ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

1.1 Introduction to Electric Power Supply Systems

Electric power supply system in a country comprises of generating units that produce electric-
ity; high voltage transmission lines that transport electricity over long distances; distribution
lines that deliver the electricity to consumers; substations that connect the pieces to each other;
and energy control centers to coordinate the operation of the components.
The Figure 1.1 shows a simple electric supply system with transmission and distribution
network and linkages from electricity sources to end-user.

Figure 1.1 Typical Electric Power Supply Systems

1.2 Electricity Billing

The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large enterprises, in High Tension (HT) cate-
gory, is often done on two-part tariff structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or demand) drawn and
the second part for actual energy drawn during the billing cycle. Capacity or demand is in kVA
(apparent power) or kW terms. The reactive energy (i.e.) kVArh drawn by the service is also
recorded and billed for in some utilities, because this would affect the load on the utility.
Accordingly, utility charges for maximum demand, active energy and reactive power drawn (as
reflected by the power factor) in its billing structure. In addition, other fixed and variable
expenses are also levied.
The tariff structure generally includes the following components:
a) Maximum demand Charges
These charges relate to maximum demand registered during month/billing period and
corresponding rate of utility.
b) Energy Charges
These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing period
and corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now charge on
the basis of apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and kVArh.
c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive
power drawn from grid.
d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel
expenses over a base reference value.
e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
f) Meter rentals
g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab
basis or on actual metering basis.
h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff
structure provisions of some utilities.
i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand
j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities
Analysis of utility bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy manager to identify ways
for electricity bill reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from ener-
gy budgeting.
The utility employs an electromagnetic or electronic trivector meter, for billing purposes.
The minimum outputs from the electromagnetic meters are

• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured in preset time inter-
vals (say of 30 minute duration) and this is reset at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in kWh during billing cycle
• Reactive energy in kVArh during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in kVAh during billing cycle
It is important to note that while maximum demand is recorded, it is not the instantaneous
demand drawn, as is often misunderstood, but the time integrated demand over the predefined
recording cycle.
 As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is :
2500 kVA for 4 minutes
3600 kVA for 12 minutes
4100 kVA for 6 minutes
3800 kVA for 8 minutes
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:
(2500 x 4) + (3600 x 12) + (4100 x 6) + (3800 x 8) = 3606.7 kVA
30

The month’s maximum demand will be the highest among such demand values recorded
over the month. The meter registers only if the value exceeds the previous maximum demand
value and thus, even if, average maximum demand is low, the industry / facility has to pay for
the maximum demand charges for the highest value registered during the month, even if it
occurs for just one recording cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes during whole of the month. A
typical demand curve is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Demand Curve

As can be seen from the Figure 1.4 above the demand varies from time to time. The demand
is measured over predetermined time interval and averaged out for that interval as shown by the
horizontal dotted line.
Of late most electricity boards have changed over from conventional electromechanical
trivector meters to electronic meters, which have some excellent provisions that can help the
utility as well as the industry. These provisions include:
• Substantial memory for logging and recording all relevant events
• High accuracy up to 0.2 class
• Amenability to time of day tariffs
• Tamper detection /recording
• Measurement of harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• Long service life due to absence of moving parts
• Amenability for remote data access/downloads
Trend analysis of purchased electricity and cost components can help the industry to iden-
 tify key result areas for bill reduction within the utility tariff available framework along the fol-
lowing lines.
TABLE 1.1 PURCHASED ELECTRICAL ENERGY TREND

Month MD Billing Total Energy Energy MD Energy PF PF Total Average

& Recorded Demand* Consumption Consumption Charge Charge Penalty/ Bills Cost
Year kVA kVA kWh During Peak Rs./kVA Rs./kWh Rebate Rs. Rs. Rs./kWh
Hours (kWh)

Jan.
Feb.
…….

…….
…….
Dec.

*Some utilities charge Maximum Demand on the basis of minimum billing demand, which may be between 75 to 100% of the contract demand
or actual recorded demand whichever is higher

Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control

Need for Electrical Load Management
In a macro perspective, the growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in
time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand. As capacity addition is costly and
only a long time prospect, better load management at user end helps to minimize peak demands
on the utility infrastructure as well as better utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in bet-
ter load management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed
maximum demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of effi-
ciency improvement both for end user as well as utility.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle
too there is a need for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.

Step By Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control

1. Load Curve Generation
Presenting the load demand of a consumer against time of the day is known as a ‘load curve’. If
it is plotted for the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load curve’ and if daily
demands plotted over a month, it is called daily load curves. A typi- cal hourly load curve for an
engineering industry is shown in Figure 1.5. These types of curves are useful in predicting patterns
of drawl, peaks and valleys and energy use
trend in a section or in an industry or in a distribution network as the case may be.
Figure 1.5 Maximum Demand (Daily Load Curve, Hourly kVA)

1. Rescheduling of Loads
Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned
and implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is advis-
able to prepare an operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these charts and with an
integrated approach, it would be possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment in
such a way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the maximum demand.
2. Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration
It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/ materi-
als, water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour oper-
ations also help to save energy due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc.
Example: Ice bank system is used in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and
used in peak load period and thus maximum demand is reduced.
3. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads
temporarily can help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems,
which will switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give
an alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are
also available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:
 Accurate prediction of demand
 Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
 Visual and audible alarm
 Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
 Automatic restoration of load
 Recording and metering
4. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets
When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities,
it is advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This
would reduce the load demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.
5. Reactive Power Compensation
 The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and
maintaining the optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor based
control systems. These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the desired
Power factor of system and optimize maximum demand thereby.

Maximum Demand Controllers

High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to the usual
charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest amount of
power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum
demand charge often represents a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only one
isolated 30 minute episode of high power use.
Considerable savings can be realised by monitoring power use and turning off or reducing
non-essential loads during such periods of high power use.
Maximum DemandController (See Figure10.1) is a device designed to meet the need of
industries conscious of the value of loadmanagement. Alarm is sounded when demand
approaches a preset value. If corectiveaction is not taken, the controller switches off non-essential
loads ina logical sequence. Thissequence is predeterminedby the user and is programmed
jointly by the userand the supplier of thedevice. The plant equipments selected for the load
Management are stopped and restarted as per the desired load profile. Demand control scheme is
implemented by using suitable control contactors. Audio and visual annunciations could also be
used.

Figure 10.1 Maximum Demand Controll

 Power Factor Improvement and Benefits
Power factor Basics
In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the major loads are resistive and inductive.
Resistive loads are incandescent lighting and resistance heating. In case of pure resistive loads,
the voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R) relations are linearly related, i.e.
V = I x R and Power (kW) = V x I

Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction furnaces, transformers and ballast-type
lighting. Inductive loads require two kinds of power: a) active (or working) power to perform the
work and b) reactive power to create and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watts). Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo
Volt-Amperes Reactive).
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make up the total (or apparent) power
used. This is the power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given amount of work.
Total Power is measured in kVA (Kilo Volts-Amperes) (See Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 kW, kVAr and kVA Vector

The active power (shaft power required or true power required) in kW and the reactive power
required (kVAr) are 90° apart vectorically in a pure inductive circuit i.e., reactive power kVAr
lagging the active kW. The vector sum of the two is called the apparent power or kVA, as
illustrated above and the kVA reflects the actual electrical load on distribution system.
The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor, which is always less than or equal to unity.
Theoretically, when electric utilities supply power, if all loads have unity power factor,
maximum power can be transferred for the same distribution system capacity. However, as the
loads are inductive in nature, with the power factor ranging from 0.2 to 0.9, the electrical dis-
tribution network is stressed for capacity at low power factors.

Improving Power Factor

The solution to improve the power factor is to add power factor cor- rection capacitors (see Figure 1.7)
to the plant power distribution sys- tem. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the needed
reactive power to accomplish kW of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power, and thus total
power, generated by the utilities.
 Figure 1.7 Capacitors

The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition

a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system
from the source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto the capac-
itors reduces giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilising the full capac-
ity of your electrical system.

Cost benefits of PF improvement

While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs for capacitor addition the ben-
efits to be quantified for feasibility analysis are:
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
b) Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power
factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering
load is reduced.
Automatic Power Factor Controllers
Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay / microprocessor logic.
Two of the most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr Control

Voltage Control
Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are
applied at point where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where
they are applied the voltage should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage
should be around 4 – 5 % with increasing load.
Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation applications, when
maintaining a particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is independent of
load cycle. During light load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the sub-
station, which is to be taken note of.

KILOVAR Control
Kilovar sensitive controls (see Figure 10.2) are used at loca- tions where the voltage level
is closely regulated and not avail- able as a control variable. The capacitors can be
switched to respond to a decreasing power factor as a result of change insystem loading.
This type ofcontrol can also be used to avoid penalty on low power factor by adding
capacitors in steps as the system power factor begins to lag behind the desired value.
Kilovar control requires two inputs - current and voltage from the incoming feeder, which
arefed to the PF correction mecha- nism, either the microprocessoror the relay.

Automatic Power Factor Control Relay

It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to switch on or off power fac-
tor correction capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and needs contactors of appropri-
ate rating for switching on/off the capacitors.
There is a built-in power factor transducer, which measures the power factor ofthe
installation and converts it to a DC voltage of appropriate polarity. This is compared with a
reference voltage, which can be set by means of a knob calibrated in terms of power fac- tor.
When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The
relays are provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The
capacitors controlled by the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in lin-
ear sequence. To prevent over correction hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting deter-
mines the range of phase angle over which the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes
beyond this range, the relay acts. When the load is low, the effect of the capacitors is more pro-
nounced and may lead to hunting. Under current blocking (low current cut out) shuts off the
relay, switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load current is below setting.
Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they are switched
in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transient. The solid state indicating lamps (LEDS) dis-
play various functions that the operator should know and also and indicate each capacitor
switching stage.
 Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC)
This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected in each step during the first hour
of its operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on
the most appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally associated with
capacitor switching.

Energy Efficient Transformers

Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from the core. The
new high-efficiency transformers minimize these losses. The conventional transformer is made
up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any transformer depends on
the type of core used in the transformer. However the latest technology is to use amorphous
material - a metallic glass alloy for the core (see Figure 10.9). The expectedreduction in energy
loss over conventional (Si Fe core) transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quite
significant. By usingan amorphous core- with unique physical and magnetic properties- these
new type of transformers have increased efficiencies even at low loads – 98.5% efficiency at35%
load.
Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provide excellent
opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation. Though these transformers are a little
costlier than conventional iron core transformers, the overall benefit towards energy savingswill
compensate for the higher initial investment. At present amorphous metal core transformers are
available up to 1600 kVA.

Figure 10.9 1600 kVA Amorphous Core Transformer

 Energy Efficient Motors
Minimising Watts Loss in Motors
Improvements in motor efficiency can beachieved without compromising motor per- formance -
at higher cost - within the limits of existing design and manufacturing tech- nology.
From the Table 10.1, it can be seen that any improvement in motor efficiency must result
from reducing the Watts losses. In terms of the existing state of electric motor technology, a
reduction in watts losses can beachieved in various ways.
All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with existing motor design and
manufacturing technology. They would, however, require addi- tional materials and/or the
use of high quality materials and improved manufacturing processes resulting in
increased motorcost.

Figure 10.3 Energy Efficient Motor

Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

TABLE 10.1 WATT LOSS AREA AND EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT

Watts Loss Area Efficiency Improvement

1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses. Longer
core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower operating
flux densities.
2. Stator I2 R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of
stator windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings and reduces losses
due to current flow (I).
3. Rotor I2 R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering
conductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimised design and strict quality control procedures minimizes stray
load losses.

Thus energy-efficient electric motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better
materials, and improved manu-facturing techniques. Replacing a motor may be justifiable solely
on the electricity cost savings derived from an energy-efficient replacement. This is true if the
motor runs continuously, power rates are high, the motoris oversized for the application, or its
nomi- nal efficiency has been reduced by damage orprevious rewinds. Efficiency comparison for
standard and high efficiency motors is shownin Figure 10.4
 Technical aspects of Energy EfficientMotors

Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At lower
temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer; required time between re-greasing increases.
Lower temperatures translate to long lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each
10°C reduction in operating temperature.

Figure 10.4 Efficiency Range for Standard andHigh Efficiency Motors

Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for operation at 85% of the
rated motor load.

Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can affect the operation of
energy-efficient motors.

Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure
of motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy
efficient motors results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.
Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managersshould be
careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.
Soft Starter
When starting, AC Induction motor develops more torque than is required at full speed. This
stress is transferred to the mechanical trans- mission system resulting in excessive wear and
premature failure of chains, belts, gears, mechanical seals, etc. Additionally, rapid accelera-tion
also has a massive impact on electricity supply charges with high inrush currents drawing +600%
of the normal run current.
The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the problem. Should the motor slow
down during the transition period,the high peaks can be repeated and can even exceed direct on
line current.

Figure 10.5 Soft Starter

Soft starter (see Figure 10.5) provides a reliable and economical solution to these problems
by delivering a controlled release of power to the motor, thereby providing smooth, stepless
acceleration and deceleration. Motor life will be extended as damage to windings and bearings
is reduced.
Soft Start & Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing controlled starting and stopping
with a selection of ramp times and current limit settings to suit all applications (see Figure 10.6).

Figure 10.6 Soft Starter: Starting current, Stress profile during starting

Advantages of Soft Start

– Less mechanical stress
– Improved power factor.
– Lower maximum demand.
– Less mechanical maintenance
Variable Speed Drives
Speed Control of Induction Motors
Induction motor is the workhorse of the industry. It is cheap rugged and provides high power to
weight ratio. On account of high cost-implications and limitations of D.C. System, induction
motors are preferred for variable speed application, the speed of which can be varied by chang-
ing the supply frequency. The speed can also be varied through a number of other means,
including, varying the input voltage, varying the resistance of the rotor circuit, using multi speed
windings, using Scherbius or Kramer drives, using mechanical means such as gears and pulleys
and eddy-current or fluid coupling, or by using rotary or static voltage and frequency converters.

Variable Frequency Drive

The VFD operates on a simple principle. The rotational speed of an AC induction motor depends
on the number of poles in that stator and the frequency of the applied AC power. Although the
number of poles in an induction motor cannot be altered easily, variable speed can be achieved
through a variation in frequency. The VFD rectifies standard 50 cycle AC line power to DC,
then synthesizes the DC to a variable frequency AC output.
Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed mechanical output with high efficiency.
These devices are capable of up to a 9:1 speed reduction ratio (11 percent of full speed), and a
3:1 speed increase (300 percent of full speed).
In recent years, the technology of AC variable frequency drives (VFD) has evolved into
highly sophisticated digital microprocessor control, along with high switching frequency IGBTs
(Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistors) power devices. This has led to significantly advanced
capabilities from the ease of programmability to expanded diagnostics. The two most signifi-
cant benefits from the evolution in technology have been that of cost and reliability, in addition
to the significant reduction in physical size.

Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque

Variable speed drives, and the loads that are applied to, can generally be divided into two groups:
constant torque and variable torque. The energy savings potential of variable torque applications
is much greater than that of constant torque applications. Constant torque loads include vibrating
conveyors, punch presses, rock crushers, machine tools, and other applica- tions where the drive
follows a constant V/Hz ratio. Variable torque loads include centrifugal pumps and fans, which
make up the majority of HVAC applications.

Why Variable Torque Loads Offer Greatest Energy Savings

In variable torque applications, the torque required varies with the square of the speed, and the
horsepower required varies with the cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horse-
power for even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only 25% as much energy
at 50% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which define
the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower. The following laws illustrates
these relationships:
❖ Flow is proportional to speed
❖ Head is proportional to (speed)2
 ❖ Torque is proportional to (speed)2
❖ Power is proportional to (speed)3

Fan Performance Evaluation and Efficient System Operation

System Characteristics
The term "system resistance" is used when referring to the static pressure. The system resistance
is the sum of static pressure losses in the system. The system resistance is a function of the con-
figuration of ducts, pickups, elbows and the pressure drops across equipment-for example back
filter or cyclone. The system resistance varies with the square of the volume of air flowing through
the system. For a given volume of air, the fan in a system with narrow ducts and multi-ple short radius
elbows is going to have to workharder to overcome a greater system resistancethan it would in a
system with larger ducts and aminimum number of long radius turns. Long narrow ducts with many
bends and twists will require more energy to pull the air through them.Consequently, for a given fan
speed, the fan willbe able to pull less air through this system thanthrough a short system with no
elbows. Thus, thesystem resistance increases substantially as the volume of air flowing through the
system increases; square of air flow.
Conversely, resistance decreases as flow decreases. To determine what volume the fan will
produce, it is therefore necessary to know the system resistance characteristics.
In existing systems, the system resistance can be measured. In systems that have been
designed, but not built, the system resistance must be calculated. Typically a system resistance
curve (see Figure 5.5) is generated with for various flow rates on the x-axis and the associated
resistance on the y-axis.

Figure 5.5 System Characteristics

Fan Characteristics
Fan characteristics can be represented in form of fan curve(s). The fan curve is a performance
curve for the particular fan under a specific set of conditions. The fan curve is a graphical rep-
resentation of a number of inter-related parameters. Typically a curve will be developed for a
given set of conditions usually including: fan volume, system static pressure, fan speed, and
brake horsepower required to drive the fan under the stated conditions. Some fan curves will
also include an efficiency curve so that a system designer will know where on that curve the fan
will be operating under the chosen conditions (see Figure 5.6). In the many curves shown in the
 Figure, the curve static pressure (SP) vs. flow is especially important.
The intersection of the system curve and the static pressure curve defines the operating
point. When the system resistance changes, the operating point also changes. Once the operat-
ing point is fixed, the power required could be found by following a vertical line that passes
through the operating point to an intersection with the power (BHP) curve. A horizontal line
drawn through the intersection with the power curve will lead to the required power on the right
vertical axis. In the depicted curves, the fan efficiency curve is also presented.
System Characteristics and Fan Curves
In any fan system, the resistance to air flow (pressure) increases when the flow of air is
increased. As mentioned before, it varies as the square of the flow. The pressure required by a
system over a range of flows can be determined and a "system performance curve" can be
developed (shown as SC) (see Figure 5.7).
This system curve can then be plotted on the fan curve to show the fan's actual operating
point at "A" where the two curves (N1 and SC1) intersect. This operating point is at air flow Q1
delivered against pressure P1.

Figure 5.6 Fan Characteristics Curve by Manufacturer

A fan operates along a performance given by the manufacturer for a particular fan speed. (The
fan performance chart shows performance curves for a series of fan speeds.) At fan speedN1, the
fan will operate along the N1 performance curve as shown in Figure 5.7. The fan's actual
operating point on this curve will depend on the system resistance; fan's operating point at "A" is
flow (Q1) against pressure (P1).
 Figure 5.7 System Curve

Two methods can be used to reduce air flow from Q1 to Q2:

First method is to restrict the air flow by partially closing a damper in the system. This action caus-
es a new system performance curve (SC2) where the required pressure is greater for any given air flow.
The fan will now operate at "B" to provide the reduced air flow Q2 against higher pressure P2.
Second method to reduce air flow is by reducing the speed from N1 to N2, keeping the damper
fully open. The fan would operate at "C" to provide the same Q2 air flow, but at a lower pressure
P3.
Thus, reducing the fan speed is a much more efficient method to decrease airflow since lesspower is required
and less energy is consumed.

Fan Laws
The fans operate under a predictable set of laws concerning speed, power and pressure. A
change in speed (RPM) of any fan will predictably change the pressure rise and power neces-
sary to operate it at the new RPM.

  

Where Q – flow, SP – Static Pressure, kW – Power and N – speed (RPM)

5.1 Flow Control Strategies

Typically, once a fan system is designed and installed, the fan operates at a constant speed.
There may be occasions when a speed change is desirable, i.e., when adding a new run of duct
that requires an increase in air flow (volume) through the fan. There are also instances when the
fan is oversized and flow reductions are required.
Various ways to achieve change in flow are: pulley change, damper control, inlet guide vane
control, variable speed drive and series and parallel operation of fans.
 Pulley Change
When a fan volume change is required on a permanent basis, and the existing fan canhandle the
change in capacity, the volume change can be achieved with a speed change. The simplest way to
change the speed is with a pulley change. For this, the fan must be driven by a motor through a v-
belt system. The fan speed can be increased or decreased with a change in the drive pul- ley or the
driven pulley or in some cases, both pulleys. As shown in the Figure 5.10, a higher sized fan
operating with damper con- trol was downsized by reducing the motor (drive) pulley size from 8" to
6". The power reduction was 15 kW.

11

Figure 5.10 Pulley Change

Damper Controls
Some fans are designed with damper controls (see Figure 5.11). Damperscan be located at inlet or
outlet. Dampers provide a means of changing air volume by adding or removing system resistance.
This resistance forces the fan to move up or down along its characteristic curve, gener- ating more or
less air without changing fan speed. However, dampers provide a limited amount of adjustment, and
they are not particularly energy efficient.

Inlet Guide Vanes

Inlet guide vanes are another mechanism that can be usedto meet variable air demand (see Figure
5.12). Guide vanes are curved sections that lay against the inlet of the fan when they are open. When
they are closed, they extend out into the air stream. As they are closed, guide vanes pre-swirl the air
entering the fan housing. This changes the angle at which the air is presented to the fan blades, which,
in turn, changes the characteristics of the fan curve. Guide vanes are energy efficient for modest flow
reductions – from 100 percent flow to about 80 per-cent. Below 80 percent flow, energy efficiency
drops sharply.
Axial-flow fans can be equipped with variable pitch blades, which can be hydraulically or
pneumatically controlled to change blade pitch, while the fan is at station-ary. Variable-pitch
blades modify the fan characteristics substantially and thereby provide dramatically higher
energy efficiency than the other options discussed thus far.
Figure 5.11 Damperchanger Figure 5.12 Inlet Guide Vanes

Variable Speed Drives

Although, variable speed drives are expensive, they provide almost infinite variability in speed
control. Variable speed operation involves reducing the speed of the fan to meet reduced flow
requirements. Fan performance can be predicted at different speeds using the fan laws. Since
power input to the fan changes as the cube of the flow, this will usually be the most efficient
form of capacity control. However, variable speed control may not be economical for systems,
which have infrequent flow variations. When considering variable speed drive, the efficiency
of the control system (fluid coupling, eddy-current, VFD, etc.) should be accounted for, in the
analysis of power consumption.

Series and Parallel Operation

Parallel operation of fans is another useful form of capacity control. Fans in parallel can be
additionally equipped with dampers, variable inlet vanes, variable-pitch blades, or speed
controls to provide a high degree of flexibility and reliability.
Combining fans in series or parallel can achieve the desired airflow without greatlyincreasing the
system package size or fan diameter. Parallel operation is defined as having two or more fans
blowing together sideby side.
The performance of two fans in parallel will result in doubling the volume flow, but only at
free delivery. As Figure 5.13 shows, when a system curve is over- laid on the parallel performance
curves,the higher the system resistance, the less increase in flow results with parallel fan operation.
Thus, this type of applicationshould only be used when the fans canoperate in a low resistance
almost in a freedelivery condition.
Series operation can be defined as using multiple fans in a push-pull arrangement. By staging
two fans in series, the static pressure capability at a given airflow can be increased, but again,
not to double at every flow point, as the above Figure displays. In series operation, the best
results are achieved in systemswith high resistances.
In both series and parallel operation, particularly with multiple fans certain areas of the
combined performance curve will be unstable and should be avoided. This instability is unpre-
dictable and is a function of the fan and motor construction and the operating point.
 Figure 5.13 Series and Parallel Operation

Factors to be considered in the selection of flow control methods

Comparison of various volume control methods with respect to power consumption (%)
required power is shown in Figure 5.14.
All methods of capacity control mentioned above have turn-down ratios (ratio of
maximum–to–minimum flow rate) determined by the amount of leakage (slip) through the
control elements. For example, even with dampers fully closed, the flow may not be zero
due to leakage through the damper. In the case of variable-speed drives the turn-down ratio
is limited by the control system. In many cases, the minimum possible flow will be
determined by the characteristics of the fan itself. Stable operation of a fan requires that it
operate in a region where the system curve has a positive slope and the fan curve has a
negative slope.
The range of operation and the time duration at each operating point also serves as a
guide to selection of the most suitable capacity control system. Outlet damper control due
to its simplicity, ease of operation, and low investment cost, is the most prevalent form of
capacity control. However, it is the most inefficient of all methods and is best suited for
situations where only small, infrequent changes are required (for example, minor process
variations due to seasonal changes. The economic advantage of one method over the other
is determined by the time duration over which the fan operates at different operating points.
The frequency of flow change is another important determinant. For systems requiring
frequent flow control, damper adjustment may not be convenient. Indeed, in many plants,
dampers are not easily accessible and are left at some intermediate position to avoid
frequent control.
Figure 5.14 Comparison: Various Volume Control Methods

Fan Performance Assessment

The fans are tested for field performance by measurement of flow, head, temperature on the fan
side and electrical motor kW input on the motor side.

Air flow measurement

Static pressure
Static pressure is the potential energy put into the system by the fan. It is given up to friction in
the ducts and at the duct inlet as it is converted to velocity pressure. At the inlet to the duct, the
static pressure produces an area of low pressure (see Figure 5.15).

Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure is the pressure along the line of the flow that results from the air flowing
through the duct. The velocity pressure is used to calculate air velocity.

Total pressure
Total pressure is the sum of the static and velocity pressure. Velocity pressure and static pres- sure
can change as the air flows though different size ducts, accelerating and decelerating the velocity.
The total pressure stays constant, changing only with friction losses. The illustration that follows
shows how the total pressure changes in a system.
The fan flow is measured using pitot tube manometer combination, or a flow sensor (differential
pressure instrument) or an accurate anemometer. Care needs to be taken regardingnumber of traverse
points, straight length section (to avoid turbulent flow regimes of measurement) up stream and
downstream of measurement location. The measurements can be on the suction or discharge side of
the fan andpreferably both where feasible.

Measurement by Pitot tube

The Figure 5.16 shows how velocity pressure ismeasured using a pitot tube and a manometer.
Total pressure is measured using the inner tube of pitot tube and static pressure is measured using
the outer tube of pitot tube. When the inner andouter tube ends are connected to a manometer,
we get the velocity pressure. For measuring lowvelocities, it is preferable to use an inclined
tube manometer instead of U tube manometer.
 Figure 5.15 Static, Total and Velocity Pressure

Figure 5.16 Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube

Measurements and Calculations

Velocity pressure/velocity calculation
When measuring velocity pressure the duct diameter (or the circumference from which to cal-
culate the diameter) should be measured as well. This will allow us to calculate the velocity and
the volume of air in the duct. In most cases, velocity must be measured at several places in the
same system.
The velocity pressure varies across the duct. Friction slows the air near the duct walls, so the
velocity is greater in the center of the duct. The velocity is affected by changes in the ducting con-
figuration such as bends and curves. The best place to take measurements is in a section of duct that
is straight for at least 3–5 diameters after any elbows, branch entries or duct size changes
To determine the average veloci-ty, it is necessary to take a number ofvelocity pressure readings
across thecross-section of the duct. The velocityshould be calculated for each velocitypressure reading, and
the average ofthe velocities should be used. Do notaverage the velocity pressure; averagethe velocities. For
round ducts over 6inches diameter, the following loca-tions will give areas of equal concen-tric area (see
Figure 5.17).
For best results, one set of read-ings should be taken in one direction
and another set at a 90 ° angle to thefirst. For square ducts, the readings
 Figure 5.17 Traverse Points for Circular Duct
can be taken in 16 equally spaced areas. If it is impossible to traverse the duct, an approximate aver-
age velocity can be calculated by measuring the velocity pressure in the center of the duct and cal-
culating the velocity. This value is reduced to an approximate average by multiplying by 0 .9.

Air density calculation

The first calculation is to determine the density of the air. To calculate the velocity and volume
from the velocity pressure measurements it is necessary to know the density of the air. The den-
sity is dependent on altitude and temperature.

t°C – temperature of gas/air at site condition

Velocity calculation
Once the air density and velocity pressure have been established, the velocity can be determined
from the equation:

Density of air or gas at test condition,

Volume calculation
The volume in a duct can be calculated for the velocity using the
equation: Volumetric flow (Q), m3 /sec = Velocity,V(m /
sec) x Area (m2)

Fan efficiency
Fan manufacturers generally use two ways to mention fan efficiency: mechanical
efficiency (sometimes called the total efficiency) and static efficiency. Both measure how
well the fan con- verts horsepower into flow and pressure.
The equation for determining mechanical efficiency is:

x
100
The static efficiency equation is the same except that the outlet velocity pressure is not
added to the fan static pressure

x 100

Drive motor kW can be measured by a load analyzer. This kW multiplied by motor

effi- ciency gives the shaft power to the fan.

Energy Saving Opportunities

Minimizing demand on the fan.
1. Minimising excess air level in combustion systems to reduce FD fan and ID fan load.
2. Minimising air in-leaks in hot flue gas path to reduce ID fan load, especially in case of
kilns, boiler plants, furnaces, etc. Cold air in-leaks increase ID fan load tremendously,
dueto density increase of flue gases and in-fact choke up the capacity of fan, resulting
as a bot-tleneck for boiler / furnace itself.
3. In-leaks / out-leaks in air conditioning systems also have a major impact on energy
effi- ciency and fan power consumption and need to be minimized.
The findings of performance assessment trials will automatically indicate potential
areas for improvement, which could be one or a more of the following:
1. Change of impeller by a high efficiency impeller along with cone.
2. Change of fan assembly as a whole, by a higher efficiency fan
3. Impeller de-rating (by a smaller dia impeller)
4. Change of metallic / Glass reinforced Plastic (GRP) impeller by the more energy
efficient hollow FRP impeller with aerofoil design, in case of axial flow fans, where
significant sav-ings have been reported
5. Fan speed reduction by pulley dia modifications for derating
6. Option of two speed motors or variable speed drives for variable duty conditions
7. Option of energy efficient flat belts, or, cogged raw edged V belts, in place of
convention-al V belt systems, for reducing transmission losses.
8. Adopting inlet guide vanes in place of discharge damper control
 9. Minimizing system resistance and pressure drops by improvements in duct system

Pump Curves
The performance of a pump can be expressed graphically as head against flow rate. The cen-
trifugal pump has a curve where the head falls gradually with increasing flow. This is called the
pump characteristic curve (Head - Flow curve) -see Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8 Head- Flow Curve

Pump operating point

When a pump is installed in a system the effect can be illustrated graphically by superimposing
pump and system curves. The operating point will always be where the two curves intersect.
Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 Pump Operating Point

If the actual system curve is different in reality to that calculated, the pump will operate at
a flow and head different to that expected.
For a centrifugal pump, an increasing system resistance will reduce the flow, eventually to zero, but the
maximum head is limited as shown. Even so, this condition is only acceptable fora short period without
causing problems. An error in the system curve calculation is also likelyto lead to a centrifugal pump
selection, which is less than optimal for the actual system head losses. Adding safety margins to the calculated
system curve to ensure that a sufficiently large pumpis selected will generally result in installing an
oversized pump, which will operate at an excessive flow rate or in a throttled condition, which increases
energy usage and reduces pump life.
 Factors Affecting Pump Performance
Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics
Centrifugal pumps are characterized by the relationship between the flow rate (Q) they produce
and the pressure (H) at which the flow is delivered. Pump efficiency varies with flow and pres-
sure, and it is highest at one particular flow rate.
The Figure 6.10 below shows a typical vendor-supplied head-flow curve for a centrifugal
pump. Pump head-flow curves are typically given for clear water. The choice of pump for a
given application depends largely on how the pump head-flow characteristics match the
requirement of the system downstream of the pump.

Effect of over sizing the pump

As mentioned earlier, pressure losses to be overcome by the pumps are function of flow – the
system characteristics – are also quantified in the form of head-flow curves. The system curve
is basically a plot of system resistance i.e. head to be overcome by the pump versus various flow
rates. The system curves change with the physical configuration of the system; for example, the
system curves depends upon height or elevation, diameter and length of piping, number and type
of fittings and pressure drops across various equipment - say a heat exchanger.
A pump is selected based on how well the pump curve and system head-flow curves match.
The pump operating point is identified as the point, where the system curve crosses the pump
curve when they are superimposed on each other.
The Figure 6.11 shows the effect on system curve with throttling.

Figure 6.11 Effect on System Curve with Throttling

 In the system under consideration, water has to be first lifted to a height – this represents the
static head.
Then, we make a system curve, considering the friction and pressure drops in the system-
this is shown as the green curve.
Suppose, we have estimated our operating conditions as 500 m3/hr flow and 50 m head, we
will chose a pump curve which intersects the system curve (Point A) at the pump's best effi-
ciency point (BEP).
But, in actual operation, we find that 300 m3/hr is sufficient. The reduction in flow rate has
to be effected by a throttle valve. In other words, we are introducing an artificial resistance in
the system.
Due to this additional resistance, the frictional part of the system curve increases and thus
the new system curve will shift to the left -this is shown as the red curve.
So the pump has to overcome additional pressure in order to deliver the reduced flow. Now,
the new system curve will intersect the pump curve at point B. The revised parameters are
300 m3/hr at 70 m head. The red double arrow line shows the additional pressure drop due to
throttling.
You may note that the best efficiency point has shifted from 82% to 77% efficiency.
So what we want is to actually operate at point C which is 300 m3/hr on the original system
curve. The head required at this point is only 42 meters.
What we now need is a new pump which will operate with its best efficiency point at C. But
there are other simpler options rather than replacing the pump. The speed of the pump can be
reduced or the existing impeller can be trimmed (or new lower size impeller). The blue pump
curve represents either of these options.

Flow Control Strategies

Pump control by varying speed
To understand how speed variation changes the duty point, the pump and system curves are
over-laid. Two systems are considered, one with only friction loss and another where static head
is high in relation to friction head. It will be seen that the benefits are different. In Figure 6.15,
The drop in pump efficiency during speed reduction in a system with static head, reduces
the economic benefits of variable speed control. There may still be overall benefits but eco-
nomics should be examined on a case-by-case basis. Usually it is advantageous to select the
pump such that the system curve intersects the full speed pump curve to the right of best effi-
ciency, in order that the efficiency will first increase as the speed is reduced and then decrease.
This can extend the useful range of variable speed operation in a system with static head. The
pump manufacturer should be consulted on the safe operating range of the pump.
 Figure 6.15 Example of the Effect of Pump Speed Change in a System With Only Friction Loss

Figure 6.16 Example for the Effect of Pump Speed Change with a System with High Static Head.
 It is relevant to note that flow control by speed regulation is always more efficient than by
control valve. In addition to energy savings there could be other benefits of lower speed. The
hydraulic forces on the impeller, created by the pressure profile inside the pump casing, reduce
approximately with the square of speed. These forces are carried by the pump bearings and so
reducing speed increases bearing life. It can be shown that for a centrifugal pump, bearing life
is inversely proportional to the 7th power of speed. In addition, vibration and noise are reduced
and seal life is increased providing the duty point remains within the allowable operating range.
The corollary to this is that small increases in the speed of a pump significantly increase
power absorbed, shaft stress and bearing loads. It should be remembered that the pump and
motor must be sized for the maximum speed at which the pump set will operate. At higher speed
the noise and vibration from both pump and motor will increase, although for small increases
the change will be small. If the liquid contains abrasive particles, increasing speed will give a
corresponding increase in surface wear in the pump and pipework.
The effect on the mechanical seal of the change in seal chamber pressure, should be reviewed
with the pump or seal manufacturer, if the speed increase is large. Conventional mechanical
seals operate satisfactorily at very low speeds and generally there is no requirement for a
minimum speed to be specified, however due to their method of operation, gas seals require a
minimum peripheral speed of 5 m/s.

Pumps in parallel switched to meet demand

Another energy efficient method of flow control, particularly for systems where static head is a
high proportion of the total, is to install two or more pumps to operate in parallel. Variation of
flow rate is achieved by switching on and off additional pumps to meet demand. The combined
pump curve is obtained by adding the flow rates at a specific head. The head/flow rate curves
for two and three pumps are shown in Figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel

 The system curve is usually not affected by the number of pumps that are running. For a
system with a combination of static and friction head loss, it can be seen, in Figure 6.18, that
the operating point of the pumps on their performance curves moves to a higher head and hence
lower flow rate per pump, as more pumps are started. It is also apparent that the flow rate with
two pumps running is not double that of a single pump. If the system head were only static, then
flow rate would be proportional to the number of pumps operating.
It is possible to run pumps of different sizes in parallel provided their closed valve heads are
similar. By arranging different combinations of pumps running together, a larger number of
different flow rates can be provided into the system.
Care must be taken when running pumps in parallel to ensure that the operating point of the
pump is controlled within the region deemed as acceptable by the manufacturer. It can be seen
from Figure 6.18 that if 1 or 2 pumps were stopped then the remaining pump(s) would operate
well out along the curve where NPSH is higher and vibration level increased, giving an increased
risk of operating problems.

Figure 6.18 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel, With System Curve Illustrated.

Stop/start control
In this control method, the flow is controlled by switching pumps on or off. It is necessary to
have a storage capacity in the system e.g. a wet well, an elevated tank or an accumulator type
pressure vessel. The storage can provide a steady flow to the system with an intermittent oper-
ating pump. When the pump runs, it does so at the chosen (presumably optimum) duty point and
when it is off, there is no energy consumption. If intermittent flow, stop/start operation and the
storage facility are acceptable, this is an effective approach to minimise energy consumption.
The stop/start operation causes additional loads on the power transmission components and
increased heating in the motor. The frequency of the stop/start cycle should be within the motor
design criteria and checked with the pump manufacturer.
It may also be used to benefit from "off peak" energy tariffs by arranging the run times dur-
ing the low tariff periods.
To minimise energy consumption with stop start control it is better to pump at as low flow
rate as the process permits. This minimises friction losses in the pipe and an appropriately small
pump can be installed. For example, pumping at half the flow rate for twice as long can reduce
energy consumption to a quarter.
Flow control valve
With this control method, the pump runs continuously and a valve in the pump discharge line
is opened or closed to adjust the flow to the required value.

Figure 6.19 Control of Pump Flow by Changing System Resistance Using a Valve.

To understand how the flow rate is controlled, see Figure 6.19. With the valve fully open,
the pump operates at "Flow 1". When the valve is partially closed it introduces an additional
friction loss in the system, which is proportional to flow squared. The new system curve cuts
the pump curve at "Flow 2", which is the new operating point. The head difference between the
two curves is the pressure drop across the valve.
It is usual practice with valve control to have the valve 10% shut even at maximum flow.
Energy is therefore wasted overcoming the resistance through the valve at all flow conditions.
There is some reduction in pump power absorbed at the lower flow rate (see Figure 6.19), but
the flow multiplied by the head drop across the valve, is wasted energy. It should also be noted
that, while the pump will accommodate changes in its operating point as far as it is able within
its performance range, it can be forced to operate high on the curve, where its efficiency is low,
and its reliability is affected.
Maintenance cost of control valves can be high, particularly on corrosive and solids-con-
taining liquids. Therefore, the lifetime cost could be unnecessarily high.

By-pass control
With this control approach, the pump runs continuously at the maximum process demand duty,
with a permanent by-pass line attached to the outlet. When a lower flow is required the surplus
liquid is bypassed and returned to the supply source.
An alternative configuration may have a tank supplying a varying process demand, which
is kept full by a fixed duty pump running at the peak flow rate. Most of the time the tank over-
flows and recycles back to the pump suction. This is even less energy efficient than a control
valve because there is no reduction in power consumption with reduced process demand.
The small by-pass line sometimes installed to prevent a pump running at zero flow is not a
means of flow control, but required for the safe operation of the pump.

Fixed Flow reduction

Impeller trimming
Impeller trimming refers to the process
of machining the diameter of an
impeller to reduce the energy added to
the system fluid.
Impeller trimming offers a useful
correction to pumps that, through over-
ly conservative design practices or
changes in system loads are oversized
for their application.
Trimming an impeller provides a
level of correction below buying a
smaller impeller from the pump manu-
facturer. But in many cases, the next
smaller size impeller is too small for the
pump load. Also, smaller impellers may Figure 6.20 Before Impeller trimming
not be available for the pump size in
question and impeller trimming is the
only practical alternative short of
replacing the entire pump/motor assem-
bly. (see Figures 6.20 & 6.21 for before
and after impeller trimming).
Impeller trimming reduces tip
speed, which in turn directly lowers the
amount of energy imparted to the sys-
tem fluid and lowers both the flow and
pressure generated by the pump.
The Affinity Laws, which describe
centrifugal pump performance, provide
a theoretical relationship between
impeller size and pump output (assum- Figure 6.21 After Impeller Trimming
ing constant pump speed):
Where:

Q = flow
H = head
BHP = brake horsepower of the pump motor
Subscript 1 = original pump,
Subscript 2 = pump after impeller trimming
D = Diameter
 Trimming an impeller changes its operating efficiency, and the non-linearities of the Affinity
Laws with respect to impeller machining complicate the prediction of pump perfor- mance.
Consequently, impeller diameters are rarely reduced below 70 percent of their original size.

Meeting variable flow reduction

Variable Speed Drives (VSDs)
In contrast, pump speed adjustments provide the most efficient means of controlling pump flow.
By reducing pump speed, less energy is imparted to the fluid and less energy needs to be throt-
tled or bypassed. There are two primary methods of reducing pump speed: multiple-speed pump
motors and variable speed drives (VSDs).
Although both directly control pump output, multiple-speed motors and VSDs serve entirely
separate applications. Multiple-speed motors contain a different set of windings for each motor
speed; consequently, they are more expensive and less efficient than single speed motors.
Multiple speed motors also lack subtle speed changing capabilities within discrete speeds.
VSDs allow pump speed adjustments over a continuous range, avoiding the need to jump
from speed to speed as with multiple-speed pumps. VSDs control pump speeds using several
different types of mechanical and electrical systems. Mechanical VSDs include hydraulic
clutches, fluid couplings, and adjustable
belts and pulleys. Electrical VSDs
include eddy current clutches, wound-
rotor motor controllers, and variable fre-
quency drives (VFDs). VFDs adjust the
electrical frequency of the power sup-
plied to a motor to change the motor's
rotational speed. VFDs are by far the
most popular type of VSD.
However, pump speed adjustment is
not appropriate for all systems. In appli-
cations with high static head, slowing a
pump risks inducing vibrations and cre-
ating performance problems that are
similar to those found when a pump
operates against its shutoff head. For
systems in which the static head repre- Figure 6.22 Effect of VFD
sents a large portion of the total head, caution should be used in deciding whether to use VFDs.
Operators should review the performance of VFDs in similar applications and consult VFD
manufacturers to avoid the damage that can result when a pump operates too slowly against high
static head.
For many systems, VFDs offer a means to improve pump operating efficiency despite
changes in operating conditions. The effect of slowing pump speed on pump operation is illus-
trated by the three curves in Figure 6.22. When a VFD slows a pump, its head/flow and brake
horsepower (BHP) curves drop down and to the left and its efficiency curve shifts to the left.
This efficiency response provides an essential cost advantage; by keeping the operating effi-
ciency as high as possible across variations in the system's flow demand, the energy and main-
tenance costs of the pump can be significantly reduced.
VFDs may offer operating cost reductions by allowing higher pump operating efficiency,
but the principal savings derive from the reduction in frictional or bypass flow losses. Using a
system perspective to identify areas in which fluid energy is dissipated in non-useful work often
reveals opportunities for operating cost reductions.
For example, in many systems, increasing flow through bypass lines does not noticeably
impact the backpressure on a pump. Consequently, in these applications pump efficiency does
not necessarily decline during periods of low flow demand. By analyzing the entire system,
however, the energy lost in pushing fluid through bypass lines and across throttle valves can be
identified.
Another system benefit of VFDs is a soft start capability. During startup, most motors expe-
rience in-rush currents that are 5 – 6 times higher than normal operating currents. This high cur-
rent fades when the motor spins up to normal speed. VFDs allow the motor to be started with a
lower startup current (usually only about 1.5 times the normal operating current). This reduces
wear on the motor and its controller.

Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems

■ Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation
■ Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.
■ Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
■ Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.
■ Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of multiple
units.
■ Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a booster pump
in the problem area.
■ Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.
■ Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in case of heat
exchangers.
■ Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.
■ Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
■ Avoid pumping head with a free-fall return (gravity); Use siphon effect to advantage:
■ Conduct water balance to minimise water consumption
■ Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors, refrigeration systems,
cooling towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.
 ■ In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling
■ Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head
■ Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps
■ In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or downsize / replace
impeller or replace with correct sized pump for efficient operation.
■ Optimise number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins
■ Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimisation

Electronic Ballast
Role of Ballast
In an electric circuit the ballast acts as a stabilizer. Fluorescent lamp is an electric discharge
lamp. The two electrodes are separated inside a tube with no apparent connection between them.
When sufficient voltage is impressed on these electrodes, electrons are driven from one electrode
and attracted to the other. The current flow takes place through an atmosphere of low-pressure
mercury vapour.
Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by direct connection to the power source,
they need an ancillary circuit and device to get started and remain illuminated. The auxillary
circuit housed in a casing is known as ballast.

Conventional Vs Electronic Ballasts

The conventional ballasts make use of the kick caused by sudden physical disruptionof
current in an inductive circuit to produce the high voltage required for startingthe
lamp and then rely on reactive voltage drop in the ballast to reduce the voltage applied across
the lamp. On account of the mechanical switch (starter) and low resistance of filament when
cold the uncontrolled filament current, generally tend to go beyond the limits specified by Indian
standard specifications. With high values of current and flux densities the operational losses
and temperature rise are on the higher side in conventional choke.
The high frequency electronic ballast overcomes the above drawbacks. The basic functions
of electronic ballast are:
1. To ignite the lamp
2. To stabilize the gas discharge
3. To supply the power to the lamp
The electronic ballasts (see Figure 10.10) make use of modern power semi-conductor devices
for their operation. The circuit compo- nents form a tuned circuit to deliver power to the lamp
at a high resonant frequency (in the vicinity of 25 kHz) and voltage is regulated through an in-
built feedback mechanism. It is now well estab- lished that the fluorescent lamp efficiency in
the kHz range is higher than those attainable at low frequencies. At lower frequencies (50 or
60 Hz)the electron density in the lamp is proportional to the instantaneous value of the current
because the ionisation state in the tube is able to follow theinstantaneous variations in the
current. At higher frequencies (kHz range), the ionisation state cannot follow the instantaneous
variations of the current and hence the ionisation density is approximately a constant,
proportional to the RMS (Root Mean Square) value of the current. Another significant benefit
resulting from this phe- nomenon is the absence of stroboscopic effect, thereby significantly
improving the quality of light output.
Figure 10.10 Electronic Ballast

One of largest advantages of an electronic ballast is the enormous energy savings it pro-
vides. This is achieved in two ways. The first is its amazingly low internal core loss, quite unlike
old fashioned magnetic ballasts. And second is increased light output due to the excita- tion of
the lamp phosphors with high frequency. If the period of frequency of excitation is smaller than
the light retention time constant for the gas in the lamp, the gas will stay ionized and, therefore,
produce light continuously. This phenomenon along with continued persistenceof the phosphors
at high frequency will improve light output from 8–12 percent. This is possi- ble only with high
frequency electronic ballast.

Energy Efficient Lighting Controls

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy-linked control can be achieved using infra-red, acoustic, ultrasonic or microwave
sensors, which detect either movement or noise in room spaces. These sensors switch lighting
on when occupancy is detected, and off again after a set time period, when no occupancy
movement detected. They are designed to override manual switches and to prevent a situation
where lighting is left on in unoccupied spaces. With this type of system it is important to
incorporate a built-in time delay, since occupants often remain still or quiet for short periods
and do not appreciate being plunged into darkness if not constantly mov- ing around.
Timed Based Control
Timed-turnoff switches are the least expensive type ofautomatic lighting control. In some cases,
their low cost and ease of installation makes it desirable to use them where more efficient controls
would be too expensive (see Figure 10.11).

Types and Features

The oldest and most common type of timed-turnoff switch is the "dial timer," a spring-wound
mechanicaltimer that is set by twisting the knob to the desired time.Typical units of this type are
vulnerable to damage because the shaft is weak and the knob is not securelyattached to the shaft.
 Some spring-wound units make anannoying ticking sound as they operate. Newer types oftimed-
turnoff switches are completely electronic and silent. Electronic switches can be made much more
rugged than the spring-wound dial timer. These units

Figure 10.11 Timed Turnoff Switch

typically have a spring-loaded toggle switch that turns on the circuit for a preset time interval.
Some electronic models provide a choice of time intervals, which you select by adjusting a knob
located behind the faceplate. Most models allow occupants to turn off the lights manually. Some
models allow occupants to keep the lights on, overriding the timer. Timed-turnoff switches are
available with a wide range of time spans. The choice of time span is a compromise. Shorter time
spans waste less energy but increase the probability that the lights will turn off while someone is
in the space. Dial timers allow the occupant to set the time span, but this is not likely to be done
with a view toward optimising efficiency. For most applications, the best choice is an electronic
unit that allows the engineering staff to set a fixed time interval behind the cover plate.

Daylight Linked Control

Photoelectric cells can be used either simply to switch lighting on and off, or for dimming. They
may be mounted either externally or internally. It is however important to incorporate time delays
into the control system to avoid repeated rapid switching caused, for example, by fast moving
clouds. By using an internally mounted photoelectric dimming control system, it is possible to
ensure that the sum of daylight and electric lighting always reaches the design level by sensing
the total light in the controlled area and adjusting the output of the electric lighting accordingly. If
daylight alone is able to meet the design requirements, then the electric lighting can be turned off.
The energy saving potential of dimming control is greater than a simple photoelectric switching
system. Dimming control is also more likely to be acceptable to room occupants.

Localized Switching
Localized switching should be used in applications which contain large spaces. Local switches
give individual occupants control over their visual environment and also facilitate energy savings.
By using localized switching it is possible to turn off artificial lighting in specific areas, while still
operating it in other areas where it is required, a situation which is impossible if the lighting for an
entire space is controlled from a single switch