Notes on

Introduction to Functional English

Functional English (2024 to 27) 1

 Sr.n Table of Contents Page No.
o

1. BASIC OF GRAMMAR 1 to 28
Parts of Speech
○ Noun
○ Pronoun
○ Adjective
○ Verb
○ Adverb
○ Conjunction
○ Preposition

2. Various Tense 29 to 67
○ Present Simple
○ Present Continuous
○ Present Perfect
○ Present Perfect Continuous
○ Past Simple
○ Past Continuous
○ Past Perfect
○ Past Perfect Continuous
○ Future Simple
○ Future Continuous
○ Future Perfect
○ Future Perfect Continuous
Basic concept of direct and indirect
○ Reported speech
Active and passive concept

Functional English (2024 to 27) 2

 ○ What is a Sentence?
○ Sentence Structure

3. LISTENING 68 to 72
● Types Of Listening
○ Active listening
○ Passive listening
○ Critical listening
○ Empathetic listening
● Activity
○ Listen to English by Radio/TV
○ Listen to Songs or podcast
○ Listen to the News

4. SPEAKING 73 to 76
● Presentations in English
● How to address people in English
○ Asking the question
○ Answering the question
○ Formal Titles in English
● Agreeing and disagreeing in English
○ Stating an opinion
○ Asking for an opinion
○ Expressing agreement
○ Expressing disagreement
○ Interruptions

Functional English (2024 to 27) 3

 ○ Settling an argument
● Activity
○ Phone Practice 1: Making an Appointment
○ Practice 1: At a Bus Stop
○ Small Talk in English

5. READING 77 to 86
● Introduction
○ Points to kept in mind
● Interpreting Text
● Reading Techniques
● Understanding and interpreting the opinions Express in a text
● Exercise
○ Comprehension Reading
● Activity
○ Read about Movies
○ Read about Recent Historical Events
○ Driverless Cars Coming Soon
○ Short Stories

6. WRITING 87 to 146
● Punctuation and using Capital letters
● Signs and Symbols
● Abbreviations
● Plagiarism
● Writing prompts
● Essay writing
● Resume

Functional English (2024 to 27) 4

1.BASIC OF GRAMMAR
● Introduction
English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms
spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the
ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the island of Great Britain. Existing on a dialect
continuum with Scots and then most closely related to the Low Saxon and Frisian languages.
Modern English is genealogically Germanic. However, its vocabulary also shows major influences
from French (about 28% of English words) and Latin (also about 28%), plus some grammar and a
small amount of core vocabulary influenced by Old Norse (a North Germanic language). Speakers
of English are called Anglophones.
The earliest forms of English, collectively known as Old English or "Anglo-Saxon", evolved from a
group of North Sea Germanic dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th
century; these dialects generally resisted influence from the then-local Common Brittonic and
British Latin languages.
Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the start of the Great Vowel Shift and
the Renaissance trend of borrowing further Latin and Greek words and roots into English,
concurrent with the introduction of the printing press to London. This era notably culminated in
the King James Bible and the works of William Shakespeare. The printing press greatly
standardized English spelling, which has remained largely unchanged since then, despite a wide
variety of later sound shifts in different English dialects.

Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European
dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word in order
to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection and a fairly fixed subject–verb–object word
order.
Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex
tenses, aspects and moods, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives, and some negation.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 5

Modern English has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the
worldwide influence of the British Empire and the United States of America. There are more
people who have learned English as a second language than there are native speakers. As of 2005,
it was estimated that there were over two billion speakers of English.
English is the majority native language in the United Kingdom, the United
States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Republic of Ireland (see Anglosphere) and is
widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania.
It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union, and many other
international and regional organizations. English accounts for at least 70% of speakers of the
Germanic language branch of the Indo-European family.
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first
world language. English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book
publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass
entertainment, and diplomacy.

Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules"
of a language; but in fact no language has rules.Languages started by people making sounds
which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All
languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a
particular time.

Part :1 Parts Of Speech

Functional English (2024 to 27) 6

A.NOUN
What is a noun?
A Noun is that part of Speech which consists the name of Person Place Animal, Thing and Idea
Person – A term for a person, whether proper name, gender, title, or class, is a noun.
Animal – A term for an animal, whether proper name, species, gender, or class is a noun.
Place – A term for a place, whether proper name, physical location, or general locale is a noun.
Thing – A term for a thing, whether it exists now, will exist, or existed in the past is a noun.
Idea – A term for an idea, be it a real, workable idea or a fantasy that might never come to
fruition is a noun.
Identify the noun in each of the following sentences:

✔ The restaurant is open.

✔ Follow the rules.

✔ John started to run.

Types of Nouns

⮚ Proper nouns and Common nouns

Functional English (2024 to 27) 7

Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of- a-kind items, and they
begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence. Here, we’ll take a
closer look at proper nouns, provide proper noun examples, and help you learn how to use a
proper noun the right way.

● How to Use Proper Nouns and Common Noun?

❖ It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you know what they are. Simply place them in your
sentences as you would common nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them. Here are
some examples to help you get started.
❖ Common nouns are words used to name general items rather than specific ones. Lamp,
chair, couch, TV, window, painting, pillow, candle– all of these items are named using
common nouns.

B.VERBS
What is a verb?

Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with
nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story about what is taking
place. In fact, without a verb, full thoughts cannot be properly conveyed, and even the simplest
sentences, such as Maria sings, have one. Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the
subject, in most cases you, implied, such as, Sing! and Drive!

Functional English (2024 to 27) 8

When learning the rules of grammar, schoolchildren are often taught that verbs are ‘doing’
words, meaning they signify the part of the sentence which explains the action taking place: He
ran away, she eats chocolate cake on Sundays, the horses gallop across the fields. Ran, eats and
gallop are the ‘action’ parts of those sentences, thus they are the verbs. However, it can be
confusing because not all verbs are easily identifiable as action: I know your name, Jack thought
about it, we considered several applications.
These are non-action verbs, i.e. those that describe a state of being, emotion, possession, sense
or opinion. Other non-action verbs include love, agree, feel, am, and have.
Verb Classification:
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
1. helping verbs 2. main verbs
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
● I can.
● People must.
● The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not!
That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are
necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much
alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs.
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Modal helping verbs Meaning

Can (I can work.) Ability

May (May I come in.) Permission

Will (I will come to work.) Certain and future

Functional English (2024 to 27) 9

 Could (I could process the papers.) Ability with an Offer

Would (I would like to go.) Conditional / past time habit

Should (He should be there.) Advice

Might (It might rain tomorrow.) Possibility

Must (There must be a way out.) Obligation /necessity

Main Verbs
Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main
verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does
not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look
at these examples:
transitive:
● I saw an elephant.
● We are watching TV.
● He speaks English.
intransitive:
● He has arrived.
● John goes to school.
● She speaks fast.

Main Verb
A main verb, as the name suggests, is the principal verb in a sentence. It denotes the action
performed by the primary subject in a context.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 10

The Cambridge Dictionary defines a main verb as “the verb that contains the meaning, compared
with any auxiliary verbs that go with it in a clause.”
According to the Collins Dictionary, a main verb is “a word used as the final verb in a verb phrase,
expressing the lexical meaning of the verb phrase, as ‘drink’ in ‘I don’t drink’, ‘going’ in ‘I am
going’, or ‘spoken’ in ‘We have spoken’.”
There are umpteen numbers of verbs that can be used as main verbs in a sentence. Given below
is a list of a few common verbs that can function as main verbs.
Write, Speak, Read, Talk, Walk, Sit, Jump, Swim, Leave, Am, Is, Are, Have.
❖How to Use Main Verbs in Sentences?
Main verbs can be further divided into regular verbs and irregular verbs. The usage of the verb
changes according to the type of the main verb. As far as regular verbs are concerned, they follow
the same rules when conjugated to form a particular tense form. Irregular verbs, on the other
hand, have specific conjugations to form the past and past participle forms. The usage of these
verbs as a main verb to represent the different tenses, therefore, depends on the type of verb.
Let us look at the following examples to have a better understanding.
✓I am a tennis player.
✓She is going to the grocery store.
✓The little boy loved the cake.
✓My mom knows to operate the computer.
✓Tina asked Sheela to work on the pending documents.
Difference between Main Verbs and Helping (or auxiliary) Verbs
The main difference between main verbs and helping verbs is that the main verb is the principal
verb in a sentence and represents the primary action done by the subject in the sentence,
whereas the helping verb is used along with the main verb to denote the tense of the verb. Let
us look at the following examples to understand better.
✓Arjun is a salesman. (The verb ‘is’ acts as the main verb here that represents the action of Arjun
being a salesman.)
✓ The peacock flew from one tree to another. (The verb ‘flew’ acts as the main verb in this
sentence, and it represents the action of the peacock flying from one tree to another in the past.)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 11

✓ Gavin will be meeting us at the airport. (The verb ‘will be’ is the helping verb and the verb
‘meeting’ acts as the main verb that represents a progressive action of Gavin meeting us at the
airport in the future.)
✓She has come all the way from Chicago to profess her love for him. (The verb ‘has’ acts as the
helping verb and ‘come’ acts as the main verb, which indicates the action of her coming from
Chicago in the recent past to profess her love for him.)
✓ He likes pizzas and burgers more than anything else. (The verb ‘likes’ is the main verb in the
sentence, and it signifies the action of him liking pizzas and burgers more than anything else.

EXERCISE: (Students to Do by themselves)

Identify the main verbs in the following sentences.

1. Raam sent me a gift for my birthday.
2. Tharun has a brother.
3. It is Chirrag’s birthday today.
4. Sheena had visited her mother, who was hospitalised, last week.
5. I have called for a meeting of all the previous employees today evening.
6. When can you deliver the package?
7. They are trapped inside a vault.
8. The mom ran with her children to safety.
9. She started screaming when she saw a cockroach.
10. Can I ask you a question?

ANSWERS:
Check your answers to find out if you got it right.
1. Raam sent me a gift for my birthday.
2. Tharun has a brother.
3. It is Chirrag’s birthday today.
4. Sheena had visited her mother, who was hospitalised, last week.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 12

5. I have called for a meeting of all the previous employees today evening.
6. When can you deliver the package?
7. They are trapped inside a vault.
8. The mom ran with her children to safety.
9. She started screaming when she saw a cockroach.
10. Can I ask you a question?
• Auxiliary verbs
Also called as helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is used to help another verb
sound sensible and meaningful. It is used to change the other verb’s tense, mood, or voice. An
auxiliary verb is a verb that is used as a helping verb along with the main verb in a sentence to
make it more meaningful. It is used to alter the tense, mood or voice of the sentence.
e.g., Am, is, are, was, were, have, has etc.
❖Points to note:
✓Auxiliary words can express state/condition of context.
✓We should conjugate the auxiliary verb correctly according to the tense form of a sentence.
✓They can also be used as a main verb.
✓Also, there are verbs called modal verbs that can be used as a helping verb.
✓There are particularly a few auxiliary verbs that can be used to change the tense of the action
being performed by the subject (noun or pronoun) in a context. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs, all
forms of ‘have’, and forms of ‘will’ are used to denote different tenses.
❖Points to remember while using Auxiliary words:
✓When using the forms of ‘to be’, make sure you use the gerund (verb+ing) form of the
mainverb as they are used to indicate continuous action.
✓When using forms of ‘have’, see to it that you use the past participle forms of the main verbs
along with the different forms of ‘have’. There is one other thing that you should keep in mind.
When the auxiliary verbs ‘have’ and ‘been’ are used together to represent the perfect
✓continuous tense, see to it that you use the gerund (verb+ing) form of the main verb in that
particular sentence.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 13

✓When using the auxiliary verb ‘will’ to denote the simple future tense, see to it that you use
the root verb as such along with ‘will’ and a gerund (verb+ing) along with ‘will be’ to indicate
the future continuous tense. Make sure you employ the past participle form of the main verb
when it is used to indicate the future perfect tense along with the auxiliary verbs, ‘will’ and
‘have’.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 14

Auxiliary Verbs used to Alter the Voice of the Verb
All forms of ‘to be’, ‘have’ and ‘will’ can be used as auxiliary verbs to represent the voice of the
verb in a sentence. Let us look at some examples of how these auxiliary verbs can be used.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 15

Auxiliary Verbs used to Express the Mood
The verb forms of the auxiliary verb ‘do’ are used to express the mood of a sentence. It is
mostly used in imperative and interrogative sentences. Let us look at some examples.
● Do your children enjoy watching educational films?
● Did she complete the work that was assigned to her?
● Do not forget to bring the Bluetooth speaker when you come home tonight.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Functional English (2024 to 27) 16

Modal auxiliary verbs can be used as helping verbs along with other main verbs to emphasize
on the possibility, ability, necessity or probability of some action taking place. Have a look at
the examples given below to have a clear idea of how it works.

Test Your Knowledge on Auxiliary Verbs and Their Usage

Try out the following practice exercise to find out how far you have understood the usage of
auxiliary verbs in sentences.
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate auxiliary verb:
1. Leena ______ eating an apple.
2. _____ you finish the work I _____ given you yesterday?
3. _________ you please pass the logbook?
4. You _________ follow the rules.
5. Your phone ___________ damaged.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 17

6. I am sorry, I ________ make it to your wedding.
7. Derrick __________ submitted all the documents for verification last week.
8. The Queen’s jewellery ______ stolen from the museum.
9. Peter ______ asked to host the ceremony by his uncle.
10. Sam and Joe ______ attending the event.

Ready to find out if you got it all right? Check your answers.
1. Leena is/was eating an apple.
2. Did you finish the work I had given you yesterday?
3. Could/Can you please pass the logbook?
4. You should/ought to follow the rules.
5. Your phone should be damaged.
6. I am sorry, I cannot make it to your wedding.
7. Derrick had submitted all the documents for verification last week.
8. The Queen’s jewellery was/had been stolen from the museum.
9. Peter was asked to host the ceremony by his uncle.
10. Sam and Joe will be attending the event.

C) ADJECTIVES
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a noun (The
big dog was hungry).
An adjective often comes BEFORE a noun:
● a green car
● a dark sky
● an interesting story
And sometimes an adjective comes AFTER a verb:
● My car is green.
● The sky became dark.
● His story seemed interesting.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 18

c).2 Types of Adjectives
1. Possessive Adjectives
As the name indicates, possessive adjectives are used to indicate
possession. They are:
My
Your
His
Her
Its
Our
Their
[Note: Possessive adjectives also function as possessive Pronouns.]
2.Demonstrative Adjectives
Like the article the, demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate or
demonstrate specific people, animals, or things. These, those,
this and that are demonstrative adjectives.
Examples:
1. These books belong on that
2. This movie is my favorite.
3. Please put those cookies on the blue plate.
3. Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are separated with commas or the word and, and
appear one after another to modify the same noun. The adjectives in the
phrase bright, sunny day and long and dark night are coordinate
adjectives. In phrases with more than two coordinate adjectives, the
word and always appears before the last one;
For example: The sign had big, bold, and bright letters.
4. Numbers Adjectives
When they’re used in sentences, numbers are almost always adjectives.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 19

You can tell that a number is an adjective when it answers the question
1. “How many?”
2. The stagecoach was pulled by a team of six
3. He ate 23 hotdogs during the contest, and was sick afterwards.
5. Interrogative Adjectives
There are three interrogative adjectives: which, what, and whose. Like
all other types of adjectives, interrogative adjectives modify nouns. As
you probably know, all three of these words are used to ask questions.
1. Which option sounds best to you?
2. What time should we go?
3. Whose socks are those?
6. Indefinite Adjectives
Like the articles a and an, indefinite adjectives are used to discuss non-specific things. You might
recognize them, since they’re formed from indefinite pronouns. The most common indefinite
adjectives are any,many, no, several, and few.
1. Do we have any peanut butter?
2. Grandfather has been retired for many
3. There are no bananas in the fruit bowl.

D.Adverb
What is Adverb
Adverb (noun): a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, expressing manner,
place, time or degree; a word that can modify a phrase, clause or sentence.An adverb is a word
that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the
following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.
● John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
● Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)
● Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 20

 d).2 Types of Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the
question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.
● He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?".
Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.
● Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the
question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.
● She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)

(E)PRONOUNS

e).1 What is a Pronoun?

A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun
phrase, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words and can do
everything that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a sentence. Common pronouns
are he, she, you, me, I, we, us, this, them, that. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object,
indirect object, object of the preposition, and more and takes the place of any person, place,
animal or thing. So coffee becomes it, Barbara becomes she, Jeremy becomes he, the team
becomes they, and in a sentence, Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon could become
she drinks a cup of it every afternoon, or even she drinks it every afternoon, where the it would
substitute the cup of coffee, not just the coffee.
Without pronouns, we would constantly have to repeat nouns, and that would make our speech
and writing repetitive, not to mention cumbersome. Without pronouns, Barbara drinks a cup of

Functional English (2024 to 27) 21

coffee every afternoon, she likes to have it before dinner would be Barbara drinks a cup of coffee
every afternoon, Barbara likes to have the cup of coffee before dinner. Using pronouns helps the
flow of sentences and makes them more interesting:
He, It, You, I, They, We, Who, Him, Them, Whoever, Anyone, Something, Nobody.
e).2 Pronoun Types
Personal Pronouns
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name
is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I
am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about
another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the second an object
pronoun):
● I like coffee. / John helped me.
● Do you like coffee? / John loves you.
● He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him?
● She is clever. / Does Mary know her?
● It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it?
Demonstrative Pronouns:Demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to.A demonstrative
pronoun represents a thing or things:Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns,
followed by an illustration:
● This tastes good.
● Have you seen this?
● These are bad times.
● Do you like these?

● That is beautiful.
● Look at that!
● Those were the days!
● Can you see those?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 22

Reflexive Pronouns
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:

reflexive pronoun

singular myself , yourself, himself, herself, itself

plural Ourselves, yourselves ,themselves

Here are few examples as follows:

● I saw myself in the mirror.
● Why do you blame yourself?
● Mary sent herself a copy.
● My dog hurt itself.
● We blame ourselves.
Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the
thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
● Who will come to the party?
● Which do you prefer?
● What do you need?
● Whose clothes are on the floor?
● Whom did you tell?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 23

F) Preposition

f).1 What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a
sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence.
Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns. In
some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.
A nice way to think about prepositions is as the words that help glue a sentence together. They
do this by expressing position and movement, possession, time and how an action is
completed. Indeed, several of the most frequently used words in all of English, such as of, to,
for, with, on and at, are prepositions. Explaining prepositions can seem complicated, but they
are a common part of language and most of us use them naturally without even thinking about
it.
In fact, it’s interesting to note that prepositions are regarded as a ‘closed class’ of words in the
English language. This means, unlike verbs and nouns, no new words are added to this group
over time. In a way, it reflects their role as the functional workhorse of the sentence. They are
unassuming and subtle, yet vitally important to the meaning of language.
There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they are
somewhat vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences takes
practice. Because 1:1 translation is often impossible when dealing with prepositions, even the
most advanced English students have some difficulty at first.
f).2 Six Preposition Rules
1. A preposition must have an object
All prepositions have objects. If a "preposition" does not have an object it is not a preposition—
it's probably an adverb. A preposition always has an object. An adverb never has an object.
Look at these example sentences:
● They are in the kitchen. (preposition in has object the kitchen)
Please come in. (adverb in has no object; it qualifies come)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 24

 ● There was a doorway before me. (preposition before has object me)
I had never seen it before. (adverb before has no object; it qualifies seen)
● I will call after work. (preposition after has object work)
He called soon after. (adverb after has no object; it qualifies called)
2. pre-position means place before
The name “preposition” indicates that a preposition (usually) comes before something (its
object):
● I put it in the box.
But even when a preposition does not come before its object, it is still closely related to its
object:
● Who did you talk to? / I talked to Jane.
3. A pronoun following a preposition should be in object form
The noun or pronoun that follows a preposition forms a ‘prepositional object’. If it is a pronoun,
it should therefore be in the objective form (me, her, them), not subjective form (I, she, they):
● This is from my wife and me.
● That’s between him and her.
● Mary gave it to them.
4. Preposition forms
Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are one-word prepositions,
but some are two- or three-word phrases known as complex-prepositions:
● one-word prepositions (before, into, on)
● complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of, on account of)
5. to preposition and to infinitive are not the same
Do not confuse the infinitive particle “to” (to sing, to live) with the preposition “to” (to London,
to me).
to as preposition
● I look forward to lunch
I look forward to seeing you
I look forward to see you

Functional English (2024 to 27) 25

 ● They are committed to the project.
They are committed to keeping the price down.
They are committed to keep the price down.
● I am used to cars.
I am used to driving.
I am used to drive.
to as infinitive particle
● They used to live in Moscow.
● They love to sing.
6. The golden preposition rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is NEVER followed by a verb

G).CONJUNCTIONS
g).1 What is a conjunction?
A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Conjunctions are invariable grammar particles, and they may or may not stand between items
they conjoin.
g).2 Types of Conjunctions
● Subordinating conjunctions – Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions join
dependent clauses to independent clauses.
● Coordinating conjunction – Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions coordinate
or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts of speech which are
of the same syntactic importance.
● Correlative conjunction – These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases
or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.
Conjunctive adverbs – While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs alongside
conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention here. These adverbs always

Functional English (2024 to 27) 26

connect one clause to another, and are used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and
other relationships.

The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three
letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell "FANBOYS", like
this:

F A N B O Y S

for and nor but or yet so

Exercise: (Student should practice on their own)

Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate conjunctions in the following sentences:
1. Deepak ________ Santhosh are best friends.
2. Make sure you work hard ______ you will not be able to score good marks.
3. _______ Anna does not cook much, she loves baking.
4. Let me know ______ you will be able to make it to the party.
5. I have to go home now ______ I really wish I could stay for some more time.
6. I am not well _______ I decided to take a day off from work.
7. _________ you work out regularly, you will not see any results.
8. He had no money, _____he was prepared to help me
9. I could not find the place ___________ I lost the map.
10. ________ I was walking on the street, I found a wounded dog.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 27

Answers: 1.And 2.Or 3.Although 4.if 5.but 6.so 7.unless 8.yet
9.Since/because 10.while

Noun Words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas, or
events.
Pronoun Part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a
noun.

Adjective Describes a noun or a pronoun.

Verb An action (physical or mental) or state of being of the subject in a
sentence.
Adverb Adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that
adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.

Preposition Words that specify the location or a location in time.

Conjunction Part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses

together.
Interjection Words which express emotions.

2.TENSES:

In Grammar, we use 'Tenses' to define the time of the action. Tenses tell us when something
happens, the time of an action (verb). Verb comes in three tenses;
Present Tense: The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now or
things that are continuous. For example:
He is eating Pasta. (Presently he is doing this act of eating)
Past Tense: The past is used to describe things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the
day, yesterday, last week, ten years ago).

Functional English (2024 to 27) 28

He ate Pasta (He has already done the action of eating)
Future Tense: The actions which we are going to do/will do/planning to do are termed as
'Future tense' sentences.
He will eat Pasta (He is going to do the action of eating).
Session Objective: The students are going to learn tenses with easy method and simple
rules:-

Enlist of Tenses

1. Simple Present Tense

2. Simple Past Tense

3. Simple Future Tense

4. Continuous Present Tense

5. Continuous Past Tense

6. Continuous Future Tense

7. Perfect Present Tense

8. Perfect Past Tense

9. Perfect Future Tense

10. Perfect Continuous Present Tense

11. Perfect Continuous Past Tense

12. Perfect Continuous Future Tense

1) Simple Present Tense:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 29

The Present Simple tense is the most basic tense in English and uses the base form of the verb
(except for the verb be). The only change from the base is the addition of s for third person
singular.
A) Format: Sub+V1+s/es+obj+
B) Use: It is generally used to express action taking place in present time or routine activity.
C) Keywords: Daily, everyday, often, sometimes, usually,seldom
D) Example:
1. I live in New York.
2. John drives a taxi.
3. We do not work at night.
4. The Moon goes round the Earth.
5. Do you play football?
E) Types Of Sentences:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 30

 Types subject auxiliary main verb
of sen. verb(Helpin
g Verb)

+ I, you, we, they like coffee.

He, she, it likes coffee

- I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

He, she, it does not like coffee.

? Do I, you, we, like coffee?

they

Does he, she, it like coffee?

2) Simple Past Tense:

The Past Simple tense is sometimes called the "preterite tense". We can use several tenses and
forms to talk about the past, but the Past Simple tense is the one we use most often.

A) Format: sub+V2+obj+ow
B) Use: It is generally used to express action taking place at some point of time in the past.
C) Keywords: last day ,last month, last week, last year,yesterday, when
D) Example:
● I lived in that house when I was young.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 31

 ● He didn't like the movie.
● What did you eat for dinner?
● John drove to London on Monday.
● Did you play tennis last week?
● I was at work yesterday.
E) Types
Of
Types of subject auxiliary main verb
sen. verb(Helping
Verb)

+ I went to school

You worked very hard

- She did not go with me.

We did not work yesterday.

? Did you go to London?

Did they work at home?

Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 32

3) Simple Future Tense:
The Future Simple tense is often called the "will tense" because we make the Future Simple
with the modal auxiliary will.
A) Format: sub+ shall/will+V1+obj+ow
B) Use: It is generally used to express action that will take place at some point in the future.
C) Keywords: tomorrow, next day, next month, next year
D) How do we use the Future Simple tense?
No Plan
We use the Future Simple tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we
speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:

● Hold on. I'll get a pen.

● We will see what we can do to help you.
● Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of
speaking.

We often use the Future Simple tense with the verb to think before it:

● I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.

● I think I will have a holiday next year.
● I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the Future Simple tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no
firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

● It will rain tomorrow.

● People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
● Who do you think will get the job?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 33

Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the Future Simple tense even if we have a firm plan or
decision before speaking. Examples:

● I'll be in London tomorrow.

● I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
● Will you be at work tomorrow?

E) Types
Of
Types of subject auxiliary main verb
Sentences
sen. verb(Helping
Verb)

+ I will open the door.

You will finish before me.

- We will not leave yet.

She will not be at school

tomorrow. 4)

? Will you arrive on time?

Will they want dinner?

Continuous present Tense:

We often use the Present Continuous tense in English. It is very different from the Present

Functional English (2024 to 27) 34

Simple tense, both in structure and in use.
We use the Present Continuous to talk about:

➢ action happening now

➢ action in the future

A) Format: sub+ am/is/are+V1+ing+obj+ow

B) Use: It is generally used to express action is ongoing in the present.
C) Keywords: now, at this time, at this moment, still, while.
D) Examples
1. My brother is going (go) to college.
2. I am understanding (understand) English.
3. My friends’ are laughing (laugh) at my jokes.

E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 35

 Types of subject auxiliary main verb
sen. verb(Helping
Verb)
How do
+ I am speaking to you. we spell
the
You are reading this. Present

- She is not staying in London.

We are not playing football.

? Is he watching TV?

Are they waiting for John?

Continuous tense?
We make the Present Continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple:
we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the
last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the Present
Continuous tense.

Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb:

work → working

play → playing

Functional English (2024 to 27) 36

 assist → assisting

see → seeing

be → being

Exception If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel +

consonant, double the last letter:

s t o p

consonant stresse consonant

d
vowel

vowels = a, e, i, o, u

stop → stopping

run → running

begin → beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last
syllable of the base verb is not stressed:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 37

 open → opening

Exception If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie → lying

die → dying

Exception If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come → coming

mistake → mistaking

5) Continuous Past Tense:

The Past Continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in
the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.The Past Continuous tense expresses
action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not
finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at
7pm and finished at 9pm.
A) Format: sub+ was/were+V1+ing+obj+ow
B) Use: It is generally used to express action that was ongoing in the past.
C) Keywords: when, while, before, after
D)Examples:
When we use the Past Continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time
we are talking about. Look at these examples:
● I was working at 10pm last night.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 38

 ● They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
● What were you doing at 10pm last night?
● What were you doing when he arrived?
● She was cooking when I telephoned her.
● We were having dinner when it started to rain.
● Ram went home early because it was snowing.
E) Types Of Sentences

Types of subject auxiliary verb main verb

sen. (Helping Verb)

+ I was watching TV.

You were working hard.

- He, she, it was not helping Mary.

We were not joking.

? Were you being silly?

Were they playing football?

TIP:
We often use the Past Continuous tense with the Past Simple tense. We use the Past

Functional English (2024 to 27) 39

 Continuous to express a long action. And we use the Past Simple to express a short action
that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.

There are four basic combinations:

I was walking past the car when it exploded.

When the car exploded I was walking past it.

The car exploded while I was walking past it.

While I was walking past the car it exploded.

6) Continuous Future Tense:

The Future Continuous tense is often used in English as a way to talk about something
happening at a given point in the future.The Future Continuous tense expresses action at a
particular moment in the future. The action will have started before that moment but it will not
have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at
6pm:
A) Format: sub+ shall/will+ be +V1+ing+obj+ow
B) Use: It is generally used to express action which will be going to take place in continuous
form in some time in future.
C) Keywords: by this time- tomorrow, next week, next month,next day, next year.
D) Examples:
When we use the Future Continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what
time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
● I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
● They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
● What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
● What will you be doing when I arrive?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 40

 ● She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
● We'll be having dinner when the film starts.
● Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
E) Types Of Sentences

subject auxiliary verb main verb

Types of (Helping Verb)
sen.

+ I will be working

You will be lying

- She will not be using

We will not be having

? Will you be playing

Will they be watching

7) Perfect Present Tense:

The Present Perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some
languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those
languages. In fact, the structure of the Present Perfect is very simple. The problems come with

Functional English (2024 to 27) 41

the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and
American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the Present Perfect tense, as well as the use of
for and since

TIPS:
The Present Perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try not to
translate the Present Perfect into your language. Just try to accept the concepts of this tense
and learn to "think" Present Perfect! You will soon learn to like the Present Perfect tense!

A. Format: sub+ have/has + V3+obj+ow

B. Use: The perfect present tense is used to express and action that have just or already been
completed.
C. Keywords: just, just now, already, ever, never, yet, still,seems, for.
D) Examples:
Look at these example sentences using for and since with the Present Perfect tense:
● I have been here for twenty minutes.
● I have been here since 9 o'clock.
● John hasn't called for six months.
● John hasn't called since February.
● He has worked in New York for a long time.
● He has worked in New York since he left school.
E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 42

 subject auxiliary verb main verb
Types of (Helping Verb)
sen.

+ I have seen ET.

You have eaten mine.

- She has not been to Rome.

We have not played football.

? Have you finished?

Have they done it?

When we use the Present Perfect in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb.
We also sometimes do this in informal writing.

I have I've

You have You've

Functional English (2024 to 27) 43

 He has He's
She has She's
It has It's
John has John's
The car has The car's

We have We've

They have They've

● You've told me that before.

● John's seen Harry Potter.
In negative sentences, we may contract the auxiliary verb and "not":
● You haven't won the contest.
● She hasn't heard from him.
For and Since with Present Perfect tense
We often use for and since with perfect tenses:
● We use for to talk about a period of time: five minutes, two weeks, six years
● We use since to talk about a point in past time: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday

for since

a period of time a point in past time

------------ -•----------

20 minutes 6.15pm

Functional English (2024 to 27) 44

 three days Monday

6 months January

4 years 1994

2 centuries 1800

a long time I left school

ever the beginning of time

etc etc

8) Perfect Past Tense:

The Past Perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about
the "past in the past".
A. Format: sub + had+ V3+obj+ow
B. Use: The perfect past tense is used to express and action completed before a given
moment.
C. Keywords: before and after
D) Examples :
● I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
● They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
● I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
● "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived." / "Really? Where had she gone?"
E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 45

 subject auxiliary verb main verb
Types of (Helping Verb)
sen.

+ I had finished my work.

You had stopped before me.

- She had not gone to school.

We had not left. We

? Had you arrived? Had

Had they eaten dinner?

When we use the Past Perfect in speaking, we often contract the subject and the auxiliary
verb. We also sometimes do this in informal writing:

I had I'd

you had you'd

he had he'd
she had she'd
it had it'd

Functional English (2024 to 27) 46

 we had we'd

they had they'd

● I'd eaten already.

● They'd gone home.
In negative sentences, we may contract the auxiliary verb and "not":
● I hadn't finished my meal.
● Anthony hadn't had a day off for months.
9) Perfect Future Tense:
The Future Perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The Future Perfect talks
about the past in the future.The Future Perfect tense expresses action in the future before
another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:The train will leave the
station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
A. Format: sub+shall/will + have + V3+obj+ow
B. Use: The perfect future tense is used to express and
action which is to be completed by a certain point of time of time in the future.
C. Keywords: by this, v3+before
D.Examples:
● I'll have finished when you arrive.
● She'll have forgotten everything.
● They'll Have had their dinner by then.
In negative sentences, we may contract with won't or won't've, like this:
● Anthony won't have arrived by then.
● They won't have finished the car tomorrow.
E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 47

 subject auxiliary main verb
Types of verb
sen. (Helping
Verb)

+ I will have finished by 10am.

You will have forgotten me by then.

- She had not gone to school.

We will not have left.

? Will you have arrived?

Will they have received it?

Contraction with Future Perfect

In speaking with the Future Perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes,
we may contract the subject, will and have all together:

I will have I'll have I'll've

you will have you'll have you'll've

Functional English (2024 to 27) 48

 he will have he'll have he'll've
she will have she'll have she'll've
it will have it'll have it'll've

we will have we'll have we'll've

they will have they'll have they'll've

Look at some more examples:

● You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
● They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
● "Mary won't be at home when you arrive." / "Really? Where will she have gone?"
10) Perfect continuous present Tense:
We often use the Present Continuous tense in English. It is very different from the Present
Simple tense, both in structure and in use.We use the Present Continuous to talk about:
● action happening now
● action in the future
A. Format: sub+ have/has+V4+obj+ow
B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action started in the past and has continued up until
now.
C. Keywords: since, for
E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 49

 subject auxiliary main verb
Types of verb (Helping
Present
sen. Verb)

+ I am speaking to you.

You are reading this.

- She is not staying in London.

We are not playing football.

? Is he watching TV?

Are they waiting for John?

Continuous for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
the pages are turning
the candle is burning
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after
now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
John is looking for a new job.
Look at these examples:
● Muriel is learning to drive.
● I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 50

Look at these examples:
● We're eating at Joe's Cafe tonight. We've already booked the table..
● They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
● When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, a firm plan or programme exists before speaking. The decision and plan
were made before speaking.
11) Perfect continuous past Tense:
The Past Perfect Continuous is another tense that expresses the "past in the past".The Past
Perfect Continuous tense is like the Past Perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the
past before another action in the past. For example:
Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two
hours.
A. Format: sub + had + been + V4+obj+ow
B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action started in the past and has continued till the next
past activity takes place.
C. Keywords: since, for, before, when
D. Example:
● John was very tired. He had been running.
● I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
● Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a
long time.
● Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
E) Types Of Sentences

Functional English (2024 to 27) 51

 Subject auxiliary auxiliary main verb
Types of verb verb
sen.

+ I had been working.

You had been playing tennis.

- It had not been working well.

We had not been expecting her.

? Had you been drinking?

Had they been waiting long?

Contraction with Past Perfect Continuous

When we use the Past Perfect Continuous in speaking, we often contract the subject and the
first auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.

I had been I'd been

you had been you'd been

he had been he'd been

she had been she'd been
it had been it'd been

Functional English (2024 to 27) 52

 we had been we'd been

they had been they'd been

● He'd been drinking all day.

● It'd been pouring with rain.
In negative sentences, we may contract the first auxiliary verb and "not":
● We hadn't been living there long.
● They hadn't been studying very hard.
12) Perfect continuous future Tense:
A. Format: sub+ shall/will+have + been + V4+obj+ow
B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action is in progress over a period of time that will
end in future.
C. Keywords: since, for, before, when
D. Examples:
● He'll be tired when he gets here. He'll have been travelling all day.
● How long will Jo have been working when he retires?
● Next month I'll have been studying Chinese for two years.
● Will you have been working when I arrive?
● He won't have been studying long enough to qualify.
● Next week Jane is going to swim from England to France. By the time she gets to
France she'll have been swimming non-stop for over thirteen hours.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 53

 subject auxiliary auxilia auxiliary main
Types verb ry verb verb verb
of sen.

+ I will have been working for

four
hours
.

You will have been traveling for

two
days.

- She will not have been using the

car.

We will not have been waiting long.

? Had you been drinking?

Had they been waiting long?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 54

Contraction with Future Perfect Continuous
In speaking with the Future Perfect Continuous tense, we often contract the subject and
WILL:

I will I'll

you will you'll

he will he'll
she will she'll
it will it'll

we will we'll

they will they'll

● I'll have been driving for five hours.

● She'll have been watching TV.
In negative sentences, we may contract with won't, like this:

I will not I won't

you will not you won't

Functional English (2024 to 27) 55

 he willnot he won't
she will not she won't
it will not it won't

we will not we won't

they will not they won't

● You won't have been drinking, will you?

● We won't have been driving for long.

Basic concept of direct and indirect

to report (verb): to tell somebody what you have heard or seen
If we want to say what somebody has said, we basically have two options:
1. We can use the person's exact words - in quotation marks "..." if we are writing (direct
speech).
2. We can change the person's words into our own words (reported speech).

direct speech reported speech

(exact words) (my words)

He said: "I love you." He said that he loved me.

The structure that we use when we report what another person has said, and reported
speech rules.
Now we will look at:
● Reported Statements

Functional English (2024 to 27) 56

 ● Backshift
● Time and Place
● Reported Questions
● Reported Requests
● Reported Orders
Reported Statements
Reported statements are one form of reported speech.

direct statement reported statement

He said, "I am sick." He said that he was sick.

We usually introduce reported statements with "reporting verbs" such as "say" or "tell":
● He said (that)...
● He told me (that)..
When we use our own words to report speech, there are one or two things that we
sometimes change:
● pronouns may need to change to reflect a different perspective
● tense sometimes has to go back one tense (eg, present becomes past) - this is called
backshift

pronoun change tense change

direct statement He said, "I am sick."

reported statement He said he was sick.

(that)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 57

There are sometimes other things too that we may need to change, such as time or place.
Look at these examples:

pronoun tense time

change change change

direct Jane said, "I was sick yesterday."

statement

reported Jane said she had sick the day

statement (that) been before.

tense change place change

direct statement She said, "I is hot here."

t in

reported statement She said it was hot there.

(that) in

We also sometimes need to think about the third person singular "s":

pronoun person change

direct statement Mary said, "I work in London."

Functional English (2024 to 27) 58

 reported statement Mary said she works in London.
(that)

Notice that in the above example, we do not change the tense. Usually, with the present
simple, if something is still true now - she still works in London - we don't need to change it.
Backshift in Reported Speech

direct speech reported speech

He said: "I feel sad." He said that he felt sad.

In simple terms, the structure of reported speech is:

reporting clause [+ conjunction] + reported clause

reporting clause conjunction reported clause

John said (that) he was hungry.

John's original words: "I am hungry."

We sometimes change the tense of the reported clause by moving it back one tense. For
example, present simple goes back one tense to past simple. We call this change "backshift".
When do we use backshift?
We use backshift when it is logical to use backshift. So, for example, if two minutes ago John
said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I might NOT use backshift (because John is
still hungry):
● John just said that he is hungry.
But if yesterday John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I would likely use
backshift:
● Yesterday, John said that he was hungry.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 59

 [We hope that John has eaten since yesterday ;-) ]
So we use backshift SOMETIMES but not always. And WHEN we use backshift, here's how it
works with these common tenses and modals:

backshift

this goes back to this

present simple → past simple

present continuous → past continuous

past simple → past perfect

present perfect

past continuous → past perfect continuous

can → could

may might

will would

shall should

Functional English (2024 to 27) 60

We NEVER use backshift when the original words are:
● past perfect
● could
● might
● would
● should
Remember:
● If a situation is still true, backshift is optional.
● For a general truth there is no need for backshift.
Look at the following examples. See if you can understand when and why they use backshift:

tenses and direct speech reported speech

modals

present simple* He said, "I like coffee." He said (that) he likes coffee.

He said (that) he liked coffee.

present She said, "Moo is living here She said Moo is living there
continuous* with us." with them.

She said Moo was living there

with them.

past simple John said, "We bought a house John said they had bought a
last week." house the week before.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 61

 present perfect Ram said, "I haven't seen Ram said he hadn't seen
Avatar." Avatar.

past continuous Wayne said, "Were you Wayne asked if I had been
watching TV when I called." watching TV when he called.

past perfect** Ati said, "I had never lived in Ati told us that he had never
Thailand before." lived in Thailand before.

can She said, "Tara can't swim." She said Tara couldn't swim.

She said Tara can't swim.

could** He said, "Could you swim He asked me if I could swim

when you were three?" when I was three.

may She said: "I may be late." She said she might be late.
(and she was late)

She said she may be late. (the

time to be late has not yet
arrived)

might** She said, "I might come early." She said she might come
early.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 62

 will She said, "I'll call you She said she would call me the
tomorrow." next day.

She said she will call me

tomorrow. (tomorrow has not
come)

would** She said, "I wouldn't like to She said she would not like to
go." go.

shall He said: "Shall I open the He asked if he should open

door?" the door.

should** John said, "You should come John said I should go there.
here."

must The kidnapper phoned me and The kidnapper phoned me

said: "You must come here and said I had to go there
now." then.

Ati said, "I must find a job next Ati said he must find a job
year." next year. (next year hasn't
come yet)

have to Tara said: "I have to do my Tara said she had to do her
homework." homework.

Tara says she has to do her

homework.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 63

* if still true, change is optional (sometimes a matter of emphasis)
** never changes
Time and Place in Reported Speech
When we report something, we may need to make changes to:
● time (now, tomorrow)
● place (here, this room)

direct speech reported speech

She said, "I saw Mary yesterday." She said she had seen Mary the day before.

He said: "My mother is here." He said that his mother was there.

Time words
If we report something around the same time, then we probably do not need to make any
changes to time words. But if we report something at a different time, we need to change
time words. Look at these example sentences:
● He said: "It was hot yesterday." → He said that it had been hot the day before.
● He said: "We are going to swim tomorrow." → He said they were going to swim the
next day.
Here is a list of common time words, showing how you change them for reported speech:

direct speech reported speech

now then, at that time

today that day, on Sunday, yesterday

Functional English (2024 to 27) 64

 tonight that night, last night, on Sunday night

tomorrow the next day/ the following day, on Sunday, today

yesterday the day before/ the previous day, on Sunday

last night the night before/ the previous night, on Sunday night

this week that week, last week

last month the month before/ the previous month, in May

next year the following year, in 2014

two minutes ago two minutes before

in one hour one hour later

Place words
If we are in the same place when we report something, then we do not need to make any
changes to place words. But if we are in a different place when we report something, then we
need to change the place words. Look at these example sentences:
● He said: "It is cold in here." → He said that it was cold in there.
● He said: "How much is this book?" → He asked how much the book was.
Here are some common place words, showing how you change them for reported speech:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 65

 direct speech indirect speech

here there, in Starbucks

this that

this book the book, that book, War and Peace

in this room in the room, in that room, in the kitchen

Reported Questions
Reported questions are one form of reported speech.

direct question reported question

She said: "Are you cold?" She asked me if I was cold.

He said: "Where's my pen?" He asked where his pen was.

We usually introduce reported questions with the verb "ask":

● He asked (me) if/whether... (YES/NO questions)
● He asked (me) why/when/where/what/how... (question-word questions)
As with reported statements, we may need to change pronouns and tense (backshift) as well
as time and place in reported questions.
But we also need to change the word order. After we report a question, it is no longer a
question (and in writing there is no question mark). The word order is like that of a normal
statement (subject-verb-object).
Reported YES/NO questions

Functional English (2024 to 27) 66

We introduce reported YES/NO questions with ask + if:

direct question She said, "Do you like coffee?"

reported question She asked if I liked coffee.

Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is
pronoun change and backshift.
Note that we sometimes use "whether" instead of "if". The meaning is the same. "Whether"
is a little more formal and more usual in writing:
● They asked us if we wanted lunch.
● They asked us whether we wanted lunch.
Reported question-word questions
We introduce reported question-word questions with ask + question word:

direct question He said, "Where do you live?"

reported question He asked me where I lived.

Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is
pronoun change and backshift.
Look at these example sentences:

direct question reported question

YES/NO questions I said: "Can I help you?" I asked if I could help her.

She said to us: "Did you feel She asked if we had felt cold.
cold?"

Functional English (2024 to 27) 67

 He said: "Are your hands He asked whether my hands
cold?" were cold.

question-word He said: "Where are you He asked me where I was

questions going?" going.

He said: "Why didn't you He asked me why I hadn't said

say something?" anything.

He said: "When will they He asked when they would

come?" come.

He said: "Who has seen He asked me who had seen

Avatar?" Avatar.

He said: "How much might He asked me how much it

it cost?" might cost.

She said to me: "Where is She asked me where the

the station?" station was.

choice questions He asked, "Do you want tea He asked whether I wanted
or coffee?" tea or coffee.

He said, "Is the car new or He asked whether the car was
second-hand?" new or second-hand.

Reported Requests
A request is when somebody asks you to do something – usually politely. Reported requests

Functional English (2024 to 27) 68

are one form of reported speech.

direct request reported request

She said: "Could you open the window, She asked me to open the
please?" window.

He said: "Please don't smoke." He asked them not to smoke.

We usually introduce reported requests with the verb "ask". The structure is very simple:

ask + noun + to infinitive

pronoun

● We asked the man to help us.

● They asked us to wait.
Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported
statements and reported questions, we may need to change pronouns as well as time and
place in reported requests.
Here are some examples:

direct request reported request

I said politely, "Please make less noise." I asked them politely to make less
noise.

She has often said to me, "Could you stay She has often asked me to stay the
the night?" night.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 69

 They said to the architect: "We'd like you to They asked the architect to meet
meet us here tomorrow." them there the next day.

She will certainly say to John, "Please stay She will certainly ask John to stay for
for lunch." lunch.

She always says, "Please don't forget me." She always asks me not to forget her.

Reported Orders

An order is when somebody tells you to do something and you have no choice. It is not
usually polite. It is a "command". Reported orders are one form of reported speech.

direct order reported order

She said: "Stop!" She told him to stop.

We usually introduce reported orders with the verb "tell". The structure is very simple:

tell + noun + to infinitive

pronoun

● We told the man not to smoke.

● The policeman told us to follow him.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 70

Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported
statements and reported requests, we may need to change pronouns as well as time and
place in reported orders.
Here are some examples:

direct order reported order

She said, "Eat your food now!" She told the boy to eat his food right
then.

The policeman said: "Get out of your The policeman instructed us to get out of
car!" our car.

She said, "You must make the bed She told her husband to make the bed
before you go to work!" before he went to work.

The doctor said: "Don't smoke in here!" The doctor told them not to smoke in
there.

Notice above that we report a negative order by using not.

Active and passive concept
○ What is a Sentence?
In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain:
1. a subject (what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence), and
2. a predicate (what is said about the subject)

The 4 Types of Sentence Structure

Functional English (2024 to 27) 71

Simple Sentence Structure
A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a
subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)

● I like coffee.
● Mary likes tea.
● The earth goes round the sun.
● Mary did not go to the party.
Compound Sentence Structure
A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or
semicolon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.

● I like coffee and Mary likes tea.

● Mary went to work but John went to the party.
● Our car broke down; we came last.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
● and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Complex Sentence Structure
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent
clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and
verb, but does not express a complete thought.)

● We missed our plane because we were late.

● Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
● He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
● Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 72

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
● after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns:
● that, which, who, whom, whose
Compound-Complex Sentence Structure
A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

● John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
● He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 73

3.LISTENING

Introduction:

Learning a language means developing four skills- Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. What is
LSRW? L-S-R-W is the four language learning skills, a set of four capabilities that allow an individual to
comprehend and Development of Functional English produce spoken language for proper and effective
interpersonal communication. These skills are Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. In the context
of a first-language acquisition, the four skills are most often acquired in the order of listening first, then
speaking, then possibly reading and writing.
Listening is an everyday affair. Listening is receiving language through the ears. Listening involves
identifying the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. When we listen, we
use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses), and we use our brain to
convert these into messages that mean something to us.
Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work at
harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners. Listening in a
second language requires even greater focus.
"The better you listen, the luckier you will get." – Kevin Murphy
"A good listener is not only popular everywhere, but after a while, he knows something." - Wilson
Mizner

Listening v/s Hearing:

Hearing occurs when something disturbs the atmosphere, and this disturbance takes the form of a
pressure wave that hits our eardrums in the form of sound. It sounds different. It thrives on hearing
when they pay attention to the meaning of what we are hearing. Hearing is one thing, and hearing is
another. Hearing is the physical process of sound entering the ear. But listening involves the brain,
drawing attention to the topic and creating the meaning of the speech. Hearing is with the ears, and
hearing is with the mind.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 74

 The listener is face to face with the speaker, either over the table or over the telephone line, as
long as he is speaking and then turns off without recording the message. It is just listening. Intelligent
listening requires an open mind, concentration, constant sorting, and mental association of the message
heard, and note-taking or writing.
Hearing is the first step in listening. Hearing is a mental and physical activity. By hearing, we receive the
sound but do not use the mind. When we listen, we must also understand and remember. Listening is a
natural process. Hearing is the act of detecting sound and receiving sound waves or vibrations through
your ears, while listening is the
act of hearing sounds and understanding what you hear. When you listen, you are consciously choosing
what you want to hear. Hearing is one of the five senses, and it happens whether you like it or not, while
in listening, you consciously choose what you want to hear. Hearing is then an involuntary act. Listening
is a voluntary act.

Process of Listening:
To be a good listener, it is necessary to understand the various stages of listening given
below:

1.Sensing At this stage, the listener can physically hear the message because the sound waves hit the
eardrum, and as a result, the listener perceives the sound. The listener selects from multiple stimuli and
translates the only stimulus that it considers essential into a message.
2. Recognising After hearing the physical sounds, the listener identifies and recognises the pattern of
sounds. After this, sounds are recognised in a specific context. Here, the listener makes a conscious
effort to recognise the word symbols that he/she hears.
3. Interpreting Now, the listener starts decoding the message. As he/she listens, he/she employs his/her
values, beliefs, needs, ideas, etc., to interpret the speaker's message. Since he/she also pays attention to
non-verbal messages, the accuracy of his/her interpretation of the message also increases.
4. Evaluating After he/she understands what the message actually means, he/she critically evaluates it.
He/She assesses its strengths and weaknesses, its accuracy, reliability, and feasibility.
5. Responding At this stage, the listener is ready to respond and react. He/She shows his/her rejection or
acceptance, understanding or confusion, or even difference through his/her non-verbal cues.
6. Remembering or Memorising This is the final stage of listening. Good listening enables the listener to
retain the information for future reference. To increase retention, you need to make conscious efforts

Functional English (2024 to 27) 75

by taking down proper notes, organising the matter sequentially, or retaining the data by using
analogies or other associated visual symbols.
Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to
work harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners.
Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.To become a fluent speaker in
English, you need to develop strong listening skills. Listening not only helps you understand
what people are saying to you. It also helps you to speak clearly to other people. It helps you
learn how to pronounce words properly, how to use intonation, and where to place stress in
words and sentences. This makes your speech easier for other people listening to you to
understand!

Types Of Listening
APPRECIATIVE LISTENING: A person listens for what they like
CRITICAL LISTENING: Listening with the intention of analyzing and giving feedback
EVALUATIVE LISTENING: The listener tries to find value.“What is the purpose of the speaker?
What will I gain?”
EMPATHETIC LISTENING: Listening while imagining yourself in the same situation.
SUPERFICIAL LISTENING: Listening for the sake of participating in the communication. The
person simply hears sounds and tries to catch the crucial points..
COMPREHENSIVE LISTENING: Listening to simply understand a message, like in a class.
A Good Listener Can:
● Understand others well
● Understand what is expected
● Collaborate better with clients, team members and supervisors
● Earn trust
● Avoid conflicts
● Show support and resolve issues

Functional English (2024 to 27) 76

External Barriers:
● Other noises
● Interference
● Poor connection
● Visual distractions
Internal Barriers:
● Lack of interest
● “I don’t need to know” attitude
● Assumptions(about a person or situation)
● Cultural or language difference
● Gender difference
● Use of jargons(complicated technical terms)
Activity’s:
Activity :1
You are driving a bus. In the first stoppage, two men wearing jeans and a little girl gets on. Next,
an old lady gets off. Then, an elderly gentleman with a dog gets on. After that, the little girl gets
off. The bus conductor asks for tickets. At the last stoppage, everyone gets off the bus.
What Is The Driver’s Age?
Test your active listening.

Activity :2
1. Listen to English Radio
You can receive English-language radio in most countries. Two international networks are the
BBC World Service (from the UK) and Voice of America from (USA). Both of them have special
programmes for learners of English. You can find information about times and frequencies for
your country on their websites.
2. Watch English Television

Functional English (2024 to 27) 77

TV is an excellent resource for hearing and listening to English. The pictures help you
understand what is being said. If you don't have access to English-language TV, you may be able
to watch TV on Internet.
3. Watch/Listen to English by Internet
It is now a lot easier to hear English by Internet. If you're reading this at your computer or
mobile device, you can probably listen to some English-language radio news right now, without
even moving! And of course you can find endless videos in English on YouTube and similar
websites (although the English is not always easy to follow). Check out our page on links to
radio by Internet.
4. Listen to Songs in English
Songs in English are everywhere, even on foreign-language radio and TV stations. Listen to
them often. Buy some MP3s or CDs, or make recordings, and try to write the words for an
entire song. But choose one that is not too difficult. That means it should be reasonably slow,
and with real words sung clearly. Some pop songs are very unclear and are difficult even for
native English-speakers to understand fully! Here are some easy songs for English learners.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 78

 Section II
4. SPEAKING
Introduction:
Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth. To speak, we create sounds using
many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips.
This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener. When two or more people
speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a "dialogue". Speech can flow naturally
from one person to another in the form of dialogue. It can also be planned and rehearsed, as in
the delivery of a speech or presentation. Of course, some people talk to themselves! In fact,
some English learners practice speaking standing alone in front of a mirror.
Speaking can be formal or informal:
● Informal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you know well.
● Formal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when meeting people for
the first time.
Speaking is probably the language skill that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as
possible. It used to be the only language skill that was difficult to practice online. This is no
longer the case. English learners can practice speaking online using voice or video chat and
services like Skype. They can also record and upload their voice for other people to listen to.
Presentations in English
A presentation is a formal talk to one or more people that "presents" ideas or information in a
clear, structured way. People are sometimes afraid of speaking in public, but if you follow a few
simple rules, giving a presentation is actually very easy. This tutorial guides you through each
stage of giving a presentation in English, from the initial preparation to the conclusion and
questions and answers. This tutorial is itself set out like a mini-presentation. You can follow it
logically by starting at the presentations introduction page and then clicking on the link at the

Functional English (2024 to 27) 79

foot of each page, or you can jump directly to the section you want from the list of contents on
each page.
A. Presentations in English
B. Presentations: Introduction
C. Presentation Preparation
D. Presentation Equipment
E. Presentation Delivery
F. Presentation Language
G. The Presentation
H. Presentation Review
I. Presentation Test
How to address people in English

English learners often feel confused about how to address people properly. Many feel
uncomfortable asking the question, "What should I call you?" Even native English people find
this question awkward. For example, many women don't know how to address their boyfriend's
mother. On the other hand, some parents don't know what to call their children's teacher.

surname, family name, last name

first name

William Shakespeare

Sarah Palin

Vladimir Putin

Why is "What should I call you?" such a difficult question to ask? Perhaps it's because you are
asking the other person to provide their status or position in the world in relation to yours. This
position may involve age, job, education, religion and even marital status.
Asking the question

Functional English (2024 to 27) 80

If you are unsure of what to call someone, it's best to use a formal address or simply ask one of
these questions:
● What should I call you?
● What should I call your mum / the teacher / the manager?
● Can I call you [first name] ?
● Is it okay if I call you [the nickname you've heard others use] ?
● What's your name? (use in a casual situation like a party or classroom where first names
are used)
Answering the question
You might not be the only person wondering about titles. Students, colleagues or
acquaintances may not know what to call you. If they seem unsure about how to pronounce
your name, or you want them to call you something more casual, help them out:
● Please, call me [first name]
● You can call me [nickname or short form]
Formal Titles in English
In business situations, use formal titles unless the people you meet tell you otherwise. To get
someone's attention you can say: "Excuse me, Sir" or "Pardon me, Madam/Ma'am." To greet
someone you can say: "Hello Sir" or "Good morning, Madam/Ma'am."
Here are the formal titles English speakers use (listen to the pronunciation):
1. Sir (adult male of any age)
2. Ma'am (adult female - North American)
3. Madam (adult female)
4. Mr + last name (any man)
5. Mrs + last name (married woman who uses her husband's last name)
6. Ms + last name (married or unmarried woman; common in business)
7. Miss + last name (unmarried woman)
8. Dr + last name (some doctors go by Dr + first name)
9. Professor + last name (in a university setting)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 81

Occasionally you may have a close relationship with someone who typically gets called Sir,
Madam, Mr or Mrs (for example, a business executive, a celebrity, a professor or a person older
than yourself). At some point this person may give you permission to use his or her first name.
In English we use the phrase "on a first name basis" or "on first name terms" to describe a
relationship that is not as formal as it seems it should be. To describe this you would say, for
example: "Pete's mom and I are on a first name basis" or "My teacher and I are on first name
terms."
Informal Titles in English
Casual or very close relationships require an informal form of address:
● First name (friends, students, children)
● Miss/Mr + first name (sometimes used by dance or music teachers or childcare workers)
Titles of Affection
When addressing a child, a romantic partner, or a close friend or family member (usually
younger) people often use these terms of endearment, also known as "pet names":
● Honey (child, romantic partner, or younger person)
● Dear
● Sweetie
● Love
● Darling
● Babe or Baby (romantic partner)
● Pal (father or grandfather calls male child)
● Buddy or Bud (very informal between friends or adult-to-child; can be seen as negative)
Frequently Asked Questions:
How you address people may also change depending on your own age and status. If you are
unsure, use a formal address. If your form of address is too formal, the other person will invite
you to use an alternative form of address, such as a first name.
Things to be kept in mind for speech
1.⁠ ⁠Choose a topic both you and your audience will like.
2.⁠ ⁠Make sure your topic fits the assignment and time limit.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 82

 3.⁠ ⁠Do a good job of thinking about and researching your topic. Explore all sides of the topic.
4.⁠ ⁠Think about the topic information you have gathered and use only the details which will
work well for you.
5.⁠ ⁠Write an introduction which will gain the interest of your audience as well as introduce
your topic.
6.⁠ ⁠Think about how you can move from one point to another smoothly.
7.⁠ ⁠Use your own language. Speak as if you were actually talking to someone.
8.⁠ ⁠Don't use a "big" word when a small one will
9.⁠ ⁠Make sure everything you say is clear and understandable.
10.⁠ ⁠Speak loudly enough so that everyone can hear you.
11.⁠ ⁠Don't rush! – Take your time and your voice will naturally add color and interest to your
topic.
12.⁠ ⁠Use your hands to help you in some way. Sometimes you will need your hands to hold a
chart or a poster. Other times, your hands will be busy operating part of your
demonstration. At the very least, let your hands hold your notecards or paper (if they are
allowed). Never leave your hand movements to chance. They'll end up picking lint off
your shirt or dangling nervously at your side.
13.⁠ ⁠Keep both feet on the floor. Don't slouch, sway, or teeter.
14.⁠ ⁠Show enthusiasm for your topic from start to finish.
15.⁠ ⁠Look at your audience as you speak.
16.⁠ ⁠End with a strong, interesting idea.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 83

 5. READING
Do you want to improve your reading skills and become a better reader? Many English learners
have this goal in mind. This guide to reading can help you.
In this guide you will learn about:
● reading and why it matters
● reading materials for English language learners
● typical tasks found in English-language reading tests
● general reading tips to become a stronger reader
● where you can find reading materials
● reading strategies for better comprehension
● common reading categories to choose from
Interpreting Text
Interpretation is the act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise showing your own
understanding of something. ... Interpretation requires you first to understand the piece of
music, text, language, or idea and then give your explanation of it.
Interpretation of text: Perspective- the art of representing three-dimensional objects on a two-
dimensional surface to give the right impression of their height, width, depth, and position in
relation to each other.Here, we see four different people looking at the tree, with four different
hops and four different expectations. And how they want to do their things. If we see, the first
person wants the wood. The second person wants to cut the wood. Third-person wants to
make furniture out of it. And the fourth one wants the tree as it is. Here, the innocence of a
child is explained.
a kid never expects anything from nature, and how they enjoy the things they have. Whereas
all adults think is how they can destroy that tree and take that into use. They have so many
expectations from nature, from themselves. This just shows that how the perspective changes
when you become an adult. A kid is the epitome of innocence; they don't know the use of that

Functional English (2024 to 27) 84

tree. So the view of every person can differ.
Reading Techniques:
There are four types of Reading Techniques:
1. Intensive Reading
2. Extensive Reading
3. Scanning
4. Skimming

1. Intensive Reading:
Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading
selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs,content
and grammatical structures repeat themselves, and students get many opportunities to
understand the meaning of the text. The success of "Narrow Reading" on improving reading
comprehension is based on the principle that the more familiar the reader is with the text,
either due to the subject matter or having read other works by the same author, the
more comprehension is promoted.

Characteristics:
• usually classroom-based
• the reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text
• students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading
• students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers
• students identify key vocabulary
• students may draw pictures to help them
• texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again
• the aim is to build more language rather than practice the skill of reading
• seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms
When it is used:
• When the objective of reading is to achieve a full understanding of:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 85

 - Logical argument
- Symbolic pattern of text
- Emotional, symbolic or social attitudes and purposes of the author
- Linguistic means
• for the study of content material that is difficult
2. Extensive Reading:

Extensive Reading is to achieve a general understanding of a text. It occurs when students read
large amounts of high-interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning,"reading
for gist" and skipping unknown words. Extensive reading aims to build reader confidence and
enjoyment. Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for
specific details.

Characteristics:
• Students read as much as possible.
• A variety of materials on a range of topics is available.
• The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general
understanding.
• Reading materials are well within the linguistic skill of the students in terms of
vocabulary and grammar.
• Teachers orient students to the goals of the program.
• The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.

3. Scanning:

Scanning is a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information. Scanning involves quick
eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in which the eyes wander until the reader
finds the piece of information needed. Scanning is used when a specific amount of information
is required, such as a name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows

Functional English (2024 to 27) 86

what the item looks like and knows when he has located what he was searching for. It is
assumed then that very little information is processed into long-term
memory or even for immediate understanding because the objective is simply matching.

When it is used:
• Scanning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to locate specific
information.
• Scanning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because often,they do not
require a detailed reading of a text. There are many everyday uses for scanning relevant to a
purpose, such as reading a schedule.

4. Skimming:
Skimming is a quick reading to get:
- to know the general meaning of a passage
- to know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text
- to get an idea of the intention of the writer Skimming is a more complex task than scanning
because it requires the reader to organize and remember some of the information given by the
author, not just to locate it. Skimming is a tool in which the author's sequence can be observed,
unlike scanning in which some predetermined information is sought after.

When it is used:
• Skimming is used when reading some general questions in mind.
• Skimming is used to make decisions on how to approach a text, such as when determining if a
careful reading is deserved.
• Skimming is used to build student confidence and understand that it is possible to gain
meaning without reading every word in a text.
• Skimming is used as part of the SQ3R method of reading, often for speed reading.This method
involves the student in surveying, questioning, reading, reviewing and reciting. Skimming is
used for the initial survey and for review.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 87

• Skimming is a skill that a student may want to develop if they plan to continue with academic
studies. It is often used in reviewing for a test

Exercise:
Comprehension-1
Pandit Jawaharlal Lal Nehru was my favorite leader. He was the first Prime Minister of free
India. He was one of the greatest statesmen of his age. He was born on 14th November, 1889
at Allahabad. His father was Pt. Moti Lal Nehru. He was a great barrister. Jawaharlal Lal was the
only son of his parents. He was brought up like a prince amidst riches. He was sent to England
for higher studies. Having finished his education there, he returned to India and became a
lawyer. When he came in touch with Mahatma Gandhi he became his disciple. He was fond of
children. They called him, “Chacha Nehru”. That is why his birthday is celebrated as the
“Children Day”. He fought for the cause of the poor. He died on 27th May, 1964. India lost a
great son and a leader in him.

Questions
a. Who was the first Prime Minister of free India?
b. When was he born?
c. Where was he born?
d. Who was his father?
e. What was his father?
f. Where was he sent for studies?
g. What was Gandhiji’s influence on him?
h. What did the children call him?
i. What did he do for the poor?
j. When did he die?

Answers
a. Pandit Jawaharlal Lal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of free India.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 88

 b. He was born on 14th November, 1889.
c. He was born at Allahabad.
d. His father was Pt. Moti Lal Nehru.
e. His father was a great barrister.
f. He was sent to England for higher studies.
g. Gandhi's influence on him was so great that he became his disciple.
h. The children called him ‘Chacha Nehru’.
i. He fought for the cause of the poor.
j. He died on 27th May, 1964.
Comprehension-2
The culture of nuclear families is in fashion. Parents are often heard complaining about the
difficulties in bringing up children these days. Too much of freedom in demand, too much
independence; overnight parties; excessive extravagance, splurging pocket money; no time for
studies and family all this is a common cry of such families. Aren’t parents, themselves,
responsible for this pitiful state? The basic need of a growing youth is the family, love, attention
and bonding along with moral values. One should not forget that ‘charity begins at home’.
Independence and individuality both need to be respected, in order to maintain the sanctity of
family. Children today are to be handled with tact in order to bridge the ever widening
generation gap. Only the reasonable demands need to be fulfilled, as there are too many
expenses to be met and top many social obligations to be taken care of by the parents. Our
forefathers lived happily in joint families. Children loved to live with their cousins, learnt to
adjust within means. There was perfect harmony between the generations. There never existed
the concept of old-age homes. There was deep respect for the family elders and love, care and
concern for the youngsters. Even the minor family differences were solved amicably.
Questions:
a. Mention any two major common concerns of a nuclear family.
b. Who, according to the passage, are responsible for them?
c. Explain the expression ‘charity begins at home’.
d. Describe the atmosphere in joint families.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 89

 e. Which word in the passage means ‘Holiness of life’?
Answers:
a. Too much independence and no time for studies and family.
b. Parents themselves.
c. The parent should not forget that it is in giving that one receives.
d. In joint families, children get a friendly atmosphere and they also learn to
adjust within means.
e. Sanctity.
Comprehension-3
When we enter New York harbor, the first thing we see is the Statue of Liberty. What impresses
us the most is its size and magnificence? Have you ever wondered how it came to be there? The
Statue of Liberty was a gift from the people of France to mark the one-hundred-year
anniversary of American Independence. In 1869, sculptor Frederic Auguste Bartholdi began to
plan his concept for the monument. Bartholdi chose the look of classic Greek and Roman
figures. He envisioned Liberty as a strong and proud figure, one who personified not only the
majestic Greek goddesses of the past, but also the working men and women of the present.
Finally, in 1884, the work was finished, and Liberty was packed into 214 crates and sent to New
York city. Only one problem stood in the way. While the French had raised a lot of funds to
build the statue, New York had not secured the funds to build its foundation. It was not until a
New York newspaper implored people for donations that money became available. Finally, on
28th October 1886, Americans celebrated the unveiling of the Statue of Liberty.
Questions:
a. Why was the Statue of Liberty given as a gift to America by France?
b. What is the name of the sculptor of the monument ‘the Statue of
Liberty’?
c. What did the sculptor imagine the Statue of Liberty to be ?
d. How many years did it take to unveil the Statue of liberty?
e. Trace the word from the passage which means the same as “imagined”.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 90

Answers:
a. The Statue of Liberty was given as a gift to America by France to mark the
one hundred year anniversary of American Independence.
b. Frederic Auguste Bartholdi.
c. The sculptor imagined the Statue of Liberty as the majestic Greek
Goddesses of the past and also as the working men and women of the
present.
d. It took about 2 years to unveil the Statue of Liberty.
e. Envisioned.
Comprehension-4
An elderly carpenter was ready to retire. He told his employer of his plans to leave the house
building business and live a more leisurely life with his family. He would miss the pay cheque,
but he needed to retire. The employer was sorry to see his good worker go and asked if he
could build just one more house as a personal favour. The carpenter said ‘yes’, but in time it
was easy to see that his heart was not in his work. He resorted to shoddy workmanship and
used inferior material. It was an unfortunate way to end his career. When the carpenter
finished his work, his employer handed over the key of the house to the carpenter— “This is
your house, my gift to you.”
What a shock! What a shame ! If he had only known he was building his own house, he would
have done it all so differently! Now he had to live in a poorly built house. So it is with us. We
build our lives, a day at a time, often putting less than our best into the building. Then, with a
shock, we realize we have to live in the house we have built. If we could do it over, we would do
it much differently. But, you cannot go back. You are the carpenter, and every day you hammer
a nail, place a board, or erect a wall. Someone once said, your attitude, and the choices you
make today, help build the “house” you will live in tomorrow. Therefore, build wisely!
Questions:
a. What did the carpenter tell his employer?
b. What favour did his employer ask from the carpenter?
c. What surprise did the employer have for the carpenter?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 91

 d. Why was the surprise a’shame’for the carpenter?
e. Which word in the first paragraph means the same as ‘art of skill of a
workman’?

Answers:
a. The carpenter told his employer of his plans to retire from his house
building business and live a leisurely life with his family.
b. The employer asked if he could build just one more house as a favor.
c. The employer handed over the keys of the new house to the carpenter.
d. As the carpenter resorted to shoddy workmanship and used inferior
material.
e. Workmanship.
Activity:

a. Read about Movies

b. Read about Recent Historical Events
c. Driverless Cars Coming Soon

Functional English (2024 to 27) 92

6. Writing
F.1 Defining Paragraph, Passage, Articles, Journals, Literals, Essay, Comprehensions
etc.
F.2.1 Passage and Paragraph

A passage and a paragraph always refer to threads of sentences that are grouped together in
a great piece of writing.
The key difference between passage and paragraph is that a paragraph is a cluster of
sentences grouped under one topic whereas a passage is an extract from a text, novel, story or
even a paragraph. Both these words are abstracts of a long process which in literature is called
as a writing.

a) What is a Paragraph?
A cluster of sentences that come under one theme, matter or under one subject is known to
be called as a Paragraph. Normally, such paragraph is used as a portion of a formal writing,
and it can lead you into a prose, into an essay, and eventually into a great piece of writing. In
simple, a paragraph is the main backbone of any literal or non-literal writing. At the
commencement of a paragraph, one can always find the topic sentence which starts the
paragraph, defines its purpose as a whole in a summary. In any piece of writing such leading
paragraph can always guide you into other remaining sentences and the paragraphs which
serve to support the topic sentence into conclusion. Likewise, a paragraph always contains five
to six sentences including the topic sentence. In simple, a good paragraph always is the growth
of a good piece of literal writing.

b) What is a Passage?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 93

On the other hand, a Passage can be defined as a part of paragraph, a part of a sentence or
else it can also be called as a part a few paragraphs. Basically, a passage is an extract from any
piece of writing, which is taken to prove something about the present text that is in the process
of development. Therefore, it can be used as a brief slice of a work that helps you, in another
writing as an attraction, distraction as well as a proof factor, to the being discussed matter or
topic. The length of a passage differs from one context to another and also from one’s purpose
of extracting. For an example a passage can be a clause of a sentence, a few sentences or else it
can also be a few paragraphs.

c) What is the difference between Passage and Paragraph?

The following can be shown as a brief comparison of these two words.

Titles Paragraph Passage

Definition A cluster of sentences An extract from a text, novel, story

grouped under one topic. or a paragraph.
Length One or more No specific length. (this can be
sentences. from a sentence to a few
paragraphs.)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 94

 Logic Should have a unity or a The unity or the linkage differs in
link between each and terms of the purpose or the
every line and also a link context of the extract. Linkage
between the first is not so important.
paragraph and the next.
Rule Should have at least two Could contain of one sentence.
sentences. (depends on the context of the
extract)
Origin The writer Firsthand writing from which the
sentences are being extracted.

Purpose To give a story, description To cite, prove a fact or several facts

or information on a theme of a secondary writing.
or topic.

Passage is hence a subset of Paragraph in General.

F.2.2 Comprehension, Summary, Essay & Story

Comprehension as a verb is defined as the level of understanding of a text. This understanding
comes from the interaction between the words that are written and how they trigger
knowledge outside the text.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 95

Proficient comprehension depends upon the ability to recognize words and sentences quickly
and effortlessly. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing
capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is
read.
Comprehension as a noun is commonly defined sometimes as a Passage-Comprehension (or
comprehension passage) which is a part of learning any Language.

a) Comprehension Passage (Refer Section E.3)

Comprehension passage is a very important section in English Language Reading Skills. In the
comprehension section, an unknown and unseen passage is given on any topic, and candidates
are asked to read it and understand well then questions and answers based on it are given to
solve using it. It checks the vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, reading skills, and observation
of candidates. It is generally asked in all competitive exams to check the reading skills of the
students. In this article, we are going to discuss comprehension passages in detail along with
the questions and answers based on them. So read the article to understand the
comprehension passage in detail.

To solve comprehension passages is an important part of understanding any language. It is the

art of reading, understanding, and remembering what you read in any given piece of writing.
Once you have understood the passage, you will be able to reproduce the same passage in your
own words. Reading comprehension builds the foundation for high-level thinking in different
subject areas. Comprehension writing is the other part of this practice.
Passage Reading Meaning
To comprehend means to understand. In any academic curriculum, reading English
comprehension passages is an important topic. As a part of reading comprehension passages,
you need to very carefully go through a given passage, understand its meaning, and notice the
meaning of various contexts in which the sentences appear. You will then have to answer
different questions that are based on the passage you read. If you are wondering how to
understand comprehension passages, then here are some points.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 96

 ✔ Comprehension tests your vocabulary, so building a good vocabulary is important to
understand passages.

✔ You also need to have a good sense of the language in which the comprehension is
written.

✔ You need to develop the ability to identify the meanings of phrases or words by reading
the passage multiple times.
Reading comprehension passages assesses your intelligence in grasping the gist of the written
text and inferring your conclusions based on the context. Most of the questions in
comprehension are directly related to the passage. A few of them will need you to find the
contextual meaning of different words, and some of them will test your ability to find suitable
antonyms of given words.

How to Answer Questions of Comprehension?

While answering comprehension passages, the most important part is to read the passage
carefully. To answer a comprehension question properly one needs to do the following:

✔ Decipher what you just read.

✔ Try to make a stable connection between what you read and what knowledge you
already have.

✔ Think in-depth about what the comprehension passage says.

Some of the important strategies for solving comprehension passages are:

1. Upgrade your Vocabulary - For attending competitive exams, it is very important to
develop your vocabulary. A comprehension question will appear difficult if you do not
understand the meaning of a few of the words used in it. The many ways by which one
can improve English vocabulary are:
2. Reading newspaper articles.
Reading various vocabulary books and newspapers.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 97

 Writing down new words that you come across in your daily life, for example, while
watching a movie or while reading a book. You could then find the meaning of those
words in a dictionary.
3. Utilise your Strengths - While answering a comprehension question, try to utilise your
strong points. For example, some students like to read the passage completely to get an
idea of the whole thing while others may find it confusing so they can approach the
topic with a “down to top” approach. In this approach, students first read the given
questions and then read the paragraph to get the required answers. Any of these
methods can be used based on your preference and acumen.
4. Try to get the gist of the Passage - Many students start getting into the details of a
passage like trying to understand all the words and sentences in it. Yet, understanding
the passage in its entirety is not always required. It is too time-consuming if you start
getting into each example, illustration, etc. The best way is to understand the summary
of the passage or its main intent. If you comprehend the overall flow and structure, you
will be good at answering the questions in the given time frame.
5. Managing Time - Time is the most common concern that students have during
comprehension writing. Exams test not only your basic knowledge but also your ability
to manage time well. A good way to manage time while reading comprehension
passages is not to spend time on tricky parts of the passage. If you find that a certain
section of the passage is complex and you are having difficulty understanding it, then it
is better to skip that part. Once you are done reading the passage and the questions,
you can decide if you need to go back to the complicated piece of the passage or not.
6. Do Not Rely on Outside Knowledge - Do not try to answer a comprehension based on
your assumptions or knowledge of the subject outside the given passage. You must use
whatever information is provided in the passage to answer the questions. If you include
your version of any topic, they can be marked as wrong by the evaluator.

Importance of Solving Comprehension for the Students of all Classes

Functional English (2024 to 27) 98

 ✔ Comprehension helps students to prepare for the unpredicted and the syllabus
questions to face them and answer the same with ease and expertise.

✔ Comprehension helps students to improve their vocabulary and grammatical errors by

practising the unprecedented passages again and again.

✔ Comprehension contains high weightage in the language exam of every class. Therefore,
preparing and practising unseen passages only boosts the morale of students and their
expertise towards a topic that holds importance for every student in every class.

✔ Solving Comprehension consistently elevates the presentation skills and learning skills of
students like reading and writing etc.

b) Summary
Summary also called as SYNOPSIS or RECAP is a shorter version of the original. Such a
simplification highlights the major points from the much longer subject, such as a text, a
speech, a film or an event. The purpose is to help the audience get the gist in a short period of
time, Ina the normal course of events a summary or a synopsis is normally written by the
summarizer using his or her own words to sum up the salient points of article, text, speech etc.
Summary is defined precisely as process of separating material or objects into separate
elemental constituents. In other words, analyzing a Car would mean exploring the Engine, the
Interior, the Transmission, the Electrical System, the wheels, the windows etc. but summarizing
means the relationship of the parts to the whole system and then deriving meaning from this
relationship.

c) Essay
An Essay is a composition of more than one Paragraph on a particular Topic. The
characteristics of a good essay are:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 99

 ✔ Unity: The essay should deal with the main subject and all parts of it should be clearly
linked with that subject.

✔ Coherence: There should be a logical sequence of thought. This requires a logical

relationship between ideas, sentences and paragraphs.

✔ Relevance: Unimportant information should not be included.

✔ Proportion: Give more space to important ideas.

d) Story
A short story, also known as a nouvelle, is a piece of prose fiction that can typically be read in a
single sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the
intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest types of literature
and has existed in the form of legends, mythic tales, folk tales, fairy tales, tall
tales, fables and anecdotes in various ancient communities around the world. The modern
short story developed in the early 19th century. The short story is a crafted form in its own
right. Short stories make use of plot, resonance, and other dynamic components as in a novel,
but typically to a lesser degree. While the short story is largely distinct from
the novel or novella/short novel, authors generally draw from a common pool of literary
techniques.[citation needed] The short story is sometimes referred to as a genre.

F.2.3 Letter, Paper, Article, Journals, Editorials, Commentaries, Pamphlets etc.

a) Letter
A letter is a written message conveyed from one person (or group of people) to another
through a medium. Something epistolary means that it is a form of letter writing. The term
usually excludes written material intended to be read in its original form by large numbers of
people, such as newspapers and placards, although even these may include material in the
form of an "open letter". The typical form of a letter for many centuries, and the
archetypal concept even today, is a sheet (or several sheets) of paper that is sent to a

Functional English (2024 to 27) 100

correspondent through a postal system. A letter can be formal or informal, depending on its
audience and purpose. Besides being a means of communication and a store of information,
letter writing has played a role in the reproduction of writing as an art throughout history

b) Paper
A term paper is a research paper written by students over an academic term, accounting for a
large part of a grade. Merriam-Webster defines it as "a major written assignment in a school
or college course representative of a student's achievement during a term". Term papers are
generally intended to describe an event, a concept, or argue a point. It is a written original work
discussing a topic in detail, usually several typed pages in length, and is often due at the end of
a semester.
There is much overlap between the terms: research paper and term paper. A term paper was
originally a written assignment (usually a research-based paper) that was due at the end of the
"term"—either a semester or quarter, depending on which unit of measure a school used.
However, not all term papers involve academic research, and not all research papers are term
papers.

c) Article
An article or piece is a written work published in a print or electronic medium. It may be for
the purpose of propagating news, research results, academic analysis, or debate. A news
article discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspapers) or of a
specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news
websites).
A news article can include accounts of eyewitnesses to the happening event. It can contain
photographs, accounts, statistics, graphs, recollections, interviews, polls, debates on the topic,
etc. Headlines can be used to focus the reader's attention on a (or main) part of the article. The
writer can also give facts and detailed information following answers to general questions
like who, what, when, where, why and how.

d) Journal
In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that is usually published in an academic
journal. It contains original research results or reviews existing results. Such a paper, also called

Functional English (2024 to 27) 101

an article, will only be considered valid if it undergoes a process of peer review by one or
more referees (who are academics in the same field) who check that the content of the paper is
suitable for publication in the journal. A paper may undergo a series of reviews, revisions, and
re-submissions before finally being accepted or rejected for publication.
Electronic articles are articles in scholarly journals or magazines that can be accessed via
electronic transmission. They are a specialized form of electronic document, with a specialized
content, purpose, format, metadata, and availability – they consist of individual articles from
scholarly journals or magazines (and now sometimes popular magazines), they have the
purpose of providing material for academic research and study, they are formatted
approximately like printed journal articles, the metadata is entered into specialized databases,
such as the Directory of Open Access Journals as well as the databases for the discipline, and
they are predominantly available through academic libraries and special libraries, generally at a
fixed charge.
An academic journal or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating
to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and
transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and discussion of research. They nearly
universally require peer review or other scrutiny from contemporaries competent and
established in their respective fields. Content typically takes the form of articles
presenting original research, review articles, or book reviews.
The term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields; this article discusses the
aspects common to all academic field journals. Scientific journals and journals of
the quantitative social sciences vary in form and function from journals of
the humanities and qualitative social sciences; their specific aspects are separately discussed.

e) Scientific Literature
Scientific literature comprises academic papers that report
original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences. Within a field of
research, relevant papers are often referred to as "the literature".

Functional English (2024 to 27) 102

Academic publishing is the process of contributing the results of one's research into the
literature, which often requires a peer-review process.
Scientific literature can include the following kinds of publications:

✔ Scientific articles published in scientific journals

✔ Patents in the relevant subject (for example, biological patents and chemical patents)

✔ Books wholly written by one author or a few co-authors

✔ Edited volumes, where each chapter is the responsibility of a different author or group
of authors, while the editor is responsible for determining the scope of the project,
keeping the work on schedule, and ensuring consistency of style and content

✔ Presentations at academic conferences, especially those organized by learned societies

✔ Government reports such as a forensic investigation conducted by a government

agency such as the NTSB

✔ Scientific publications on the World Wide Web (although e.g. scientific journals are
now commonly published on the web)

✔ Books, technical reports, pamphlets, and working papers issued by individual

researchers or research organizations on their own initiative; these are sometimes
organized into a series.

f) Pamphlets
A pamphlet is an unbound book (that is, without a hard cover or binding). Pamphlets may
consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in thirds, or
in fourths, called a leaflet or it may consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle
stapled at the crease to make a simple book.

✔ For the "International Standardization of Statistics Relating to Book Production and

Periodicals", UNESCO defines a pamphlet as "a non-periodical printed publication of at

Functional English (2024 to 27) 103

 least 5 but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages, published in a
particular country and made available to the public" and a book as "a non-periodical
printed publication of at least 49 pages, exclusive of the cover pages". The UNESCO
definitions are, however, only meant to be used for the particular purpose of drawing
up their book production statistics.

F.2 EXERCISES Based on WRITING skills:

F.3.1 Paragraph Writing

a) What is Expansion of a Idea?

An idea for expansion may be a proverb, a quotation or a slogan. Primarily the given statement
must be expanded by way of explanation of its meaning and other substantial supporting
matters.
The first paragraph must contain explanatory material.
The second paragraph may contain further details of what is stated in the first paragraph or
may even contain anecdotes, examples, illustrations, related quotations, etc.

⮚ ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD EXPANSION OF IDEA:

✔ Arrange the ideas according to logical order of importance.

✔ Avoid stereotyped or hackneyed expressions and irrelevant information.

✔ Frame simple and short sentences.

✔ Enhance your piece of expansion by using idiomatic and figurative language where
necessary.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 104

 ✔ Ensure grammatical accuracy, correct spelling and appropriate punctuation.

⮚ Examples
Expand the following ideas in a paragraph or two: Model Example - 1
Where there is a will, there is a way:
"Where there is a will, there is a way' is an old proverb in English which teaches us that
"determination' is necessary to get a task completed or a job done. To learn or achieve
something in life, will-power acts as a catalyst and enhances the speed of action. So, it is good
to have determination even to the smallest tasks in life and never give up easily. All of us wish
to achieve many things in life. But usually many of us do not succeed in achieving anything. And
often, we tend to curse our fate or misfortune. But the fact is that we have only ourselves to
blame for our failures. It is not enough that we wish to achieve something. We should have the
proper will-power and the proper drive or determination to carry on with our plans in the face
of obstacles. Will-power is the key to the greatest of achievements. The more we are
determined to win, the more we are on the road to success.

Expand the following ideas in a paragraph or two: Model Example - 2

Courage and resourcefulness are the keys to overcome problems:
Courage is the feeling of daring or the absence of fear or anxiety in doing something, while
resourcefulness is the tact or ability with which one performs an act or a deed. Both are
essential in overcoming problems. When one is beset with a problem - however small or large,
it may be - one must possess the courage to face it with determination and a strong will-power.
Therefore, one must assess and analyze the problem to work out the solution. With careful
planning and resourcefulness, one can take the necessary steps to solve the problem or
overcome an obstacle. Just being laid back and lamenting over one's helplessness will not serve
to solve the problem. In fact, it may perhaps compound the problem. Hence, the only
reasonable approach would be to have courage and use one's resourcefulness in overcoming
the problem satisfactorily.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 105

Expand the following ideas in a paragraph or two: Model Example – 3
A Stitch in Time Saves Nine
This proverb advises us to be prudent. Timely action often prevents some great loss or harm
that could occur in the future. If there is a small rent in your garment, you would be wise to put
in some timely stitches. If you let it be and put off the repair of the garment, the rent will turn
into a larger hole and finally, the garment will become absolutely useless and impossible to
wear. If a crack in the embankment of a river is not
repaired in time, the water will keep on seeping through; the crack will widen and might even
result in large-scale flooding.
It is the same with all situations affecting humans and their actions. As soon as one observes
that something is wrong. one should take immediate steps to rectify the situation. If one sits by
and does nothing, the situation will worsen and then might turn so bad that massive efforts will
have to be taken in order to put the situation right. As Benjamin Franklin said, "Never leave till
tomorrow what you can do today." The simple problem that you have unsolved today will
develop into a situation that might require enormous efforts to deal with tomorrow. Tackle the
problem as soon as you see it. It will save you plenty of time, money, misery and heartburn in
the future.

Expand the following ideas in a paragraph or two: Model Example – 4

Experience is the best teacher:
If you warn a child not to put his or her hand near the fire, he or she may not listen to you. But
if the child actually touches the flame out of curiosity, he or she will get burnt. By actual
experience the child will learn that putting one's hand in fire can cause a lot of pain and physical
damage. Most of our study is based on books. We may read a lot about the beauty of the Taj
Mahal, but actually making a visit to the Taj, we will really experience its grandeur. Again, there
are many skills, like mechanical skills, for which more theoretical knowledge is not sufficient.
We must actually go through the experience of handling the machines and learning from our
mistakes.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 106

Even our judgments about people or things are based on our past experiences. Thus, we can
conclude that experience is the best teacher, and one should not shy away from the various
experiences life has to offer.

⮚ Exercise:
Expand the following ideas in a paragraph or two:
Health is wealth
Home sweet home
Honesty is the Best Policy
Work is worship
A friend in need is a friend indeed
What is Dialogue Writing?
F.3.2 Story & Dialogue Writing

a) What is Story Writing?

Story Writing is a fictional writing method that is written in a simpler way and has its own
natural flow. Story Writing covers five elements:
Character (Crucially a Protagonist and Antagonist), Setting, Plot, Conflict, and Theme. Through
story writing, you share the experience of characters in a physical setting with a plot that makes
it story-worthy, a conflict that causes a riff or relationship core of the characters, and finally the
theme of the story as in what the story wants to share.
a).1 Story Writing Format

✔ Order: The story should be narrated in a sequential order starting from the beginning
when the characters are introduced, important events happen and then the conclusion
which brings the ending.

✔ Theme: Every student must follow the theme provided in the starting lines of the story
writing question and should avoid inserting or inventing newer story themes.

✔ Concise and Short: Adhere to the word limit provided for writing the story and weave
an interesting narrative within the limit.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 107

 ✔ Key Elements: Every story should have a beginning, major event and then conclusion.
a).2 Examples:

Story Writing Topic 1

Write a short story in 200 – 250 words using the following clues. Provide your story with a
title.
Travelling to Mumbai by bus to attend the marriage of a friend…. got stuck in a traffic jam….
reached the railway station late…. boarded a wrong train…. realized after two hours…. now
you….
A series of Unfortunate Events
I sat down with relief as I ticked off the last task in the checklist. I wanted everything to be
perfect as it was my best friend’s marriage in Mumbai. The alarm rang next morning, I woke up
in excitement and booked a cab to the railway station. Everything was going perfectly until I got
stuck in a traffic jam. I reached the railway station late but on the sight of the train still waiting
on the platform, I hurried and somehow managed to get into the train. I breathed a sigh of
relief and got comfortable. It was only when the Ticket Collector came, I realised that I had
been in the wrong train for two hours. I panicked and deboarded the train at the next station. I
tried booking a ticket for the next train to Mumbai but there was no availability. On coming
back from the ticket counter, I realised that my luggage was missing. Even after hours of finding
and reporting it, there was no trace of it. I got tired and lost hope, tried booking a cab with the
minimal amount I was left with in my pocket. The cab couldn’t reach on time as it was raining
heavily. Disheartened, I finally walked my way to the nearest hotel, contacted my parents and
recited them the series of unfortunate events that happened during the day. Alas, I couldn’t
even make it to my best friend’s wedding.

b) Dialogue Writing
If you want to write a story, dialogues are a very important part of the story. Writing a good
dialogue requires a set of rules to follow because a bad dialogue can change the story and the

Functional English (2024 to 27) 108

dialogue’s meaning as well. Dialogue writing is a very important part of English writing.
Dialogue is basically a conversation between two or more people. In fiction, it is a verbal
conversation between two or more conversations. Sometimes it is a self-talking dialogue, they
are known as a Monolog. If the dialogue is bad the reader will put the book down. Without
effective dialogues, the whole plot of the story will collapse on its own structure. Therefore,
writing dialogue in a way that attracts the reader to be more involved in the story is not a
daunting task. We will guide you to write impactful dialogue with correct rules.
b).1 Tips to Write Dialogue:

✔ Speak out the Dialogue loudly as it will help you resonate on your own dialogue and
make you understand how it will sound to the reader.

✔ Keep your dialogue brief and impactful as adding extra details will only deviate the
reader’s mind from the main point.

✔ Give each character a unique way of talking or voice. It will add an extra character trait
and readers can identify the character just by reading his dialogue.

✔ While writing the dialogue always remember whom the dialogue is being addressed to.

✔ Dialogues should not be lengthy and confusing for the readers as through the dialogue
only the story moves.
b).2 Format of Dialogue Writing
New Paragraph for Every Speaker

✔ Every speaker gets a new paragraph. Each time a speaker says something, you have to
put in a fresh paragraph, even if it is just one word.

✔ Punctuations Come under Quotation Marks

✔ All the punctuations used with dialogue must be put under the quotes.

✔ Remove End Quote if the Paragraph is Long

✔ If the paragraph of dialogue is too long and you need to change the paragraph, then
there is no need to put end quotes.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 109

 ✔ Dialogue Tags
Dialogue tags i.e. He says/she says are always written outside the dialogue and is
separated by a comma. When dialogue ends in a question or exclamation mark, tags
that follow start in lower case. For eg- He says, “We should start our own business.”

✔ Use Single Quotation-Mark to Quote Something with a Dialogue.

If you have to quote something within a dialogue we should put single quotes as double
quotes are already enclosing the main dialogue.
For eg- Bill shouted, “ ‘boo!’ you lost the game.

✔ The Dialogue Ends with an Ellipsis.

If the Dialogue ends with an ellipsis, we should not add a comma or any other
punctuation. For eg- She stared at the sunset. “I guess you’ll go back to doing what you
do and I will…” her voice drifted off.

F.3.3 Biodata, CV and Resume

a) Biodata
Biodata is the shortened form for biographical data.
The term has two usages:

✔ In South Asia, the term carries the same meaning as a résumé or curriculum vitae (CV),
for the purposes of jobs, grants, and marriage.

✔ In industrial and organizational psychology, it is used as a predictor for future

behaviours; in this sense, Biodata is "...factual kinds of questions about life and work
experiences, as well as items involving opinions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that
reflect a historical perspective."

⮚ In South Asia

Functional English (2024 to 27) 110

In South Asia (India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Nepal), a biodata (a shortened
form of biographical data) is essentially a résumé or curriculum vitae (CV), for the purposes of
jobs, grants, and marriage.
The purpose is similar to that of a résumé—to choose certain individuals from the pool of
prospective candidates. The biodata generally contains the same type of information as a
résumé (i.e. objective, work history, salary information, educational background, as well as
personal details with respect to religion and nationality), but may also include physical
attributes, such as height, weight, hair/eye colour, and a photograph.

⮚ Industrial and organizational psychology

With respect to industrial and organizational psychology, since the respondent replies to
questions about themselves, there are elements of both biography and autobiography.
The basis of biodata's predictive abilities is the axiom that past behaviour is the best predictor
of future behaviour. Biographical information is not expected to predict all future behaviours
but it is useful in personal selection in that it can give an indication of probable future
behaviours based on an individual's prior learning history.
Biodata instruments (also called Biographical Information Blanks) have an advantage over
personality and interest inventories in that they can capture directly the past behaviour of a
person, probably the best predictor of his or her future actions. These measures deal with facts
about the person's life, not introspections and subjective judgements.
Over the years, personnel selection has relied on standardized psychological tests. The five
major categories for these tests are intellectual abilities, spatial and mechanical abilities,
perceptual accuracy, motor abilities and personality tests.

b) Resume
A résumé, sometimes spelled resume (or alternatively resumé), also called a curriculum
vitae (CV), is a document created and used by a person to present their background, skills, and

Functional English (2024 to 27) 111

accomplishments. Résumés can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often they are used
to secure new employment.
Note that Resume here, is a Noun and is pronounced as résumé and not resume(which is verb).
A typical résumé contains a summary of relevant job experience and education. The résumé is
usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for
employment, which a potential employer sees regarding the job seeker and is typically used
to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.

⮚ Key Difference Between CV and Resume according to type of English

The curriculum vitae used for employment purposes in the UK (and in other European countries)
is more akin to the résumé—a shorter, summary version of one's education and experience—
than to the longer and more detailed CV that is expected in U.S. academic circles.
In South Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, biodata is often used in place
of a résumé.
In General, In India we follow UK (British) Pattern and Nomenclature.

⮚ History
The word "résumé" comes from the French word résumer meaning 'to summarize', Leonardo
da Vinci is credited with the first résumé, though his "résumé" takes the form of a letter written
about 1481–1482 to a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza.
For the next 450 years, the résumé continued to be simply a description of a person, including
abilities and past employment. In the early 1900s, résumés included information like weight,
height, marital status, and religion. By 1950, résumés were considered mandatory and started
to include information like personal interests and hobbies.
It was not until the 1970s, the beginning of the Digital Age, that résumés took on a more
professional look in terms of presentation and content. The start of the 21st century saw a
further evolution for résumés on the internet as social media helped people spread résumés
faster.
In 2003 LinkedIn was launched, which allowed users to post their resumes and skills online.
Other than LinkedIn, several other SaaS companies are now helping job seekers with free online
résumé builders. These usually provide templates to insert credentials and experience and

Functional English (2024 to 27) 112

create a résumé to download or an online portfolio link to share via social media. With the
launch of YouTube in 2006, Video résumés became common, and more and more high school
students began to send them to different colleges and universities.

⮚ Description
In many contexts, a résumé is typically limited to one or two pages of size A4 or letter-size,
highlighting only those experiences and qualifications that the author considers most relevant
to the desired position. Many résumés contain keywords or skills that potential employers are
looking for via applicant tracking systems (ATS), make heavy use of active verbs, and display
content in a flattering manner. Acronyms and credentials after the applicant's name should be
spelled out fully in the appropriate section of the résumé to increase the likelihood they are
found in a computerized keyword scan.
A résumé is a marketing document in which the content should be adapted to suit each
individual job application or applications aimed at a particular industry. In late 2002, job
seekers and students started making interactive résumés such as résumés having links,
clickable phone numbers and email addresses. With the launch of YouTube in 2006, job
seekers and students also started to create multimedia and video résumés. It is usually,
therefore, more sensible to optimize the résumé for each position applied for and its keywords.
In order to keep track of all experiences, keeping a "master résumé" document is
recommended, providing job seekers with the ability to customize a tailored résumé while
making sure extraneous information is easily accessible for future use if needed.

⮚ Styles of Resume Writing

Résumés may be organized in different ways. The following are some of the more common
résumé formats:

● Reverse chronological résumé

A reverse chronological résumé lists a candidate's job experiences in chronological order (last
thing first), generally covering the previous 10 to 15 years. Positions are listed with starting and
ending dates. Current positions on a résumé typically list the starting date to the present.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 113

The reverse chronological résumé format is most commonly used by professionals who are
making advancements in the same vertical. In using this format, the main body of the
document becomes the Professional Experience section, starting from the most recent
experience and moving chronologically backward through a succession of previous experience.
The reverse chronological résumé works to build credibility through experience gained, while
illustrating career growth over time and filling all gaps in a career trajectory. A chronological
résumé is not recommended to job seekers with gaps in their career summaries.
In the United Kingdom the chronological résumé tends to extend only as far back as the
applicant's GCSE/Standard Grade qualifications. And so, is in India-typically.

● Functional résumé
A functional résumé lists work experience and skills sorted by skill area or job function.
The functional résumé is used to focus on skills that are specific to the type of position being
sought. This format directly emphasizes specific professional capabilities and utilizes
experience summaries as its primary means of communicating professional competency. In
contrast, the chronological résumé format will briefly highlight these competencies prior to
presenting a comprehensive timeline of career growth through reverse chronological listings,
with the most recent experience listed first.
The functional résumé works well for those making a career change, having a varied work
history or with little work experience. A functional résumé is also preferred for applications to
jobs that require very specific skills or clearly defined personality traits. A functional résumé is a
good method for highlighting particular skills or experiences, especially when those particular
skills or experiences may have derived from a role which was held some time ago. Rather than
focus on the length of time that has passed, the functional résumé allows the reader to identify
those skills quickly.

● Online résumés
As the search for employment has become more electronic, it is common for employers to only
accept résumés electronically, either out of practicality or preference. This has changed much
about the way résumés are written, read, and processed. Some career experts are pointing out
that today a paper-based résumé is an exception rather than the rule.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 114

Many employers and hiring managers now find candidates' résumés through search engines,
which makes it more important for candidates to use appropriate keywords when writing a
résumé. Larger employers use Applicant Tracking Systems to search, filter, and manage high
volumes of résumés. Job ads may direct applicants to email a résumé to a company or visit its
website and submit a résumé in an electronic format.
Many employers, and recruitment agencies working on their behalf, insist on receiving résumés
in a particular file format. Some require Microsoft Word documents, while others will only
accept résumés formatted in HTML, PDF, or plain ASCII text sometimes.
Another consideration for electronic résumé documents is that they are parsed with natural
language processors. Résumé parsers may correctly interpret some parts of the content of the
résumé but not other parts. The best résumé parsers capture a high percentage of information
regarding location, names, titles, but are less accurate with skills, industries and other less
structured or rapidly changing data. Résumés written in a standard format are more likely to be
correctly interpreted by résumé parsers, and thereby may make the candidate more findable.
One advantage for the employers to online résumés is the significant cost saving compared to
traditional hiring methods. Another is that potential employers no longer have to sort through
massive stacks of paper.
AI-tools can be used to test résumé template.

● Infographic, video and website résumés

As the Internet becomes more driven by multimedia, job-seekers have sought to take
advantage of the trend by moving their résumés away from the traditional paper and email
media to website résumés or e-résumés.
Video, infographic, and even Vine résumés have gained popularity recently, though mainly in
the creative and media industries.
This trend has attracted criticism from human resources management professionals, who warn
that this may be a passing fad and point out that multimedia-based résumés may be overlooked
by recruiters whose workflow is designed only to accommodate a traditional résumé format.

● Résumé evaluation

Functional English (2024 to 27) 115

Many résumé development agencies offer résumé evaluation services wherein they evaluate
the résumé and suggest any necessary changes. Candidates are free to either do those changes
themselves or may take help of the agency. Some career fields include a special section listing
the lifelong works of the author: for computer-related fields, the softography; for musicians and
composers, the discography; for actors, a filmography.
Keeping résumés online has become increasingly common for people in professions that
benefit from the multimedia and rich detail that are offered by an HTML résumé, such as
actors, photographers, graphic designers, developers, dancers, etc. Job seekers are finding an
ever-increasing demand to have an electronic version of their résumé available to employers
and professionals who use Internet recruiting. Online résumé distribution services have
emerged to allow job seekers to distribute their résumés to numerous employers of their
choice through email.

● Résumé as one part of a personal branding mix

In some sectors, particularly in the startup community, use of traditional résumé has seen a
consistent decline. While standalone résumés are still used to apply for jobs, job seekers may
also view their résumés as one of a number of assets which form their personal brand and work
together to strengthen their job application. In this scenario, résumés are generally used to
provide a potential employer with factual information (e.g., achievements), while the social
media platforms give insight into the job seekers' motivations and personality in development.

● Video resumes, sometimes called Visumé

or Video CV, were first introduced in the 1980s for use and distribution via VHS tape, but the
idea never took off beyond the video taping of interviews. However, with the modern
capabilities of transmitting streaming video via the internet, video resumes have taken on new
popularity. It is way for job seekers to showcase their abilities beyond the capabilities of a
traditional paper résumé. The video resume allows prospective employers to see and hear
applicants, and get a feel for how applicants present themselves.

c) Cover Letter

Functional English (2024 to 27) 116

A cover letter, covering letter, motivation letter, motivational letter, or a letter of
motivation is a letter of introduction attached to or accompanying another document such as
a résumé or a curriculum vitae.

⮚ For employment
Job seekers frequently send a cover letter along with their curriculum vitae or applications for
employment as a way of introducing themselves to potential employers and explaining their
suitability for the desired positions. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully
written cover letters as one method of screening out applicants who are not sufficiently
interested in their positions and/or lack the necessary basic skills.
Cover letters are typically categorized according to two purposes:

✔ applying for a specific, advertised opening ('letter of application')

✔ expressing interest in an organization when the job seeker is uncertain whether there
are current openings ('letter of inquiry').
According to studies, a good cover letter should:
be specific and up-to-date, be well punctuated and spelled, and grammatically correct. It should
be free of mistakes and typos, use timelines to highlight chronological information, reference to
the latest job positions, most closely related to the position for which one is demanding, make
the cover letter specific to the job being applied for, demonstrating some knowledge of the
company and position.

⮚ For internship
Students are often asked to submit a cover letter for an internship application. Such cover
letters should include examples of extracurricular and academic experiences. Despite this
specific information, cover letters for internships should have a standard business letter format.
The application letter, responds to a known job opening.
The inquiry letter, inquires about possible positions.

d) Curriculum Vitae

Functional English (2024 to 27) 117

In English, a Curriculum Vitae (Latin for "course of life", often shortened to CV) is a short written
summary of a person's career, qualifications, and education. This is the most common usage in
both North American and British English.
In North America (but not elsewhere), the term résumé (also spelled resumae) is a common
synonym for CV in the sense of a short career summary.
The term curriculum vitae and its abbreviation, CV, are also used especially in academia to refer
to extensive or even complete summaries of a person's career, qualifications, and education,
including publications and other information.
North and South American Terminology This has caused the widespread misconception that it
is incorrect to refer to short CVs as CVs in American English and that short CVs should be called
résumés, but this is not supported by the usage recorded in American dictionaries. For
example, the University of California, Davis notes that "in the United States and Canada, CV and
resume are sometimes used interchangeably" while describing the common distinction made in
North-American academia between the use of these terms to refer to documents with different
contents and lengths.
In many countries, a short CV is typically the first information that a
potential employer receives from a job-seeker, and CVs are typically used to screen applicants,
often followed by an interview.
CVs may also be requested for applicants to postsecondary programs, scholarships, grants, and
bursaries. In the 2010s it became popular for applicants to provide an electronic version of their
CV to employers by email, through an employment website, or published on a job-
oriented social-networking service such as LinkedIn.

⮚ General usage
In general usage in all English-speaking countries, a CV is short (usually a maximum of two sides
of A4 paper) and therefore contains only a summary of the job seeker's employment history,
qualifications, education, and some personal information. Such a short CV is often also called
a résumé only in North America, where it is however also often called a CV outside academia.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 118

CVs are often tailored to change the emphasis of the information according to the particular
position for which the job seeker is applying. A CV can also be extended to include an extra
page for the jobseeker's publications if these are important for the job.

⮚ In academia
In academic and medical careers, a CV is usually a comprehensive document that provides
extensive information on education, publications, and other achievements. Such a CV is
generally used when applying for a position in academia, while shorter CVs (also called résumés
in North America) are generally used when applying for a position in industry, non-profit
organizations, and the public sector.
“Why do we write a Curriculum Vitae (CV)?”
This question may come to a job seeker's mind while writing a CV. The answer might decide just
how effective his or her CV will be.
When applying for a job, the first step is to write a CV that a recruiter can go through to decide
whether the candidate is suitable for a job profile. This is the solitary most important document
that determines whether the first milestone for getting selected for the job is crossed.
A well-written CV serves many purposes:

✔ It is the only document the recruiter has to decide whether a candidate meets the
requirements of the job.

✔ It is among many other CVs, so it has to stand out to catch the recruiter’s attention.

✔ It doesn’t just outline qualifications and experience but also articulates why a candidate
fits the role better than the others applying for the job.
How much time does a recruiter spend on your Curriculum Vitae/Resume?
When a job-seeker spends hours writing and re-writing a CV, it is natural to expect the recruiter
to spend enough time going through each point. This is assumed especially because candidates
feels that a recruiter will want to know everything about their lives. The recruiter will find it
convenient to have all the smallest details about the candidate right from his primary school
days till today, right?
Actually, no!

Functional English (2024 to 27) 119

The recruiter spends less than ten seconds going through a job seeker's CV to decide whether
the person is suitable for the job.
Sifting through hundreds of CVs to find candidates suitable for job profiles is what recruiters do
every day. Online job portals use artificial intelligence and algorithms to filter CVs through skill
and role keywords. Therefor ATS oriented CV/Resume is in demand these days.

e) Difference between the CV and Resume: Points to Ponder

The main differences between CVs and resumes are the length, the purpose and the design.
The difference between both is listed below.
Curriculum Vitae Resume
IN American tradition Resume and CV are sometimes same and sometimes different according
to Universities and other diversities.
Generally, as per North American and UK based Professional Systems, Resume and CVs are
different.
India being the past Colony of British Empire, Follows British (UK) System. And, therefore in
our country Resume and CV are Different.
The term “Biodata” is generally used as a counterpart of either of them in India.
In CV, there is no page limit. It includes all In the Resume, there is a page limit. It can
your detailed Professions, like your experience consist of not more than one or two pages.
in Education, Academics, Industry, Personal
life, Traits, Achievements, Titles, Posts etc.

Format: Format:
It Generally has a Professional Format. But it It has No specific Format but it should look
is also not mandatory to follow. formal.
Sometimes the recruiters demands it to be in a Sometimes the recruiters demands it to be in a
format prescribed by them. format prescribed by them.
Who needs it? Who needs it?
It is generally for the highly experienced It is generally for the Freshers/persons with

Functional English (2024 to 27) 120

 Curriculum Vitae Resume
persons. less Experience.
Contents: Contents:
It comprises of your educational & academic It is a concise summary of your relevant
records and also experience in Teaching and academic grades, extra co-curricular
Research, Honours, Awards, Projects experiences, achievements, honours, Skills,
undertaken, Personal Achievements, Posts internships, fellowship details, professional
etc. in great precise details etc. It includes all experiences (if any) surrounding the specific
the works whether they are(or they are not) job you applied for.
specific to Job applied for. It may/may not include the timeline other
The major part of it is the Timeline of than academics.
respective Achievement.
Photo: Applicant’s Photograph should be Photo: applicant’s photograph should be
Included on Top along with Address and Title included on top along with address and title
Changeability: The CV is constant for various Changeability: Based on the condition of the
roles and does not adjust. employment, the resume can be updated.
Purpose: Specifically, it is used in academic Purpose: It is commonly used for
jobs such as Scientific Recruitments, governmental, business, Profits and non-profit
fellowships, Research and Positions of High jobs, pertaining in general to non-decisive
Intellect and order, Administrative Positions positions.
etc.
Salary/Package: Generally, a Person having Salary/Package: Generally, Freshers and/or
huge experience writes it and so, Salary (both persons having 2-3 years of experience are
current and Expected) is Generally not entitled to make Resumes to apply for the
included in It. Jobs and hence Salary (both current and
expected) is included.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 121

 f) How to write a Good Resume & Sample Template of Resume

There are lots of Examples of how Resumes are made plus there is no Particular Format of
how to make Resumes. Teachers are requested to assist Students in Resume Making.

Most organizations these days have a keen eye on how the candidate adds value to
society. Such a contribution can be divided into three parts:

✔ Social contribution – Volunteering at Non-Government Organizations.

✔ Saving the environment - Participation in tree-planting drives or similar activities

towards sustainability

✔ Contribution towards health- Donating blood or other supporting health-related

activities

Any contribution in these areas need to be mentioned to set your CV apart from the others.

✔ Contributions made to the family

This can be especially useful if you are fresh out of university. There is a lot of value which can
be added to tasks carried out for the extended family. Mention here any extra help that you
offered when it was required.
For example, I was responsible for procuring the flowers and decorating the premises with
them in my brother’s wedding.

✔ Free-time activities
If you write something that you do in your free time in your CV, make sure you are able to
answer questions on it if you get selected. Stay away from writing activities which everyone
does, like listening to music. A creative hobby will go a long way in making a recruiter curious to
know more about it.For example, I like to spend my free time in coaching the neighbourhood
boys in soccer.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 122

 ✔ Activities at university
Any employer would like to hire someone with a well-rounded personality. A candidate who
has not only done well in academics but has also been actively involved in other activities at the
university will always stand a better chance here. Your extra-curricular activities at the college
level will help give that edge to your CV.For example, I anchored the four annual events at my
university, which required coordination with various teams in order to tie up all the activities
together.

✔ Flexibility at work
A candidate displaying flexibility towards work schedules can be a useful resource to the
employer, and this is something every recruiter will look out for. Mention your comfort levels in
working in shifts or moving to another city in your CV. A job-seeker who shows willingness
towards changing his routines will always appear more attractive to the recruiter.

✔ Details of experience
Professional experience, if any, needs to be clearly highlighted by the candidate to match the
requirement of the job profile on offer. An employer wants to hire a candidate who has the
required skills, knowledge and attitude for the job. If the recruiter feels you have more
knowledge or skills, he will prefer you over the others.

✔ Knowledge pouch
The knowledge pouch primarily tells the recruiter the skills a job-seeker possesses. Some of
these may be acquired while others are inherent. These skills can be primarily divided into two
sub-parts:
Skills- technical, behavioural and values (You should include Certifications)

✔ 1. Technical skills
In technical skills, the candidate needs to bring out the skills he has and match them with the
requirements of the job. If the job requires a thorough knowledge of any operating system or
computer languages, this needs to be mentioned in detail. This is a section that the recruiter

Functional English (2024 to 27) 123

will spend a bit of time on as it determines whether you are technically sound to fulfil the
requirements of the job.

✔ 2. Behavioural and value skills

These skills add character to your CV. They show that the person writing the CV is much more
than the qualifications and technical skills he or she possesses. Write powerful short stories
which highlight your values and what you stand for.
For example, I believe in looking into the minutest details of a task, and so was given the task of
laying down the Standard Operating Procedure of a process.

✔ 3. Certifications
Any additional certifications which you obtained to add to your already existing skill set will
ensure you have an advantage over someone who doesn’t. Use such certifications or additional
qualifications to your advantage. The validity of the certifications should also be included here.

✔ 4. Languages known
Mention the number of languages known and your comfort level with the three skills required
for proficiency in each one of them- speaking, reading and writing.

What are some Do’s and Don’ts to bear in mind while writing a CV/Resume?
Do’s

✔ Match your skills with the requirements of the job.

✔ Value your past with your qualifications and worthwhile ways in which you spent your
time.

✔ Bring out not just the knowledge but also the values that you will bring

✔ Brand yourself by giving your Resume a personal touch.

✔ Customize the Resume to the job profile you are applying for.
Don’ts
× Write anything but the truth in your Resume.
× Talk about anything that you will do in the future

Functional English (2024 to 27) 124

 × Mention skills or values that cannot be measured.
× Make a Resume more than two-page in length, if Fresher.
× Give a lot of details.

Some Examples of Resume:

*Note that These are just Examples. Students can re-design their own Resume with their own
Graphics.

EXERCISE:
All Students should make their own Resume.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 125

For this they should:

✔ Make Rough Resume in their Notebooks-which includes all their grades, residential and
other contact info, achievements and interests etc. as above.

✔ Secondly they should upload the information in Word and make the Professional
Resume.

✔ Students should bring Printed Copy of Resumes to the Teachers for the Cross-
Verification and Suggestions (If any).

F.1 Business Writings

F.4.1 Definition
Business writing is a type of writing that is used in a professional setting. It is a purposeful piece
of writing that conveys relevant information to the reader in a clear, concise, and effective
manner. It includes client proposals, reports, memos, emails, and notices. Proficiency in

business writing is a critical aspect of effective communication in the workplace.

F.4.2 Types of Business Writing
The broad field of business writing can be distilled into four categories based on their objective,
such as:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 126

 a) Instructional
The instructional business writing type is directional and aims to guide the reader through the
steps of completing a task. A user manual falls aptly under the instructional category, as well as
a memo issued to all employees outlining the method of completing a certain task in the future.

b) Informational
Informational business writing pertains to recording business information accurately and
consistently. It comprises documents essential to the core functions of the business for tracking
growth, outlining plans, and complying with legal obligations. For example, the financial
statements of a company, minutes of the meeting, and perhaps the most important, report
writing.

c) Persuasive
The goal of persuasive writing is to impress the reader and influence their decision. It conveys
relevant information to convince them that a specific product, service, company, or relationship
offers the best value. Such a type of writing is generally associated with marketing and sales. It
includes proposals, bulk sales emails, and press releases.

d) Transactional
Day-to-day communication at the workplace falls under the transactional business writing
category. The bulk of such communication is by email, but also includes official letters, forms,
and invoices.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 127

 F.4.3 Principles of Good Business Writing

a) Clarity of purpose
Before beginning a business document, memo, or email, one should ponder two primary
questions:

b) Who is the reader?

What do I want to convey to the reader through my writing?
Clarity of purpose gives a direction to the writing and develops its tone, structure, and flow.

c) Clarity of thought
Thinking while, rather than before writing, makes the writing less structured, meandering, and
repetitive. Business writing requires the skill to reduce long, rambling sentences into concise,
clear ones. One needs to extract what is significant to write clearly.

d) Convey accurate and relevant information

The primary goal of business writing is to convey valuable information. Inaccurate or irrelevant
content affects the purpose of the document. For effective business writing, information must
be value-additive and complete.

e) Avoid jargon

Functional English (2024 to 27) 128

A simple and uncluttered writing style goes a long way in communicating the message to the
reader. Grandiose writing full of industry-specific buzzwords and acronyms should be avoided
to the maximum possible extent. Otherwise, the reader may be unable to comprehend the
document or lose interest in it.

f) Read and revise

Reading the passages out loud after completion can reveal flaws and gaps in the arguments. It
is recommended to welcome constructive feedback from colleagues and revise the document
for improvement.

g) Practice is the key

Proficiency in business writing can be attained through regular practice. Paying attention to the
vocabulary, sentence structure, and style of writing while reading can help to develop the same
instinct while penning one’s thoughts down.

h) Be direct
Presenting the crux of the passage in the first 150 words is a good idea when it comes to
business writing. It saves the reader time and sharpens the argument.

i) Avoid verbosity
If the meaning can be conveyed in three words, it should not be stretched to five. Verbosity
works against making the writing engaging to the reader. For example, instead of writing “the
article uses more words than are needed,” write “the article is verbose.”

j) Correct grammar and sentence structure

While a grammatical error may come across as unprofessional, good grammar portrays both
attention to detail and skill – traits that are highly valued in business.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 129

Business writing evolves with time, so does grammar and conventions. For example, emoticons,
when used judiciously, are gaining acceptance in business writing. A good writer needs to stay
updated with the conventions to hone their skill.

k) Easy to scan
Business executives value a document that can convey its message in a cursory glance. Business
documents can be enhanced through the use of numbered or bulleted lists, clear headings,
concise paragraphs, and judicious use of bold formatting to highlight the keywords.

F.4.4 Business Letter

In business, a letter is simply any type of correspondence sent between two parties. It may be
about any topic and sent via many delivery methods such as email, regular mail, and hand
delivery.
A business letter should always follow a certain format and structure to ensure it is received as
professional and up-to-standard. While there are many different types of business letters, this
guide will go through a detailed example of the most classic business letter format.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 130

Below is the Reference Template for Business Letter Writing

a) Business Letter Structure & Example

Functional English (2024 to 27) 131

The Structure/Template Shown above is the standard Template we use in all Business Writings.
The tone you take in the letter will depend on who the audience is and what the purpose of
the communication is. Sometimes you will need to be more formal, and other times a more
casual voice is appropriate.
Below is an example of how a business letter is laid out and structured. Feel free to copy and
paste the text into your own email, Word, or Google document and be sure to customize and
proofread it thoroughly.

⮚ Full Business Letter Example

Now that you’re familiar with the business letter format, let’s look at an example with real
information built in.
John Bravo
ABC Education Inc.
1234 – 123 Street
New York, NY 01218

May 21, 2018

Sarah Geenie
XYZ Company Inc.
6789 – 789 Street
New York, NY 04851

Re: Updated Billing Frequency

Dear Ms. Geenie,
I am writing to inform you of our new pricing model effective February 1, 2019. On the first of
February, we will be switching from an annual billing cycle to a quarterly billing cycle and this
letter contains important information that may impact your organization.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 132

After conducting extensive research and receiving feedback from our customers, we have
determined that most customers strongly prefer a quarterly billing cycle rather than an annual
one. In order to best suit your needs, we have decided to offer this benefit, which will take
effect on February 1, 2019.
This letter is simply to notify you of the upcoming changes, and no immediate action is required
from you at this time. We thank you for your continued business.
Sincerely,
John Bravo

⮚ Some other Examples

● Business Letter Format about Ending a Partnership

Name of Company Address of Company City, State Zip Code

Date

Name of Representative Title of Representative Name of Company Address of Company City,

State Zip Code

Dear Name of Representative,

Working with Company Name for the past few years has been a fantastic experience.
Unfortunately, Your Organization Name no longer has the need for your services. We have
decided to change our company’s direction, and our decision requires changing our company
infrastructure and with that said, the decision to keep all of our current vendors to a minimum,
removes the working relationship with many organizations such as yours.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 133

A sincere thank you for all the excellent work your organization has done for us. I hope to
remain on good terms with Company Name, and if we require services similar to what you have
provided in the past, we will certainly consider you again without hesitation.

Warm regards,

Your signature if not emailing

Your Name Your Title

Telephone Number Email address

Functional English (2024 to 27) 134

 ● Business Letter Format after an Initial Meeting

Name of Company Address of Company City, State Zip Code

Date

Name of Representative Title of Representative Name of Company Address of Company City, State Zip
Code

Dear Name of Representative:

It was a pleasure meeting you at the Career Fair last week. As we discussed, I sincerely believe that
the innovation of (item) produced and sold by Company Name can greatly streamline the (type of)
process. I would like to bring some of the individuals from my team along to meet with you at
Company Name. We would like to give you an overview of our features and discuss with you the best
plan to work together on a project.

Meeting in person would allow us to fully evaluate wants and needs for future partnership. The team
is available to meet any time over the next three weeks. Please let me know when you would be
available, at your earliest convenience.

Cordially,

Your signature if not emailing

Your Name Your Title

Telephone Number Email address

Functional English (2024 to 27) 135

 ● Sample Business Letter Format-Meeting

Your Name Your Address

City, State Zip Code Date
Name of Individual Position
Company Name Company Address City, State Zip Code

Dear Individual Name:

It was a pleasure meeting you at the conference last week. As we discussed, I sincerely believe that
the widget gizmo produced by Company Name can greatly streamline your production process. If you
are still willing, I would like to bring some of the key members of my team along with me to meet with
you at Company Name. We would like to give you an overview of our services and discuss with you
the best plan to suit your needs.

Meeting in person would allow us to fully evaluate your wants and needs. Our team is available to
meet any time this week or next. Please let me know, at your earliest convenience, when you would
be available.

Cordially,

Your Name
Your Organization Email
Telephone Number

Functional English (2024 to 27) 136

 F.4.5 How to Write an Internship Cover Letter
Highlight your skills and qualifications in a way that captures the recruiter’s attention. Here are a few
tips to follow when writing an internship cover letter:

✔ Use the business letter format

An internship cover letter is a formal document and should follow a business letter format. Your
contact information, the date, and the address of the employer should be at the top of the letter. The
letter should also include a proper salutation before the introductory paragraph. At the end of the
letter, you should sign your name. Use a plain font like Times New Roman or Arial. The font size for
the letter should be 10 or 12.

✔ State the role you are applying for

The internship cover letter should state the specific role you are applying for and what makes you a
good candidate for the position. This is a better approach than writing a general cover letter for any
position. Mentioning the specific role you are applying for naturally shapes the content of the rest of
the letter.

✔ Use keywords
Recruiters often do not initially read resumes/applications in their entirety. Instead, they scan through
the document. Using specific keywords that were mentioned in the internship advertisement can help
get your application more detailed attention. Review the job description to identify the main
keywords that you should include in your cover letter.

✔ Mention your academic experience

If the employer requires specific academic qualifications, you should mention your relevant
qualifications and achievements in your cover letter. Since most students lack hands-on work

Functional English (2024 to 27) 137

experience, the next best things to note are completed courses and significant accomplishments.
Highlight those that are most relevant to the job description. For example, if the job requires strong
customer service skills, then you might want to highlight psychology courses on relationships that
you’ve taken.

✔ State relevant skills and extra-curricular experiences

You should mention extra-curricular experiences and skills that are relevant to the job description.
These may include sports activities, leadership skills, and volunteer work that you have engaged in.
Volunteer experience in a related field can greatly boost your chances of getting an internship with a
company. Even with limited industry experience, you can mention skills you gained from performing
in volunteer roles and projects.

✔ Proofread before sending

Once you have completed writing the internship cover letter, spend a few minutes reviewing the
document for spelling, grammar, and syntax errors. Most employers are keen to notice how well-
written (or poorly-written) a cover letter is. Keep in mind that your cover letter conveys the first
impression that a recruiter forms of you. Any errors may spoil your chances of getting the job. You can
also ask a friend or relative to review the final draft.

✔ Follow up
Express near the end of the letter that you appreciate the employer’s consideration and hope to hear
from them soon. You may also indicate that you will follow up in a week or two weeks’ time. If you
follow up too soon, the employer may perceive you as over-eager (i.e., desperate). Following up lets
you know the status of your application and at least confirm that your application was received.

Sending the Letter

Unless the employer has specifically stated that applications should be sent via post or submitted in
person, you are likely to send the letter via email. Here are the two main ways you can use to send
your cover letter via email:

✔ As an email attachment

Functional English (2024 to 27) 138

If the employer requires you to send a cover letter as an attachment, locate the document on your
computer and attach it. It’s a good idea to include your name in the cover letter file name for easy
identification.

✔ Paste in the body of the email

The employer may ask you to send a cover letter as the body of the email. In such a case, don’t
include the employer contact information and only include your contact information in the email
signature. If you know the name of the recipient, include their name in the salutation.

F.2 Email Basics

F.5.1 Definition:
Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a method of transmitting and receiving messages
using electronic devices. It was conceived in the late–20th century as the digital version of, or
counterpart to, mail (hence e- + mail). Email is a ubiquitous and very widely used communication
medium; in current use, an email address is often treated as a basic and necessary part of many
processes in business, commerce, government, education, entertainment, and other spheres of daily
life in most countries.
Email operates across computer networks, primarily the Internet, and also local area networks.
Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward,
deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are required to be online
simultaneously; they need to connect, typically to a mail server or a webmail interface to send or
receive messages or download it.
Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) to carry text in other character sets and multimedia content
attachments. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, is standardized
but not widely adopted.
EMail is a traditional form used in RFCs for the "Author's Address".
The service is often simply referred to as mail, and a single piece of electronic mail is called
a message. The conventions for fields within emails—the “To,” “From,” “CC,” “BCC” etc.—began with
RFC-680 in 1975.
Functional English (2024 to 27) 139
An Internet email consists of an envelope and content; the content consists of a header and a body.

F.5.2 Tips for Writing email

Stay up to date and do not use old letter writing formats. There is no need to mention a date when
practicing electronic modes of communication. Put all your text left-aligned, rather than following
older formats utilized for letters written on paper.
Always declare your request as clearly as possible, and supply it with a valid reason to make your case
more powerful.
Formal emails frequently use indirect questions instead of direct ones
Formal complaints should be well worded, but without losing the nature of professionalism. While
placing down your complaints, make sure your email does not end up looking tense or undignified. It
is necessary to state the issues or events producing offense as clearly as possible, but also in brief.
Always hold your tone respectful and reassuring when dealing with complaints and grievances. At no
point in your email, should you attack the sender with any counter-questions or lose the attitude of
formality.
Convey happiness or excitement informal emails only with words and appropriate amounts of
punctuation, like the occasional exclamation point.

⮚ Format of Email Writing

The email writing format is likewise for each of the categories. Though the selection of words and
language varies depending upon the kind of email. One can employ friendly and casual writing in
informal emails. The language utilized in formal emails should be professional, precise, and formal.
The Important steps for writing the email are:

⮚ Subject Line

⮚ Salutation

⮚ Body of the mail

Functional English (2024 to 27) 140

 ⮚ Signature

F.5.3 Sample e-mail Writing and Template

⮚ Email Writing Format Samples The format is given here:

From: Sender’s Mail id

To: Recipient’s Mail id
CC: Other concerned person’s with visible email ids
BCC: Other concerned person’s with invisible email ids
Subject: Reason for writing the mail
Greeting/Salutation: Display your respect (Such as Sir, Respected Sir)
Main Body: Content of the email
Introduction
Discuss the matter in detail
Conclusion
Closing line: Thank you for the consideration
Attachments: Attach reference files Signature line: Name and contact details

Functional English (2024 to 27) 141

 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1: Ask all Students to make their e-mail ids in email providing servers like gmail, yahoo
or any other protected domains.
EXERCISE 2: Ask Student-1 to write and e-mail to student-2 to intimate him about upcoming Exam
pattern/any other topic using gmail.
EXERCISE 3: Ask Student-1 to write and e-mail to 4 different students in one-shot by putting all of
them in CC, to intimate them about upcoming Exam pattern/any other topic using gmail.

⮚ Sample
Functional English (2024 to 27) 142
 A. English Speaking Skills:
G.1 English Communication Etiquettes
G.1.1 Greetings and Salutations
There are a lot of words and phrases that help to express your gratitude and politeness easily. Such
phrases are considered part of English etiquettes. If you use such phrases in your day-to-day
conversation, your conversation becomes more polite. We don't generally use such expressions in our
mother tongue. But they are an inevitable part of English etiquette and are used widely in spoken
English. Let's study some such expressions and their uses today.

a) Uses of Please:

Functional English (2024 to 27) 143

When you ask someone for something or tell them to do something for you, never forget to use the
word 'please'. It expresses your politeness and is part of English etiquette. Please can be used either
at the beginning or end of sentences. It can sometimes be used in the middle. Look at the examples
below:

✔ Please give me some money.

✔ Will you help me please?

✔ What is the time please?

✔ Please bring me a glass of water.

✔ Please sit down.

✔ Please help me.

✔ Would you please go there?

✔ Could you please tell me the time?

b) Uses of Thank you and Thanks:

When someone offers you even a little help, whether they answer something you asked or show you
the road or offer you some physical help, never forget to say 'Thank you' or 'Thanks'. Thank you is
formal. Thanks is informal.

✔ Would you please go there?

No thank you.

✔ Take a cup of tea, please.

No thanks.

c) Uses of Welcome, You're welcome, No problem, No mention, It's my pleasure, My

Pleasure, It's fine, It's all right etc.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 144

When someone says 'Thank you' or 'Thanks to you', use the following phrases to express your
politeness
Welcome

✔ You're welcome

✔ No problem

✔ No mention

✔ It's my pleasure

✔ My pleasure

✔ It's fine

✔ It's all right

d) When someone asks you for something and you permit them to do or take it from you,
you can say the following:

✔ It's my pleasure.

✔ With great pleasure.

✔ Certainly

✔ Of course

e) Uses of Sorry:
Sorry is used to ask for forgiveness. For every mistake you make, you can say Sorry. It doesn't matter
if the mistake is big or small.
For example:

✔ If you say a word wrongly

✔ Sorry it is Mumbai, not Delhi.

✔ If you fail to attend a programme in time

✔ Sorry I am late.
Functional English (2024 to 27) 145
 ✔ if you have accidentally stepped on someone's toe or foot or if you have dropped a glass of
water

✔ Sorry. (Only Sorry can be used in such situations)

✔ if you have forgotten something, you can say

✔ Sorry I don't remember it now.

f) Uses of Excuse me:

Excuse me is mainly used to attract someone's attention politely:

✔ If you are attending a meeting in a room and need to go out of the room, you can just say
Excuse me (or)
Excuse me, I need to make a phone call

✔ If you want to talk to someone who is busy talking to another person or doing some work, you
can say
Excuse me (or)
Excuse me, (Tell what you are willing to tell)

✔ When someone is in your way and you need to tell them to move, you can say
Excuse me (or)
Excuse me, would you please move a little?

✔ When entering someone's room, you can attract his attention by saying
Excuse me (or)
Excuse me, may I come in?
Excuse me, how can I help you?

g) Uses of Pardon:
Pardon is also used to ask for forgiveness. In Indian English, it is mostly used when you have not heard
something someone has told you. Both sorry and pardon can be used in such situations.

✔ Sorry, I couldn't hear you (Or you can just say)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 146

 ✔ Pardon.

h) Uses of Allow me, Let me and May

When you want to help someone to do something, you can say

✔ Please allow me to help you (or)

✔ Please let me help you (or)

✔ May I help you please.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 147

Functional English (2024 to 27) 148
Functional English (2024 to 27) 149
 G.2 Formal Conversation (Talk)
Some are very good at starting a conversation and keeping others engaged and entertained. Some
struggle with conversations, especially with strangers. But, a conversation is a crucial thing. The words
from your tongue cannot be taken back. Therefore, we are here to guide you with your words and
conversation skills.
Having good communication skills is important. It is not just enough that you begin a conversation
well. You must be skilled enough to keep the conversation going by making it engaging. You must
have come across a lot of people who can talk endlessly but make absolutely no sense, and that is
when the conversation becomes boring. Some people know how to start conversations but will never
end the conversation. But for effective communication, we need to maintain a balance between both.
A conversation can be effective if you are a good speaker and also a good listener at the same time.
To communicate effectively and to start a conversation on a positive note, check the simple steps
mentioned below.

⮚ How to Start a Conversation?

If you find it difficult to start a conversation, just wait and take a deep breath. First, you must know
whom you are talking to and what is the purpose of talking. If it is just a casual meeting, then it can be
a simple conversation starting with a simple ‘Hi’ or ‘Hello’. When a group of people are talking, and
you stand passively after greeting everyone, you might make yourself sound like a fool. It might look
as if you are unaware of whatever is happening or uncomfortable talking to the people around you.
Starting a conversation is not tough, but you must know what you are talking about and who you are
talking to. In any casual conversation, you can start by greeting the person and then asking a question
related to the topic and keeping them engaged. The best way to engage in a conversation is by
showing your interest in the other person. In a conversation, show your interest in the other person
and then the conversation will be more effective and engaging.

⮚ Tricks to Start a Conversation

If you are not confident about your communication skills but you are interested in talking to others
around you to make a nice impression, then we are here with a few simple tricks to start a
conversation.
Functional English (2024 to 27) 150
 ✔ Note that you’re “in this together”
To start a conversation it is ideal to start a conversation by starting with a shared experience that will
take the edge off your anxiety and keep the conversation going.
Example: When you are in a queue, and the one in front of you is standing alone, you can start by
saying that the line is usually long during lunch.
By making such statements, your conversation can start naturally. If you want to make any negative
statement, use the right words so that it does not create a negative image of yours and you are not
into any controversies.

✔ Notice something nice and interesting

Instead of starting a conversation with a negative statement, you can also start with a good and
pleasant statement. A positive approach to starting a conversation can bring the right start.
Example: Hello. Did you attend the meeting yesterday? I feel we have done a great job.
Are you joining the workshop today? It is a great opportunity, I feel.

✔ Complimenting the other person

To start a conversation, it is a good way to start complimenting the other person so that the person
finds you interesting to talk to.
Example: I like the colour of your shirt. It looks perfect on you.
You have done a great presentation. It is really appreciable.
Complimenting someone on something like their hairstyle is a good idea, but make sure you don’t
compliment on anything that might make the other person feel uncomfortable.

✔ Ask for an opinion

It is another way of starting a conversation. When you ask for someone’s opinion on anything, it
shows that you are interested in the other person’s thoughts and ideas and you value that person.
Example: What do you think should be the keynote of the presentation?
According to you, which is the best place to have coffee?

Functional English (2024 to 27) 151

You can stick to the topic and start asking for opinions. But remember that it would sound weird to
directly walk up to the person and start asking about something totally out of context. Stick to
something relevant and natural.

✔ Lend a helping hand

This is the best way to start a conversation. Being nice to someone is the best way to start a
conversation. You can be nice to anyone and everyone. If you are in a situation where you can be of
any help, then do not hesitate to lend a helping hand.
Example: I have been noticing you, and you seem to be confused. Can I help you with anything?
It seems you have a lot to carry. It must be painful for you. Can I help you with it?

✔ Look for common fields of interest

When you meet a person and share your common thoughts, you build an immediate connection. The
easiest way to communicate with a person is by discussing common fields of interest.
Example: Did you also join the office in 2016?
How many years have you been in this building?
You can start talking about the things in common but make sure it does not sound creepy and
irritating to others.

✔ Ask for help or suggestions

Asking for a little help or guidance, like asking for an opinion, maybe a great way to make someone
feel helpful. Simply be sure that whatever you are asking for is something that the other party can
provide without putting themselves in trouble.
Example: Can you help me with the registration process?
I want to join a guitar class, can you please suggest some better places in this city?
Make sure that if you are asking for help, you must be humble and polite. Try not to irritate the
person by repeating the same thing again and again.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 152

 G.3 Addressing a Gathering
Whether you’re normally pretty confident or simply the thought of getting up in front of a room full
of people immediately inspires the need to breathe into a paper bag, I’m sure we’re all familiar with
that sweaty-palmed, shaky-kneed feeling that crops up when we’re about to make a big speech or
presentation.
Let’s face it, public speaking can be a little intimidating. Even the most calm, cool, and collected can
get a little panicky. Luckily, there are a few tips you can put into play to calm those butterflies and
address the room with poise and confidence. And no, they don’t involve picturing the entire audience
in their underwear.

✔ Plan Ahead
Talking in front of others can be anxiety inducing to begin with. But, doing so when you feel
completely disorganized and unprepared? Well, that takes your nerves to a whole new level.
Planning ahead is key to making yourself seem calm and qualified in front of your audience. Trust me,
they can all tell if you’re up there just winging it—unless you’re ridiculously good at the whole
improvisation thing.
Planning ahead is key to making yourself seem calm and qualified in front of your audience.
So, whether it’s a speech or a presentation, make sure that you take the time to adequately prepare
beforehand. Organize notes and talking points; lay out the general structure of what you want to
say; think of possible audience questions and practice thoughtful responses. The equation is simple:
The more prepared you are, the more confident you’ll feel.

✔ Practice
Practice makes perfect. No, that’s not just a sentiment your mom would obnoxiously utter to you
during your middle school flute lessons or gymnastics classes—it actually holds some water. Practicing
your public speaking skills is a surefire way to look pulled together in front of a crowd.
The idea of practice might conjure up images of you standing in front of your bathroom mirror using
your hairbrush as a microphone. But it really doesn’t need to be anything complicated. Those talking
points you set out while you were getting prepared? Use them to rehearse your whole speech or
presentation all the way through—more than once.
In fact, run through your talk as many times as you need to in order to feel somewhat loose and
comfortable with it. There’s nothing worse than a speaker who mumbles through her whole
Functional English (2024 to 27) 153
presentation with her eyes glued to note cards. And plenty of practice will help you avoid those
common public speaking blunders.

✔ Don’t Panic About Questions

You’ve rehearsed your speech until you’re almost blue in the face and you fly through it with relative
ease when the day actually arrives. You feel an immediate sense of relief, but then you see a hand
shoot up in the crowd. Someone has a question for you. Your stomach immediately drops into your
shoes—you weren’t prepared for this.
Listen, I know that having audience members prod you for more information is the last thing you
want, especially after you managed to survive your nerve-wracking speech. But first it’s important to
remember that questions are truly a great sign. It means that your audience was actually listening and
actively engaged in everything you had to say.
Once you’ve accepted that, move on to answering the question. Focus solely on the individual who
asked it and think of it as having a one-on-one conversation with that person. Forget that you’re
responding to the inquiry in front of a crowd of other people and zone in on providing a thoughtful
response to just that person. It’ll help to remove some anxiety from the situation—and ultimately
improve the quality of your answer.

✔ Establish a Routine
That lucky pair of socks you always wear for a big event; the peanut butter sandwich you feel like
you need to eat before a presentation; that special song you have to listen to when you feel
unbearably nervous.
It’s easy to brush these quirks and routines off as simply foolish superstitions. But, routines are
actually a really great way to deal with your nerves. They make you feel as if you have some control in
a situation that’s already making your stomach do flips.
So why not establish one that can help calm you down before a public speaking engagement?
Whether it’s a breathing exercise or a walk alone around the building, think of something that will
help you deal with that all-too-familiar jittery and queasy feeling. If nothing else, it gives you some
time to try to pull yourself together before you take the floor.

✔ Speak Slowly (Really Slowly)

Functional English (2024 to 27) 154

If you’ve ever heard your own frantic heartbeat pounding in your ears, you already know that your
pulse quickens when you’re nervous. But, unfortunately, that’s not the only thing that kicks into
overdrive. Most of us have the tendency to talk a mile per minute when we’re uneasy as well.
When you’ve spent so much time preparing, you want to ensure that your audience will actually be
able to understand everything you’re saying. And, that’s going to be difficult if your nerves cause you
to race through your entire presentation. You don’t want it to seem like someone’s pressing “fast
forward” through your entire speech.
So, be conscious of the speed of your voice and make an effort to speak way slower than you feel like
you should. Word to the wise: If speaking that slow feels weird and unnatural, you’re probably doing
it right.

✔ Be Mindful of Nonverbal Cues

Of course, the words you’re saying are undoubtedly well-researched, informative, and important.
So you’d hate to have those impressive insights overshadowed by incessant fidgeting, lip biting, and
hair twirling. Sometimes what you’re not saying indicates more than the words that are actually
coming out of your mouth.

Functional English (2024 to 27) 155