.

4.01.2 MALLEABILITY
Malleability refers to the property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin
sheets. One such example is silver metal beaten to make silver foil used for
decorating sweets.
4.01.3 DUCTILITY
Ductility refers to the properties of metals by virtue of which they can be drawn
into thin wires. One example of ductility is copper and iron which can be drawn in
to thin wires.

4.01.4 CONDUCTIVITY
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity as they can pass through them.
The best conductors of electricity are silver and copper, however, lead and mercury
are poor conductors of electricity. They also have a high melting point. Caesium
and Galium have the very low melting point.
Sonorous
On being struck hard, the metals produce a ringing sound. Due to this property,
they sonorous. For example – the school bell produces a loud ringing sound when
stuck with the hammer hard. Some examples are – Iron, Gold, Copper,
Aluminium, Magnesium, and many more.

4.01.5 SOLID
Except for Mercury, all the metals are solid. Mercury is in the liquid state at room
temperature. The exceptional metals are Sodium ( Na), Potassium ( K ) and
Mercury. The metals like Sodium ( Na) and Potassium ( K ) are easily cut with the
help of a knife. Other examples of metals are iron, copper, silver, aluminum,
calcium, gold etc.

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Hard
Fusible ; etc.

4.02 USES OF METALS

The many uses of Metals include:
 Making wires and sheets. For example – Copper and aluminum wires in
electrical equipment’s, especially for conduction of electricity.
 Metals are also used in making automobiles, machinery, industrial gadgets,
etc.
 The metals are used in making utensils and water boilers due to its property
of being a good conductor of heat.

4.03 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON METALS

The physical properties of non–metals are :
 The solid non–metals are brittle or dull and soft as they can be broken down
into a powdery substance or mass on tapping down with the hammer. Few
examples are Coal and Sulphur. However, Diamond is an exception as it is
the hardest non–metal.
 Non–metals may be either solids, liquids, or gases.
 Non–metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity except Graphite.
 They do not possess metallic luster.
 Non–metals are not sonorous, they do not produce a ringing sound.
 Non–metals possess no malleability.
 They are not ductile.
 They have dull luster, however, iodine is lustrous.

Some example of non–metals are carbon, oxygen, Sulphur, phosphorous, and many
more.

4.04 USES OF NON METALS

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  Many non–metals like chlorine, Sulphur, iodine are very useful for medicinal
purposes.
 Non–metal like oxygen is very essential for our life for respiration.
 We use nitrogen phosphorus in fertilizers for better plant growth and enhance

the fertility of the soil.

 Non-metal like Sulphur is useful in crackers.
 Chlorine and Fluorine are useful for the water purification purpose.

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 4.11 METALWORKING PROCESSES

Metalworking consists of processes and techniques that form, shape or reshape

metal parts into separate parts, constructions, objects, and large–scale structures,
useful tools, objects, equipment parts, and structures. Metalworking encompasses a
wide range of works across multiple industrial sectors.
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Metalworking processes are techniques that are part of shaping metals into the
building elements of industrial machinery ; the exquisite decorative elements and
geometrically accurate shapes that you can find everywhere around you. We shall
gain valuable insight into the metalworking processes that can be useful any time a
metal piece for your home or organisation is being contracted.

Metalworking projects generally fall under the categories of forming, cutting, and
joining, and may involve techniques such as cutting, welding, casting, and
molding. Materials used for metalworking include ferrous and non–ferrous metals
such as steel, aluminum, gold, silver, bronze, iron, and more.

Metalworking has been a way for civilizations to communicate status, religious

beliefs, and symbolism through artifact. It has been practiced by artisans,
blacksmiths, alchemists, contractors, and more around the world, all of whom
specialize in different aspects of metalworking. Many ancient metalsmithing
techniques are still used today, from soldering to welding.
Metallic ores have been extracted from the earth for thousands of years, placing
great importance on metalworkers as the source of extricating metals. For example,
you can remove iron from mineral-rich sand and mine precious metals like silver
from the earth. In modern times, metals have become even more critical to
humanity and advancements in technology and transportation. Metalworking is all
around us, from the fabrication of electronics to automobiles.

4.11.1 FUNDAMENTAL METALWORKING

PROCESSES OR TECHNIQUES
Metalworking techniques create everything from small decorative objects to large–
scale structures. While many metalworking techniques will be similar across
different materials, the properties of the metal you are working with will greatly
impact your work and your desired finished result.

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Fabricating metal pieces usually involves incorporating either one or a combination
of forming, casting, cutting, joining, and machining. These are the most general
categories of the metalworking process.
1. Casting
Metal casting is a metalworking process that can be traced back to around 4000 BCE, and it is still used
for making sculptures, tools, and jewelry. Metalsmiths have been pouring molten metals into cavities
shaped in stone, plaster, sand, and even bone since we learned to melt metals. Metal casting is cost and
time effective, and it gives you the ability to make multiples of the same piece.
The common methods for casting metal are lost wax casting and sand casting. Lost wax casting
involves carving or shaping your piece in wax, creating a plaster mold around it, then burning out the
wax. Sand casting uses sand as the mold material. Sand is combined with a bonding agent, such as clay,
and is gated. Then, molten metal is flowed into the mold to create a solid object.
1. Casting
The casting process involves the creation of a mold (made of stone, plaster, or sand) with a certain
shape in which molten metal is then poured. As the metal cools down and turns solid it takes the shape
of the mold it has been poured into.
Metal casting, much like forging, is an ancient metalworking process we’ve been applying since 4000
BCE. Today it’s a vital process that serves heavy industries like the automotive and marine but is also
used for making tools, jewelry, and sculptures.

2. Forming
Forming is the process of re-shaping and fabricating metal objects without adding or removing any
material. This process is possible through a combination of heat and pressure. Both forging and bending
are essential methods for forming metal. When forging metal, you will heat it in the forge, then hammer
and bend it into your desired shape. To make a bend or curve in the metal, heat it in the forge, then hold
it over the anvil horn and strike it with a hammer to make your desired curve. The English wheel is a
tool that allows metalworkers to easily form and shape cold materials, such as aluminum or steel.
2. Forming
As the name suggests, forming aims to shape metal parts and objects into desired structures, through
mechanical deformation.
Forming is performed without adding or removing material, and the weight of the metal piece remains
unchanged. Forming is possible thanks to the metals’ physical properties, specifically malleability and
plasticity, which allow us to permanently deform the physical shape of the materials.
Forming can further be divided into several subprocesses such as:

Roll Forming
During roll forming, the metal is passed through consecutive sets of rollers while pairs of rollers
continuously form and bend the sheets into the required, cross-sectional shape.
It’s a gradual process that takes time to form the metal into the exact shape.
Roll forming is used to manufacture elements with long lengths or for large production runs.
Roll forming
Roll forming is a process that involves the continuous bending of a long strip of sheet metal through a
roll forming mill at room temperature. Unlike other metal bending methods, the roll forming process is
inherently flexible, precise, and can form metals up to a quarter of an inch thick. Students practice roll
forming in our Sheet Metal Forming class with the master artist Evan Wilcox.
Rolling
Rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through a rolling mill to reduce the
thickness or to make the thickness uniform. It can be done hot or cold. Hot rolling is typically used to
produce sheet metal and larger workpieces. Cold rolling works well for smaller objects, and increases
the material’s strength and improves the surface finish, requiring less finishing work.

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3. Machining
Metal machining involves techniques that shape raw metal pieces into finished products. Machining
utilizes cutting processes (like CNC machines for laser cutting) but also includes processes like turning,
drilling, milling, and extrusion.
During milling, an operator bores perforations into the metal.
Drilling on the other hand cuts holes into the sheet or piece with the use of circular bits.
Turning describes the operation, where a metal piece is placed into a spinning platform, and a
technician makes radial cuts with different tools as the metal spins.
And finally, extrusion is the process in which a ram forces billets (solid metal bars with square or
circle cross-sections) through a die, so cylindrical parts, such as pipes or electrical wires can be
formed.

4. Joining
Joining is the process of combining several pieces of metal with heat through welding or soldering.
Welding is a fabrication process that utilizes a welding machine to join ferrous and non-ferrous metals
and works well for larger projects. Soldering is a joining process used to fuse different types of precious
metals together by melting solder and works well for small projects. New technology continues to
develop as metalworking advances.
Joining
Metal joining is an important part of the metalworking processes because many of the final metal
products are too large or complicated to be fabricated as a single piece. This results in the need for
several metal pieces to be joined together to form the required metal component or machine.
Joining can be performed by two prominent processes- mechanical and liquid-solid-state. Mechanical
joining includes additional elements like screws, nuts, and bolts, and liquid-solid-state joining
concerns processes like adhesive bonding, brazing, soldering, and welding.

5. Bending
During this process, the metal sheet is bent by placing it over a die block that punch-presses the material
and shapes it to the die. Bending is used in applications that require accuracy and smooth surfaces.
6. Drawing
In the process of drawing, the metal sheet is fixed into a place over a cavity-shaped die and punched to
form hollow shaped components. The punch presses down and draws it into the cavity. The metal sheet
ends up deformed to the external shape of the die.

7. Cutting
Cutting removes material from metal using milling, routing, turning, and technologies like CNC
(computer numerical control) machines. Plasma cutters are gas-powered torches powered by argon and
hydrogen gas that will remove material and make holes in metal. Cutting is often used in metalworking
fabrication shops, automotive repair, and construction.
Cutting
Metal cutting is also a pretty straightforward term used to describe the process where larger pieces of
metal are separated by a cutting tool into smaller pieces.
Depending on the cutting tool, metal cutting can be subdivided into saw cutting, shearing, waterjet
cutting, and laser cutting.
Saw cutting refers to the mostly manual technique of using a type of saw to cut through the metal.
Shearing relies on the force of a punch to cut at a specific point. It usually uses two tools (upper and
lower) placed between the metal sheet which are then either punched or dyed into the sheet and cut.
Waterjet cutting uses the energy of high-speed, high-pressured, and high-density water that is
projected into a small nozzle. The water is so pressurized that it reaches a speed approximately three
times the speed of sound, which ends up forming a water jet with destructive force.
It’s a process used for metals that are sensitive to extreme temperatures and temperature changes.
Laser cutting uses lasers to cut metals. It works by directing a high-power laser, through optics and
CNC (computer numerical control) to the material.

Forming processes & techniques

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Reshaping and manipulating the shape of metal can be done when the material is hot or cold. The type
of forming process you choose will depend on the metal you are forming, the equipment you have
available, and your desired final outcome.
Forging
Forging can be done both manually (heating the material and hammering it into the desired shape) or
semi-manually, through the use of high-pressure machinery that compresses the metal, allowing

craftsmen to bend and shape it.

The blacksmith may choose to use a hammer to forge smaller objects or an industrial power hammer for
larger projects.
Forging itself can be further divided into several categories like cold forging, warm forging, and hot
forging, where the temperature of the element during work varies.
Forging is one of the oldest and most influential metalworking processes in our industrial history used
to form and shape metal.. It has been at the forefront of our technological development ever since we
first discovered we could work metals.
Today, forging finds various applications in the iron and steel industries, and it’s an important process
in the making of decorative and functional interior and exterior wrought iron pieces.
Forged metals are incredibly strong, and are typically made of iron and steel.

Joining processes & techniques

Joining metals utilized heat and pressure in order to create a larger piece or build a structure. Welding
and riveting are excellent joining techniques for larger projects that bear weight, while soldering is a
process for joining smaller materials, like jewelry and sculptural objects.
Welding
Welding metal is a fabrication process that joins materials through pressure and heat. Different types of
welding work indoors, while others are best applied outdoors. Welding is used to forge swords, build
ships, fabricate structures, and more. There are many kinds of welding to choose from, each with
specific practical applications. Learn about the different types of welding in this guide.
Soldering
Soldering is another method for joining metals by melting a filler metal on top of the metals being
joined to make a reliable electrical bridge. A low-temperature alloy is melted into the joint, fusing the
metals into one solid piece. Metalworkers use either an eclectic soldering iron or a gas-powered torch to
join precious metals. Soldering is commonly used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork to fabricate
and musical instruments.
Riveting
Rivets are permanent mechanical fasteners that can create kinetic joints in a workpiece or reinforce the
structural integrity of a larger object. They are ideal for joining pieces that are lightweight and require
high strength. Before welding was used to build framed buildings and structures such as the Eiffel
Tower and Sydney Harbour Bridge, rivets were used at the joints to join the metal. Before they are
installed, rivets are smooth metallic cylinders with a head on one end.

Casting processes & techniques

In the metal casting process, solid metal objects are formed by pouring molten metal into a mold, where
it is cooled and extracted from the mold. Metal casting is cost and time effective. Common methods for
casting metal are investment or lost wax casting, die casting, and sand casting.
Investment or lost wax casting
Investment casting is a process in which a molten metal is poured into a mold that has been created
from a wax model. Wax sprues are attached to the mode and a plaster mold is shaped around the wax.
The mold and wax are placed in a kiln to burn out the wax. Then, metal is melted and flowed into the
plaster mold using a vacuum or centrifugal caster.
Die casting
Die casting is an automated and fast process that forces molten metal into a mold under high pressure.
The mold is made from two machined steel dies, and metal is directly injected into the mold at a high
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speed. Most die castings used alloys with a low melting point, like zinc, copper, aluminium, and
magnesium.
Sand casting
Commonly used in foundries, sand casting uses sand as the mold material. The mold is created by
combining sand with a bonding agent, such as clay, and is gated. Molten metal is flowed into the mold
to create a solid object. Sand casting is the most common metal casting method, and is relatively
inexpensive.

Cutting processes & techniques

Metals must be cut and separated throughout the metalworking process to build structures, make tools,
and more. There are numerous metal cutting methods available for metalworking, from using simple
handheld tools to a variety of more advanced machines and equipment.
Milling
Milling is the process of removing precise amounts of material from a greater piece. A milling machine
rotates a cutting tool and brings the cutting tool into contact with a workpiece. The mill and lathe are the
cornerstones of any machine shop and can produce pieces with great precision, repeatability, and
accuracy.
Turning
Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool moves linearly while the workpiece rotates,
strategically removing material from the piece. Material can be removed from both the depth and width
of the workpiece. Lathes are traditionally used in turning as the leading principal machine tool. As
technology has advanced, CNC machines are also used for a more automated process.
Grinding
Grinding uses an abrasive process to remove material from the workpiece, typically in the finishing
stages of metalworking. Grinding machines range from hand-held angle grinders to bench grinders, to
more advanced CNC machines. These machines can range vastly in size and precision. Grinding creates
very fine finishes and precise cuts using an abrasive wheel made from stone, diamonds, or inorganic
material.
Drilling
Drilling creates holes in metal using a drill press, handheld drill, or CNC machine. Make sure you
lubricate your bits with cutting fluid to prolong the tool’s life and prevent overheating. This ensures a
smooth and accurate hole and also prevents chattering or unsafe drilling.

Metalworking processes
Moulding
Shearing
Extrusion
Punching
Stamping
Folding

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