MESOTAMIA CIVILISATION

Keywords: City state model, Gilgamesh’s epic, cuneiforms, Hammurabi Code,

Babylon Hanging Garden, ziggurat
Other keywords: Mesopotamia, Tigris&Euphrates, agriculture - commerce, 5 periods,
Polytheism religion, nature sciences
Traditions & Encounters: Page 10
World history: Page 31
Homework Question: What was the foundation of the city-state in Mesopotamia and
how it contributed to the development of this civilisation?
Focus Question: How are the chief characteristics of civilization evident in ancient
Mesopotamia?

City state model

The creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization were the Sumerians, who had
established a number of independent cities in southern Mesopotamia by 3000 B.C.E.
The City-State model was a political organization that developed in ancient
Mesopotamia. This region was divided into multiple city-states, each of which had
its own government, laws, and rulers. The most famous Mesopotamian city-states
were Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.
As people congregated in cities, they needed to find ways to resolve disputes—
sometimes between residents within individual settlements, other times between
whole settlements themselves—that inevitably arose as individual and group
interests conflicted. In search of order, settled agricultural peoples recognized
political authorities and built states throughout Mesopotamia, forming city-states,
which were the basic units of Sumerian civilization. Unlike the earlier settlements,
the Sumerian cities were centers of political and military authority, and their
jurisdiction extended into the surrounding regions. Moreover, bustling marketplaces
that drew buyers and sellers from near and far turned the cities into economic
centers as well. In addition, because agriculture was crucial to the welfare of urban
residents, the cities all became city-states: they not only controlled public life within
the city walls but also extended their authority to neighboring territories and
oversaw affairs in surrounding agricultural regions. The Sumerians believed that the
gods ruled the cities, however, actual ruling power was primarily in the hands of
worldly figures, known as kings. The establishment of states encouraged the
creation of empires, as some states sought to extend their power and enhance their
security by imposing their rule on neighboring lands.
The city-state model allowed for a degree of political and economic autonomy that
was not possible under a centralized empire. Each city-state was able to develop its
own unique culture, art, and architecture. However, the model was not without its

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drawbacks. The constant competition between city-states led to frequent wars and
conflicts, which disrupted trade and commerce.

Gilgamesh’s epic
- The Epic of Gilgamesh is the most famous piece of Mesopotamian literature - an
ancient Mesopotamian epic poem that that records the exploits of the legendary
fifth king of Uruk. Gilgamesh, wise, strong, and perfect in body, part man and part
god, was on adventures with a his hairy beast friend named Enkidu.
- It is considered one of the world's oldest surviving works of literature and provides
insights into the culture, beliefs, and values of ancient Mesopotamia. The poem is
composed of 12 tablets, while focusing on the activities of Gilgamesh and Enkidu,
the stories explored themes of friendship, loyalty, ambition, fear of death, meaning
of life, the relationship between humans and god and longing for immortality. In
doing so they reflected the interests and concerns of the complex, urban-based
society that had recently emerged in Mesopotamia.
- The legends declare that Gilgamesh constructed the massive city walls of Uruk as
well as several of the city’s magnificent temples to Mesopotamian deities.

Details:
As a figure of legend, Gilgamesh became the greatest hero figure of ancient
Mesopotamia. According to the stories, the gods granted Gilgamesh a perfect body
and endowed him with superhuman strength and courage. He was “the man to
whom all things were known,” a supremely wise individual who “saw mysteries and
knew secret things.” Together they set off in pursuit of heroic deeds. In spite of their
heroic deeds, Enkidu offended the gods and fell under a sentence of death. His loss
profoundly affected Gilgamesh, who sought for some means to cheat death and
gain eternal life. He eventually found a magical plant that had the power to confer
immortality, but a serpent stole the plant and carried it away, forcing Gilgamesh to
recognize that death is the ultimate fate of all human beings. The desire for
immortality, one of humankind’s great searches, ends in complete frustration.
‘‘Everlasting life,’’ as this Mesopotamian epic makes clear, is only for the gods.

Cuneiforms
Definition 1: Cuneiform is a system of writing that was used in ancient Mesopotamia
from around 3400 BCE to the first century CE. The term cuneiform comes from the
Latin word cuneus, meaning "wedge," and refers to the wedge-shaped marks that
were made by pressing a reed stylus into clay tablets. The writing system was used
to record a wide range of information, including economic transactions,
administrative documents, legal codes, religious texts, and literature. Cuneiform is
considered one of the earliest forms of written communication and was a key factor
in the development of civilization in Mesopotamia.

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Definition 2: The oldest Mesopotamian texts date to around 3000 B.C.E. and were
written by the Sumerians, who used a cuneiform (‘‘wedge-shaped’’) system of
writing. Using a reed stylus, they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets,
which were then baked or dried in the sun. Once dried, these tablets were virtually
indestructible, and the several hundred thousand that have been found so far have
been a valuable source of information for modern scholars. Sumerian writing
evolved from pictures of concrete objects to simplified and stylized signs, leading
eventually to a phonetic system that made possible the written expression of
abstract ideas.

Definition 3: When writing, a Sumerian scribe used a stylus fashioned from a reed to
impress symbols on wet clay. Because the stylus left lines and wedge-shaped
marks, Sumerian writing is known as cuneiform, a term that comes from two Latin
words meaning “wedge-shaped.” When dried in the sun or baked in an oven, the
clay hardened and preserved a permanent record of the scribe’s message. Many
examples of early Sumerian writing survive to the present day. The tradition of
cuneiform writing continued for more than three thousand years.

Hammurabi Code
Definition 1: The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest and most complete
written legal codes and was proclaimed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who
reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C and styled himself “king of the four quarters of the
world.”. Hammurabi expanded the city-state of Babylon along the Euphrates River
to unite all of southern Mesopotamia. The Hammurabi code of laws, a collection of
282 rules, established standards for commercial interactions and set fines and
punishments to meet the requirements of justice, including economic provisions
(prices, tariffs, trade, and commerce), family law (marriage and divorce), as well as
criminal law (assault, theft) and civil law (slavery, debt). Moreover, the principle of
‘‘an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth’’ was fundamental to this system of justice.
Definition 2: The Hammurabi Code is a set of laws created by the Babylonian king
Hammurabi, who styled himself “king of the four quarters of the world.”, around
1754 BC. It is one of the oldest known legal codes in history and consists of 282
laws that cover various aspects of life such as property, marriage, crime, and
punishment. The code was inscribed on a stele (a large stone monument) and
placed in a public location for all to see. The Hammurabi Code was significant in
that it established a standard set of rules and punishments for all citizens,
regardless of their social status or wealth. The code relied heavily on the principle of
lex talionis, the “law of retaliation,” whereby offenders suffered punishments
resembling their violations. It also influenced later legal codes such as the Mosaic
Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Code of Justinian in ancient Rome.

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 Babylon Hanging Garden
The Babylon Hanging Gardens are a legendary man-made wonder of the ancient
world, said to have been built by King Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BCE in
present-day Iraq. The gardens were a series of terraced gardens with trees, shrubs,
and flowers that were irrigated by a complex system of canals and pumps. When
one of the king’s wives longed for flowering shrubs from her mountain homeland,
Nebuchadnezzar had them planted in terraces above the city walls, and the hanging
gardens of Babylon have symbolized the city’s luxuriousness ever since.
Ziggurat
A ziggurat is a massive stepped tower made of sun-baked bricks, which was used as
a religious temple in ancient Mesopotamia. Ziggurats were constructed throughout
Mesopotamia from around 2200 BC until approximately 500 BC. They were typically
built in a rectangular or square shape, with each level becoming smaller as it
ascended towards the top. The purpose of ziggurats was to connect the earthly
realm with the divine realm, and they were frequently used for ceremonies and
rituals.
The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was the temple, which was
dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city and often built atop a massive
stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses
owned the cities, and much wealth was used to build temples as well as elaborate
houses for the priests and priestesses who served the deities.
In the city of Uruk, a massive ziggurat and temple complex went up about 3200
B.C.E. to honor the fertility goddess Inanna.

Mesopotamia
The Greeks called the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Mesopotamia,
the land ‘‘between the rivers.’’ Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as
the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the
eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent, an area also known as
the “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early
societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human
civilizations on earth. The word “Mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words
“meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river.
Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is
now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syria.

5 periods

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Unlike other civilizations where new kings are formed immediately after the former
died or is defeated, Mesopotamian civilization was not continuous and divided into 5
separate phases.
around 5000 BC: the Ubaid people - inhabitants of the region
3500 BC - 2500 BC: Sumer civilization
2334 BC - 2218 BC: Akkadian Empire
1800 BC - 1170 BC: Old Babylon
1200 BC - 612 BC: Assyrian Empire
612 BC - 539 BC: New Babylon
Around 5000 BCE, the Ubaid people began to settle in the region and developed a
more advanced agricultural system. They also constructed the first temples and
public buildings, which were the precursors to the elaborate architecture that would
come to define the Mesopotamian society. The Ubaid period lasted until around
4000 BCE when the Sumerians began to emerge as a distinct civilization.

Tigris&Euphrates
The Greeks called the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Mesopotamia,
the land ‘‘between the rivers.’’ The region receives little rain, but the soil of the
plain of southern Mesopotamia was enlarged and enriched over the years by layers
of silt deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates overflow
their banks and deposit their fertile silt, but since this flooding depends on the
melting of snows in the upland mountains where the rivers begin, it is irregular and
sometimes catastrophic. In such circumstances, farming could be accomplished only
with human intervention in the form of irrigation and drainage ditches. A complex
system was required to control the flow of the rivers and produce the crops. Large-
scale irrigation made possible the expansion of agriculture in this region, and the
abundant food provided the material base for the emergence of civilization in
Mesopotamia. The regular flooding along the Tigris and the Euphrates made the
land around them especially fertile and ideal for growing crops for food. It is where
settled farming first emerged as people started the process of clearance and
modification of natural vegetation in order to grow newly domesticated plants as
crops.
Irrigation
Mesopotamia receives little rainfall, but the Tigris and Euphrates brought large
volumes of freshwater to the region. Early cultivators realized that by tapping these
rivers, building reservoirs, and digging canals, they could irrigate fields of barley,
wheat, and peas. Small-scale irrigation began in Mesopotamia soon after 6000
B.C.E. Artificial irrigation led to increased food supplies, which in turn supported a

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rapidly increasing human population and attracted migrants from other regions.
Human numbers grew especially fast in the land of Sumer in the southern half of
Mesopotamia. It is possible that the people known as the Sumerians already
inhabited this land in the sixth millennium B.C.E., but it is perhaps more likely that
they were later migrants attracted to the region by its agricultural potential. In
either case, by about 5000 B.C.E. the Sumerians were constructing elaborate
irrigation networks that helped them realize abundant agricultural harvests. By
3000 B.C.E. the population of Sumer approached one hundred thousand—an
unprecedented concentration of people in ancient times— and the Sumerians were
the dominant people of Mesopotamia.
Even more important than buildings were the irrigation systems that supported
productive agriculture and urban society. As their population grew, the Sumerians
expanded their networks of reservoirs and canals. The construction, maintenance,
and repair of the irrigation systems required the labor of untold thousands of
workers. Only recognized government authorities had the standing to draft workers
for this difficult labor and order them to participate in such large-scale projects.
Even when the irrigation systems functioned perfectly, recognized authority was still
necessary to ensure equitable distribution of water and to resolve dispute

agriculture - commerce
The economy of the Sumerian city-states was primarily agricultural, but commerce
and industry became important as well. The people of Mesopotamia produced
woolen textiles, pottery, and metalwork. The Sumerians imported copper, tin, and
timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, wheat, and metal goods. Traders
traveled by land to the eastern Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in the
east. The introduction of the wheel, which had been invented around 3000 B.C.E. by
nomadic people living in the region north of the Black Sea, led to carts with wheels
that made the transport of goods easier.

Polytheism religion
The physical environment had an obvious impact on the Mesopotamian view of the
universe. Ferocious floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive
humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian climate. These conditions and the
resulting famines easily convinced Mesopotamians that this world was controlled by
supernatural forces and that the days of human beings ‘‘are numbered; whatever
he may do, he is but wind,’’ as The Epic of Gilgamesh put it. In the presence of
nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates: The
rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which shakes the heavens and causes
earth to tremble, In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, Beats down the
canebrake’s full luxuriant greenery, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.
The Mesopotamians discerned cosmic rhythms in the universe and accepted its

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order but perceived that it was not completely safe because of the presence of
willful, powerful cosmic powers that they identified with gods and goddesses. With
its numerous gods and goddesses animating all aspects of the universe,
Mesopotamian religion was a form of polytheism. The four most important deities
were An, god of the sky and hence the most important force in the universe; Enlil,
god of wind; Enki, god of the earth, rivers, wells, and canals as well as inventions
and crafts; and Ninhursaga, a goddess associated with soil, mountains, and
vegetation, who came to be worshiped as a mother goddess, a ‘‘mother of all
children,’’ who manifested her power by giving birth to kings and conferring the
royal insignia on them. Human relationships with the gods were based on
subservience since, according to Sumerian myth, human beings were created to do
the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do for themselves. Moreover, humans
were insecure because they could never predict the gods’ actions. But humans did
attempt to relieve their anxiety by discovering the intentions of the gods through
divination. Divination took a variety of forms. A common form, at least for kings and
priests who could afford it, involved killing animals, such as sheep or goats, and
examining their livers or other organs. Supposedly, features seen in the organs of
the sacrificed animals foretold events to come. Thus one handbook states that if the
animal organ has shape x, the outcome of the military campaign will be y. The
Mesopotamian arts of divination arose out of the desire to discover the purposes of
the gods. If people could decipher the signs that foretold events, the events would
be predictable and humans could act wisely.

nature sciences
Mesopotamians also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and
astronomy.
In math, the Sumerians devised a number system based on 60, using combinations
of 6 and 10 for practical solutions. Geometry was used to measure fields and erect
buildings.
In astronomy, the Sumerians made use of units of 60 and charted the heavenly
constellations. Their calendar was based on twelve lunar months and was brought
into harmony with the solar year by adding an extra month from time to time.
The Mesopotamians are credited with inventing the wheel, which was a significant
technological advancement that helped to revolutionize transportation and
agriculture.

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Society: Productive agricultural economies supported the development of the
world’s first complex societies, in which sizable numbers of people lived in cities and
extended their political, social, economic, and cultural influence over large regions.

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The earliest urban societies so far known emerged during the early fourth
millennium B.C.E. in southwest Asia, particularly in Mesopotamia.
[1] Upper Class
In early Mesopotamia the ruling classes consisted of kings and nobles who won their
positions because of their valor and success as warriors. The leader of the
community was the king. He had a special connection to the gods. Community
members originally elected their kings, but royal status soon became hereditary, as
kings arranged for their sons to succeed them.
Closely allied with the ruling elites were priests and priestesses, many of whom
were younger relatives of the rulers. They not only were in charge of religious rites,
but were the first healers — the first physicians and dentists. Early on, men and
women were priests, but it eventually became much more a job for men.
Other wealthy and powerful positions were scribes (few people knew how to read
and write) and those with various high-level governmental positions.
[2] Middle Class
A small middle class existed. It was made up of minor governmental workers,
merchants, and craft workers. They played an important role in day-to-day affairs.
One sign of class status, like today, would be the type of house one lived in. The
middle and lower classes lived in mud brick (good for insulation, keeping homes
cool in the summer and warm in the winter) homes with flat roofs where people
would sleep during hot, long summers.
The upper classes had more elaborate homes, often two or three stories high.
[3] Lower Class
Lower classes were made up of such people as laborers, farmers, soldiers, and
sailors.
The lower classes, the so-called “commoners,” were an important part of a thriving
community. They were taxed a part of their labor and goods, for example paying
with a portion of their crops. They also were occasionally required to help with
public work projects and to serve in the military.
The poor might not be able to afford things like wooden beds and slept on mats on
the floor.
The lower class did not have a role in the governing of society, but was the largest
group. Punishment for breaking the law was also different for the lower class. If the
lower class was not happy, there could be trouble.
[4] Slaves
The lowest class were slaves. Mesopotamian slaves were not of any specific race or
ethnicity. People could become slaves in a variety of ways: prisoners of war,

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payment of debts, punishment for a crime (compare: the Thirteenth Amendment),
and being kidnapped to sold into slavery.
They often had the hardest job, such as building roads and temples. There were
some more educated slaves who taught or did jobs such as jewelry making and
accounting. Slaves could also have special responsibilities, such as running a
household. They had diverse roles.

Civilisation Role: Mesopotamia remained an important crossroads of trade, culture,

and religion, with its location at the heart of the ancient Near East allowing it to
connect with other civilizations throughout the region. The legacy of Mesopotamian
society can be seen in many aspects of modern-day society, including in the
development of writing, law, and religion.

Economic Specialization and Trade: When large numbers of people began to

congregate in cities and work at tasks other than agriculture, they vastly expanded
the stock of human skills. Craftsmen refined techniques inherited from earlier
generations and experimented with new ways of doing things. Pottery, textile
manufacture, woodworking, leather production, brick making, stonecutting, and
masonry all became distinct occupations in the world’s earliest cities

Women’s role: In spite of their subordinate legal status, women made their influence
felt in Mesopotamian society. At ruling courts women sometimes advised kings and
their governments. A few women wielded great power as high priestesses who
managed the enormous estates belonging to their temples. Others obtained a
formal education and worked as scribes—literate individuals who prepared
administrative and legal documents for governments and private parties. Women
also pursued careers as midwives, shopkeepers, brewers, bakers, tavern keepers,
and textile manufacturers.
During the second millennium B.C.E., Mesopotamian men progressively tightened
their control over the social and sexual behavior of women. To protect family
fortunes and guarantee the legitimacy of heirs, Mesopotamians insisted on the
virginity of brides at marriage, and they forbade casual socializing between married
women and men outside their family. By 1500 B.C.E. and probably even earlier,
married women in Mesopotamian cities had begun to wear veils when they ventured
beyond their own households to discourage the attention of men from other
families. This concern to control women’s social and sexual behavior spread
throughout much of southwest Asia and the Mediterranean basin, where it
reinforced patriarchal social structures

Patriarchal Society: While recognizing differences of rank, wealth, and social status,
Mesopotamians also built a patriarchal society that vested authority over public and

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private affairs in adult men. Within their households men decided the work that
family members would perform and made marriage arrangements for their children
as well as any others who came under their authority. Men also dominated public
life. Men ruled as kings, and decisions about policies and public affairs rested almost
entirely in men’s hands. Hammurabi’s laws throw considerable light on sex and
gender relations in ancient Mesopotamia. The laws recognized men as heads of
their households and entrusted all major family decisions to their judgment. Men
even had the power to sell their wives and children into slavery to satisfy their
debts. In the interests of protecting the reputations of husbands and the legitimacy
of offspring, the laws prescribed death by drowning as the punishment for
adulterous wives, as well as for their partners, while permitting men to engage in
consensual sexual relations with concubines, slaves, or prostitutes without penalty

Education: Most education in ancient times was vocational instruction designed to

train individuals to work in specific trades and crafts. Yet Mesopotamians also
established formal schools, since it required a great deal of time and concentrated
effort to learn cuneiform writing. Most of those who learned to read and write
became scribes or government officials. A few pursued their studies further and
became priests, physicians, or professionals such as engineers and architects.
Formal education was by no means common, but already by 3000 B.C.E., literacy
was essential to the smooth functioning of Mesopotamian society.

Writing system: The world’s earliest known writing came from Mesopotamia.
Sumerians invented a system of writing about the middle of the fourth millennium
B.C.E. to keep track of commercial transactions and tax collections. They first
experimented with pictographs representing animals, agricultural products, and
trade items—such as sheep, oxen, wheat, barley, pots, and fish—that figured
prominently in tax and commercial transactions. By 3100 B.C.E. conventional signs
representing specific words had spread throughout Mesopotamia. A writing system
that depends on pictures is useful for purposes such as keeping records, but it is a
cumbersome way to communicate abstract ideas. Beginning about 2900 B.C.E. the
Sumerians developed a more flexible system of writing that used graphic symbols
to represent sounds, syllables, and ideas as well as physical objects. By combining
pictographs and other symbols, the Sumerians created a powerful writing system.
Though originally invented for purposes of keeping records, writing clearly had
potential that went far beyond the purely practical matter of storing information.
Mesopotamians relied on writing to communicate complex ideas about the world,
the gods, human beings, and their relationships with one another. Indeed, writing
made possible the emergence of a distinctive cultural tradition that shaped
Mesopotamian values for almost three thousand years.
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Homework Question: What was the foundation of the city-state in Mesopotamia and
how it contributed to the development of this civilisation?
The foundation of the city-state in Mesopotamia was based on the development of
irrigation systems that allowed for the cultivation of crops and the rise of a surplus
economy. This surplus allowed for the development of specialized occupations, such
as priests, soldiers, and artisans. As a result, a social hierarchy began to emerge,
which was further reinforced by the development of writing and laws.
The city-states in Mesopotamia were fiercely independent and often competed for
resources and territory. This competition led to the development of innovations such
as the wheel, plow, and chariot, which helped to strengthen these city-states and
further advance their economies and military capabilities.
The city-states also developed complex systems of laws and government, which
influenced later civilizations in the region and beyond. For example, the Code of
Hammurabi, created in Babylon around 1754 BCE, was one of the earliest known
legal codes and provided a model for future societies seeking to establish clear laws
and punishments.
Overall, the foundation of the city-state in Mesopotamia was a key factor in the
development of this civilization, as it allowed for the growth of a complex society
with diverse occupations, advanced technology, and sophisticated legal systems.

Focus Question: How are the chief characteristics of civilization evident in ancient
Mesopotamia?
The ancient civilization of Mesopotamia, located in present-day Iraq, was
characterized by several key features, including:
1. Agriculture: Mesopotamians developed complex irrigation systems to support
their agricultural practices and grow crops such as wheat, barley, and dates.
2. Writing: The Sumerians of Mesopotamia developed one of the earliest writing
systems, known as cuneiform, which allowed for record-keeping, communication,
and the spread of ideas.
3. Cities: Mesopotamia was home to some of the earliest cities, including Ur and
Babylon, which were centers of trade, governance, and religion.
4. Technology: Mesopotamians made significant technological advancements,
including the invention of the wheel, plow, and sailboat.
5. Social hierarchy: Mesopotamian society was organized into distinct social classes,
with rulers and priests at the top and slaves at the bottom.
6. Religion: Mesopotamians practiced a polytheistic religion, worshiping a pantheon
of gods and goddesses who ruled over various aspects of life.

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Overall, these characteristics helped to define Mesopotamia as one of the world's
earliest civilizations, and laid the foundation for many of the cultural, social, and
technological developments that followed.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DEBATE
1.Is there any relationship between the Hammurabi foundation and the
development of Mesopotamia?
The Hammurabi code established a firm set of legal laws in Mesopotamia, and
helped keep order and stability throughout the reign of king Hammurabi. It assesses
agricultural laws related to trade and the growth of urbanization, social classes and
gender roles relating to the loss of status for women in society, and the topics of
religion and justice helping Hammurabi maintain his power and his legacy.
2. What criteria to evaluate which class is higher than other classes ?
There are 3 main criteria used in the determination of social class : Wealth, Prestige
and Education. For example, The King was the top rank holder of the Mesopotamia
social hierarchy as he belonged to all three criteria. The kings were responsible for
creating the laws (Education). They were believed to be literal gods on earth.They
served as the head of the army (Prestige) They used to wear a lot of jewelry made
up of gold and had nice clothing. (Wealth).
3. King invented the code but was there any help in creating it and can anyone
adjust the law ?
Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he
claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. In the
prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent
the strong from oppressing the weak", which served as a mythic explanation for its
origin.
In fact, although the Code of Hammurabi is often cited as the oldest written laws on
record, they were predated by at least two other ancient codes of conduct from the
Middle East. The earliest, created by the Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu of the city of Ur,
dates all the way back to the 21st century B.C., and evidence also shows that the
Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin was drawn up nearly two centuries before
Hammurabi came to power. These earlier codes both bear a striking resemblance to
Hammurabi’s commands in their style and content, suggesting they may have
influenced one another or perhaps even derived from a similar source.
4. The reaction of commoners to the code? What made them obey the code ?
Hammurabi’s code was instituted throughout the land, unifying the people under
law instead of only by conquest. In the prologue to his code, he not only makes
clear that these are divine laws (by engraving at the top of the stele the image of
the god of justice, Shamashe, handing the laws down to Hammurabi) but that he
had only the people’s best interests at heart in administering them. The concept of
the law as an institution that protects the weak from the strong, as a force before
which all people were equal, encouraged respect and admiration not only for the

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laws but also the lawgiver. The people recognized the laws of Hammurabi as
working in their own interest and so upheld them, encouraging further stability and
allowing for cultural advances.
5. Hammurabi includes 2 main points: to punish the bad and to promote the good
but they concentrated on punishment more than praise. How did it affect society
because the good wasn't praised? => Nothing to encourage the good
The act of abiding by the law is enough to ensure fairness and safety for all. That’s
already encouraging the good.
6. Condition of Hammurabi code? Why was it created?
Hammurabi's code was the first code of laws that was actually written down,
making it the first written legal document. Hammurabi ruled Babylon from 1,792-
1,750 BCE and created the codes to protect its citizens.
7. What is the contribution of the Hammurabi code to the world?
Historians describe the Hammurabi code as a surviving symbol of an ancient
Mesopotamian system for solving disputes, punishing crimes and regulating
business practices, which was an early influence upon the development over many
centuries of the systems of laws and courts that govern the U.S. and other modern
societies. Society would not be the same if it weren’t for this. Hammurabi’s code
demonstrates the start of an organized society and civilized group of people.
DEBATE MOSTLY ABOUT HAMMURABI CODE

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