Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.

com

Inverse Abdominoplasty An Illustrated Guide

1st Edition Kemal Tunc Tiryaki (Eds.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/inverse-
abdominoplasty-an-illustrated-guide-1st-edition-
kemal-tunc-tiryaki-eds/

Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Landforms of the Earth An Illustrated Guide 1st Edition

Francisco Gutiérrez

https://textbookfull.com/product/landforms-of-the-earth-an-
illustrated-guide-1st-edition-francisco-gutierrez/

textbookfull.com

Kant's Humorous Writings: An Illustrated Guide 1st Edition

Robert R. Clewis

https://textbookfull.com/product/kants-humorous-writings-an-
illustrated-guide-1st-edition-robert-r-clewis/

textbookfull.com

Learning supportive psychotherapy An illustrated guide

Second Edition Arnold Winston

https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-supportive-psychotherapy-an-
illustrated-guide-second-edition-arnold-winston/

textbookfull.com

Bioinformatics in Aquaculture: Principles and Methods 1st

Edition Zhanjiang (John) Liu

https://textbookfull.com/product/bioinformatics-in-aquaculture-
principles-and-methods-1st-edition-zhanjiang-john-liu/

textbookfull.com
Attainable Sustainable 1st Edition Kris Bordessa

https://textbookfull.com/product/attainable-sustainable-1st-edition-
kris-bordessa/

textbookfull.com

General Studies 101 Speed Tests with 10 Practice Sets -

3rd Edition Disha Publication

https://textbookfull.com/product/general-studies-101-speed-tests-
with-10-practice-sets-3rd-edition-disha-publication/

textbookfull.com

Pediatric Respiratory Diseases A Comprehensive Textbook

1st Edition Pablo José Bertrand

https://textbookfull.com/product/pediatric-respiratory-diseases-a-
comprehensive-textbook-1st-edition-pablo-jose-bertrand/

textbookfull.com

Water Management and Public Participation Case Studies

from the Yamuna River Basin India 1st Edition Alka
Upadhyay
https://textbookfull.com/product/water-management-and-public-
participation-case-studies-from-the-yamuna-river-basin-india-1st-
edition-alka-upadhyay/
textbookfull.com

Red Book Atlas of Pediatric Infectious Diseases 4th

Edition American Academy Of Pediatrics

https://textbookfull.com/product/red-book-atlas-of-pediatric-
infectious-diseases-4th-edition-american-academy-of-pediatrics/

textbookfull.com
Change Your World: How Anyone, Anywhere Can Make A
Difference 1st Edition John C. Maxwell

https://textbookfull.com/product/change-your-world-how-anyone-
anywhere-can-make-a-difference-1st-edition-john-c-maxwell/

textbookfull.com
 Kemal Tunc Tiryaki
Editor

Inverse
Abdominoplasty

An Illustrated Guide

123
Inverse Abdominoplasty
Kemal Tunc Tiryaki
Editor

Inverse Abdominoplasty
An Illustrated Guide
Editor
Kemal Tunc Tiryaki
Department of Plastic Surgery
Cellest Plastic Surgery Center
Istanbul
Turkey

ISBN 978-3-319-39308-7 ISBN 978-3-319-39310-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39310-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956706

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgments

I was contemplating about penning together a book that would define abdominal
beauty and what it takes to surgically recreate it for some time, but it was only when
an offer came from Springer Verlag that I seriously considered doing it. Theirs was
a perfect timing, right after the American-Brazilian Meeting in 2015, where I had a
presentation on abdominal beauty and the surgical maneuvers to fashion the abdom-
inal shape and shadows, which we finally find beautiful.
All throughout this time, I took a great pleasure working on this book, and I am
particularly proud of putting together such a great team of authors for this project.
I owe a great deal of what I know to my experience from my fellowship with Dr.
Osman Oymak, with whom I am working together since 1999. It is Osman, who
patiently taught me aesthetic plastic surgery operations, as well as many other
details like the art of patient relationships and care.
However I would never have had the chance to work together with him had not I
been in the masterful guiding hands of my professor of residency, Dr. Adnan
Uzunismail. Under his supervision I became the plastic reconstructive surgeon, who
could put this book together with my fellow authors.
I want to thank also Dr. Nazım Cerkes and Dr. Renato Saltz for their inspiration
for me to try to teach and share everything I do and I learn. Last but not least, I thank
my wife Sylvia and my son Teodor for their continuous support.

v
Foreword

It is an honor and great privilege to write this foreword. Dr. Tunc Tiryaki is a
renowned educator, forward thinker, and internationally recognized leader in aes-
thetic plastic surgery.
I have known Tunc for many years and have always been very impressed with his
surgical skills; outstanding teaching abilities; and his creative, innovative mind. He
has distinguished himself not only in his native city of Istanbul but throughout the
world.
Obesity, childbearing, and sedentary life can affect the abdominal muscles,
abdominal fat, and skin in many different negative ways. Abdominoplasty com-
bined with liposuction and other body contouring techniques is an effective, safe
way to restore the original “core anatomy,” to improve torso contouring, and to
provide long-term good functional and cosmetic improvements never achievable by
diet and exercise only. These patients are so happy and motivated with their “new
appearance,” and they become addicted to healthier diets, exercise, and a completely
healthier life – these are some of the happiest patients I have in my practice! In the
morbid obese group of patients, studies have shown a significant long-term loss of
weight, spontaneous recovery from many illnesses like diabetes and hypertension,
improvement in cardiovascular risk factors, and a reduction in mortality.
Plastic and reconstructive surgeons have risen to the occasion and have devel-
oped new and safe techniques to help this group of patients dealing with poor mus-
cle anatomy and redundant skin and fat on their abdomens. Similar to what we have
witnessed in the past when innovative techniques in craniofacial, microsurgery, and
endoscopic surgery have emerged to face reconstructive and cosmetic challenges in
burns, cancer, and trauma.
Dr. Tiryaki has assembled a group of knowledgeable experts who have contrib-
uted to this comprehensive and practical text covering all aspects of modern and
safe abdominoplasty. Of particular interest is the fact he has included young col-
leagues among renowned experienced authors who have published extensively in
this challenging topic.

vii
viii Foreword

His text has many interesting chapters. I call your attention for the first few deal-
ing with the functional and surgical anatomy, the chapters on interesting new con-
cepts of forces and tension to create beauty, and many new options and techniques
in abdominoplasty. The final chapters deal with the combination of procedures, pre-
vention of complications, and the critical postoperative care to avoid infection,
hematomas, and the always feared deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary
embolism.
Congratulations to Dr. Tunc Tiryaki and the very distinguished group of authors
for this landmark contribution to aesthetic plastic surgery. This is a must-have book
to all the novice and also the experienced cosmetic surgeons that specialize in body
contouring surgery.

Salt Lake City, Utah Renato Saltz

Contents

1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Derya Bingöl, Ozay Ozkaya Mutlu, and Osman Oymak
2 Anesthesia and Algology in Abdominal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Ibrahim Ozdilmac
3 Patient Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Akin Yucel
4 The Theory of Inverse Abdominoplasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Tunc Tiryaki
5 The Technique of Inverse Abdominoplasty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Tunc Tiryaki
6 Inverse Mini-abdominoplasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Tunc Tiryaki and Asu Deniz Burhanoglu
7 Abdominoplasty as a Combined Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Derya Ozçelik and Renato Saltz
8 Umbilicus Management – History and New Trends:
Creating a Neo-umbilicus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Kai Uwe Schlaudraff
9 Abdominal Wall Hernias and Their Repair
with Inverse Abdominoplasty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Ozay Ozkaya Mutlu, Ozlem Colak, and Murat Atay
10 Prevention and Management of Abdominoplasty Complications . . . 175
Semih Baghaki and Lina Triana
11 Postoperative Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Esin Aksungur

ix
Chapter 1
Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall

Derya Bingöl, Ozay Ozkaya Mutlu, and Osman Oymak

The objective of this chapter is to concentrate the attention of the reader on particu-
lar anatomical details of the abdominal wall, which are important for the surgical
perspective.
As such, the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and
pelvis. The outline of the anterior abdominal wall is approximately hexagonal in
shape. It is bounded superiorly by the arched costal margin, laterally by the midaxil-
lary lines on either side bilaterally, and the anterior abdominal wall is in continuity,
by the anterior half of the iliac crest, inguinal ligament, pubic crest, and pubic sym-
physis, inferiorly [1].
Externally, there are three basic anatomical landmarks in the abdominal area.
These lines are demarking the grooves and eminences of the abdominal area. In
order to mimic this ideal anatomy and to create a beautiful result, these structures
are to be recreated (Fig. 1.1).

1.1 Linea Semilunaris

The linea semilunares can be seen as a pair of linear impressions in the skin that
correspond with the lateral most edges of the rectus abdominis. It is formed by the

D. Bingöl, MD
Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery Clinic, Medikal Park Hospital, Bursa, Turkey
O.O. Mutlu, MD
Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery Clinic, Okmeydanı Training and
Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
O. Oymak (*)
Oymak Plastic Surgery Clinic (OPC), Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

K.T. Tiryaki (ed.), Inverse Abdominoplasty, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39310-0_1
2 D. Bingöl et al.

Fig. 1.1 A Linea alba B

Linea semilunaris C
Arcuate line

band of aponeuroses of the external oblique, the internal oblique, and transverse
abdominal muscles [2].

1.2 Arcuate Line

The arcuate line is defined by the most inferior extension of the posterior rectus
sheath, forming a crescent-shaped border. The arcuate line is generally located two
fingerbreadths from the umbilicus to midway between the umbilicus and pubis.
There are reports in the literature, however, that state the arcuate line is closer to
75 % of the distance between pubic crest to umbilicus or 1.8 cm superior to the ante-
rior superior iliac spine [3]. It is not visible from the exterior [3].

1.3 Linea Alba

In the midline, a slight furrow extends from the xiphoid process above, to the pubic
symphysis below, representing the linea alba in the abdominal wall. The fibres of
the anterior and posterior sheaths of the rectus muscle interlace at the midline, form-
ing the linea alba.
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 3

From the surgical anatomical perspective, the abdominal wall consists of various
structural layers.

1.4 Layers of the Abdominal Wall

From the surgical anatomical perspective, the abdominal wall consists of various
layers, namely, the skin, superficial fascia, fat, muscles, the transversalis fascia, and
the parietal peritoneum.

1.4.1 Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue

This outmost layer consists of the skin, superficial fat layer, the fascia superficialis
(Scarpa’s fascia), and the deep fat layer.

1.4.1.1 Skin

Epidermis The epidermis is formed of five layers, and the epithelial cells trans-
form itself into a keratin layer, which constantly peels off.

Dermis The deeper structure called the dermis has two layers with no threshold
between them. They are:
• The papillary layer which is thinner and external
• The reticular layer which is deeper and denser
The skin covering the anterior abdominal wall is thin, in comparison with that of the
back, and is relatively mobile over the underlying structural layers except at the
umbilical region, where it is fixed. The thickness of the abdominal skin seems to
augment when approaching the midline and especially around the umbilicus.
Natural elastic traction lines of the skin (also known as skin tension lines or Kraissl’s
lines) of the anterior abdominal wall are disposed transversely. Above the level of
the umbilicus, these tension lines extend mostly in a horizontal direction, while
below this level, they continue along with a slight inferomedial oblique direction.
Incisions made along, or parallel to, these lines tend to heal without much scarring,
whereas incisions that cross these lines tend to result in wide or heaped-up scars [1].

1.4.1.2 Superficial Fat Layer (Superficial Adipose Tissue)

Superficial fat, just under the dermis, is formed of large fat lobes encased between
fibrous septa in a honeycomb-like structure and presents nearly constant character-
istics throughout. These septa (retinacula cutis superficialis or Camper`s fascia)
4 D. Bingöl et al.

Fig. 1.2 Retinacula cutis

superficialis or Camper’s
fascia

Fig. 1.3 The attachments

of Camper’s fascia to the
skin above the umbilicus
can occasionally create a
deep horizontal line

appear well defined. They are mostly oriented perpendicular to the surface and are
mechanically strong, anchoring the dermis to the deeper planes (Fig. 1.2).
Stronger attachments to the dermis in the midline and above the umbilicus have
been reported [4]. This is the reason why liposuction performed above the umbilicus
and close to the midline is more prone to result in irregularities. The attachments of
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 5

the retinacula cutis superficialis to the skin at 5–7 cm above the umbilicus can occa-
sionally be stronger than usual and create a deep horizontal line. This deformity
cannot be corrected by classical or scarpa-saving undermining – more superficial
interventions are necessary (Fig. 1.3).

Things to Remember
• In order to mimic this ideal anatomy and to create a beautiful result, the
superficial landmarks are to be recreated.
• Liposuction performed above the umbilicus and close to the midline is
more prone to irregularities.
• On rare occasions particularly above the umbilicus, the retinacula cutis
superficialis’ attachments to the skin may be stronger than usual and create
a deep horizontal line.
• This deformity cannot be corrected by classical or scarpa-saving under-
mining – more superficial interventions are necessary.

1.4.1.3 Fascia Superficialis (Scarpa’s Fascia)

The superficial fascia comprises two distinct layers: an outer, adipose layer lying
subjacent to the dermis and an inner fibroelastic layer termed Scarpa’s fascia, the
membranous layer of superficial fascia [1]. The fibrous layer with a membranous
appearance –the fascia superficialis – is continuous and well organized. It separates
the superficial and deep adipose tissues (Fig. 1.4).
This layer can be followed as a dissection plane from the thorax to the inguinal
ligament. It does not appear uniform in thickness. Being a well-defined white layer
in the lower abdomen, thickening toward the inguinal ligament where a multilay-
ered structure of multidirectional collagen bundles is perceptible. The Scarpa’s fas-
cia loses consistency in the upper abdomen, where it can be identified as a much
thinner translucid collagen layer through which adipose tissue can be seen [4]. This
membrane, which is strongly fused medially to the linea alba and caudally to the

Fig. 1.4 Scarpa’s fascia

6 D. Bingöl et al.

inguinal ligament and the osseous prominence of the iliac crest, cranially continues
into the thorax. The membranous layer (Scarpa’s fascia) is an important structure,
which is strong enough to diminish the tension of sutures when identified and
sutured in continuity during closure of the abdominal flap [5].

1.4.1.4 Deep Fat Layer (Deep Adipose Tissue, DAT)

Deep adipose tissue appears very different from the superficial adipose tissue, as its
fat lobes are smaller, flatter, and less well defined (Fig. 1.5). This adipose layer
shows significant variations in terms of thickness between different areas. Towards
the points, at which the membranous layer of the subcutaneous tissue adheres to
salient structures (e.g., the inguinal ligament, bony prominences, linea alba), they
become thinner and tend to progressively reduce the fat component. However, the
network of collagen fibres (retinacula cutis profunda) become stronger and more
tightly packed and connects the deep aspect of the membranous layer to the deep
fascia.
In the deep adipose layer, the fibrous septa are predominantly obliquely and hori-
zontally oriented (retinacula cutis profunda) and connect the membranous layer
(Scarpa’s fascia) to the fascia of the rectus abdominis or external oblique muscle
[4]. The membranous layers DAT and SAT create a sliding system that absorb the
mechanical stimulations applied to the skin or that are generated by muscular
contractions.
In this way the subcutaneous tissue ensures autonomy between the skin and the
muscles. If any scarring creates adhesion between the skin, membranous layer, and
deep fascia, every muscular contraction could also affect the skin, activating the
cutaneous receptors – also vice versa: every stimulation of the skin could be trans-
mitted to the underlying structures. This may explain the importance of the correct
layered reconstruction of the subcutaneous tissue in avoiding complications after
closure of the abdominal surgery wounds [4].

Things to Remember
1. A trilaminar structure is always present at the abdominal subcutis.
2. Over the rectus abdominis muscle, there is a thicker region, and the differ-
ence is mainly attributable to the superficial compartment.
3. The deep fat compartment has a minor contribution to the overall thick-
ness, which is less than 25 % of the total thickness.
4. The superficial fat compartment is more susceptible to increase in thick-
ness in obesity compared with the deep compartment.
5. The Scarpa’s fascia is always present and does not become vestigial with
increased adiposity [6].
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 7

Fig. 1.5 Deep adipose

tissue appears very
different from the
superficial adipose tissue,
as its fat lobes are smaller,
flatter, and less well
defined

1.5 Musculofascial System of the Abdomen

The abdominal wall consists of five paired muscles: three flat muscles and two verti-
cal muscles. The three flat muscles are the external oblique, internal oblique, and the
transversus abdominis. The two vertical muscles are the rectus abdominis and
pyramidalis. The three-layered structure, combined with extensive aponeuroses,
works in a synkinetic fashion. Fusion of the fascial layers of these muscles forms
three distinct fascial lines: the linea alba and two semilunar lines. The linea alba is
formed by the fusion of both rectus sheaths at the midline, while the semilunar lines
are formed by the union of the internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and external
oblique as they join the rectus sheath (Fig. 1.6).
The abdominal muscular anatomy is well known with one vertical muscle ante-
riorly and three large lateral muscles overlying each other inversely. The vertical
rectus muscle is divided by the linea alba.

1.5.1 Linea Alba

The linea alba is the rest of the embryonic ventral suture made up of three dis-
tinct aponeurotic layers originating from three lateral abdominal muscles,
migrating to the midline, encircling the rectus abdominis muscle and fusing in
the midline. It is a three-dimensional composition of tendon fibres from abdomi-
nal wall muscles. The cranial aspect is attached to the xiphoid process of the
sternum, while caudally, it inserts at the pubic symphysis. This strong attachment
to the sternum prevents any hyperextension of the vertebral structures. Also, the
midline insertions of these fibres play a significant role in stabilizing the abdomi-
nal wall [2, 7].
According to the orientation of the collagen fibres, the linea alba is organized into
three laminae: the anterior, the middle, and the posterior laminas. Substantial amounts
of elastic fibres are in all the laminae at all levels of the linea alba. The elastic fibres
8 D. Bingöl et al.

Rectus abdominis muscle and rectus sheath Aponeurosis of

Rectus abdominis external oblique
a b Aponeurosis of
internal oblique

Tendinous Skin
intersections
Superfical fascia
External oblique
Aponeurosis
Linea alba of transversus abdominis Peritoneum Internal oblique
Linea semilunaris
Transversus
abdominis
c
Anterior
Rectus
superior
abdominis
iliac spine
Peritoneum
Inguinal ligament Public tubercule Extraperitoneal fat
Transversalis fascia

a Right rectus abdominis after removal of the anterior layer of its sheath. b and c Transverse section of the anterior abdominal wall showing
the interlacing fibres of the aponeuroses of the right and left oblique and transversus abdominis muscles, above b and below c the arcuate
lines

Fig. 1.6 Musculofascial system of the abdomen. (a) Right rectus abdominis after removal of the
anterior layer of its sheath. (b, c) Transverse sections of the anterior abdominal wall showing the
interlacing fibres of the aponeuroses of the right and left oblique and transversus abdominis mus-
cles, above (b) and below (c) the arcuate lines (Source: Moore [19])

Fig. 1.7 The dehiscence

of the linea alba

are, however, more concentrated in the anterior lamina, followed by the posterior
lamina, while the middle lamina contains the least [8]. Higher concentrations of elas-
tic fibres in the caudal, anterior, and lateral parts of the linea alba may be an adapta-
tion to more forces in these areas as a consequence of the erectness of the trunk.
Below the umbilicus, the linea alba is weaker due to the absence of the third lay-
ers coming from the rectus muscles. During post-pregnancy the upper part is the
most affected [8]. With age the linea alba dehisces, reaching 10 mm at 45 years of
age and 15 mm after 45 years [7] (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8).
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 9

Fig. 1.8 Any suture on the

abdominal muscle fascia
must be placed
perpendicular to the linea
alba for a better hold

1.5.2 Rectus Muscle

The rectus is a long, strap-like vertical muscle lying on either side of the midline.
The upper part is attached to the external part of the costal cartilages and the xiphoid
process, and it ends in the lower abdomen, with insertions into the pubis and sym-
physis. Superiorly, the rectus is wide at 15 cm, broad, and thin, gradually becoming
narrow (7 cm) and thick inferiorly. Segmentation of each rectus muscle occurs
through tendinous intersections that attach the rectus muscle with the anterior layer
of the rectus sheath. In 80 % of people, there is a small triangular muscle, called the
pyramidalis, located anterior to the inferior part of the rectus. This muscle assists in
tensing the linea alba.
It is interesting to note that the number of intersections of this muscle appears to
have decreased through evolutional history: 12 in horses, 6 in gorillas, and 4 in men
[7]. This shows the decreased need of the reinforcement in erected position. The
rectus sheath has contributions from all three abdominal muscles’ aponeuroses
inferior to the umbilicus. The anterior sheath superior to the umbilicus is composed
only of aponeuroses from the external and internal abdominal muscles. The trans-
versalis aponeurosis does not assist with the formation of the anterior sheath at this
level (Fig. 1.9).
In effect, the internal oblique aponeurosis splits, allowing one layer to pass
anteriorly and another one posteriorly to the rectus muscle. The anterior layer will
then join with the external oblique aponeurosis to form the anterior wall of the
rectus sheath. The anterior sheath can be considered a composite of all three apo-
neurotic layers at a variable level below the umbilicus. The posterior sheath can be
similarly described in relation to the umbilicus. Superior to the umbilicus, the
posterior sheath consists of contributions from both the aponeuroses of the inter-
nal oblique and the transversus abdominis. Inferior to the umbilicus, the external
10 D. Bingöl et al.

External oblique

Costal level Costal cartilage

External oblique
Internal oblique
Superior to umbilicus
Transversalis

External oblique
Internal oblique
Transversalis
Inferior to umbilicus

Fig. 1.9 The axial anatomy of linea alba and fascial system at different levels

abdominal aponeurosis does not contribute to the formation of the posterior rectus
sheath.
The arcuate line is defined by the most inferior extension of the posterior sheath
forming a crescent-shaped border. In the midline, fibres of the anterior and posterior
sheaths interlace forming the linea alba. It is now understood that mechanical forces
acting here contribute to the formation of epigastric hernias [9].
The ratio of collagen types I and III in the composition of the aponeurosis is a
genetic condition, and there is also a change in this in relation to age. With age, the
ratio of type I to type III changes in favour of type III which is less elastic and has
less capacity to absorb water. Thus, it could be claimed that the aponeurosis becomes
weaker and vulnerable with age.
Another factor that may play a role in the correction of the musculoaponeurotic
layer is the level of collagen deposits in muscles. Deposits of collagen within the
muscles (types I, III, IV, and V) are located in the epimysium, perimysium, and
endomysium [10].
With age, there is also an increase in the total number of fibres, which causes the
muscles to become less flexible and pliable. This may increase resistance to mobi-
lization of the muscles during the correction of abdominal deformities. Furthermore,
it is important to stress that there is a relationship between the size of the musculo-
aponeurotic deformity and skin excess on the abdomen [4, 10].
Collagen fibres of the rectus fascia after leaving the line alba to medial go with
an angle which varies and tends, with age, to end in a horizontal line.
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 11

1.5.3 Pyramidalis Muscle

The pyramidalis is a small triangular muscle located anterior to the inferior aspect
of rectus abdominis that is absent in about 20 % of the population. The pyramidalis
originates from the pubis inferior to the insertion of the rectus abdominis and inserts
into the linea alba inferior to the umbilicus to assist in stabilization of the abdominal
wall [2].

1.5.4 External Oblique Muscle

This is the most superficial lateral muscle and the largest and thickest of the three
flat muscles of the abdomen. The muscle arises from the lowermost eight ribs
posteriorly to interdigitate with both the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi
muscles and courses inferior-medially, attaching by means of its aponeurosis cen-
trally at the linea alba. Inferiorly, the external oblique aponeurosis folds back upon
itself and forms the inguinal ligament between the anterior superior iliac spine and
the pubic tubercle [11].

1.5.5 Internal Oblique Muscle

The internal oblique muscle originates from the anterior portion of iliac crest, lateral
half to two-thirds of inguinal ligament, and posterior aponeurosis of the transversus
abdominis muscle. The fibres run superiorly–anteriorly at right angles to the exter-
nal oblique and insert on the cartilages of the lower four ribs [11].
These muscle fibres are differently oriented in the upper and lower parts. The
Spiegel line is at the transition of the muscular and aponeurotic parts of the muscle.
This weak line can cause lateral hernias [7]. If required, lateral tightening must be
done at this line and at the internal oblique level. The aponeurotic part fuses with the
opposed muscle aponeurosis in the middle to form the linea alba. This fusion is
absent in the lower quarter of the linea alba.

1.5.6 Transversalis Muscle (Transversus Abdominis)

The muscle transversalis is the deepest muscle with horizontally oriented fibres and
has a very important role to play in expiration. These muscles arise from the inner
surface of the 7th–12th costal cartilages, the iliac crest, and the lateral third of the
inguinal ligament. These fibres course medially to the lateral border of the rectus
12 D. Bingöl et al.

muscle. The end of the muscle fibres and the beginning of aponeurosis is called the
linea semilunaris. The aponeurosis fuses to the posterior rectus fascia [4] (Fig. 1.10).

Things to Remember
• Linea alba strongly attaches to the sternum to prevent any hyperextension
of the vertebral structures.
• With age the linea alba dehisces, reaching 10 mm at 45 years of age and
15 mm after 45 years.
• With age, the ratio of type I to type III changes in favour of type III which
is less elastic and has less capacity to absorb water. Thus, it could be
claimed that the aponeurosis becomes weaker and vulnerable with age.
• With age, there is also an increase in the total number of fibres, which
causes the muscles to become less flexible and pliable. This may increase
resistance to mobilization of the muscles during the correction of abdomi-
nal deformities.
• The Spiegel line is at the transition of the muscular and aponeurotic parts
of the muscle. This weak line can cause lateral hernias.

Fig. 1.10 Anterior and

lateral abdominal muscles
(Pulikkottil et al. [20])
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 13

1.6 Abdominal Blood Supply

Three major arterial branches supply blood to either side of the anterior abdominal
wall which includes two branches of the external iliac artery and a branch of the
internal thoracic artery. The inferior epigastric artery which is a branch of the
external iliac artery travels within the transversalis fascia until it reaches the arcu-
ate line where it pierces the rectus sheath. The second branch of the external iliac
artery, the deep circumflex iliac artery, runs parallel to the inguinal ligament
between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles. The superior epi-
gastric artery, the terminal branch of the internal thoracic artery, enters the rectus
sheath superiorly [9] (Fig. 1.11).
The posterior intercostal arteries (which accompany the intercostal nerves) sup-
ply the three-ply muscles in the lateral part of the anterior abdominal wall and in this
function are reinforced by the lumbar arteries, which are branches of the abdominal
aorta [1].

Serratus anterior
muscle

Cut edge
anterior rectus
sheath

Superior epigastris
External oblique artery, vein
muscle

Posterior rectus sheath

Lateral cutaneous
intercostal nerve
Anterior cutaneous
intercostal nerve
Cut edge, internal
oblique aponeurosis Internal oblique
muscle
Arcuate line
Rectus abdominis
muscle
Inferior epigastric
artery, vein

Round ligament
Superficial iliac of uterus (female)
circumflex artery

Fig. 1.11 Blood supply – anterior abdominal wall (Ahluwalia et al. [9])
14 D. Bingöl et al.

Fig. 1.12 Perforator

arteries from rectus muscle
(sub-umbilical level)

The rectus abdominis has a dual blood supply. The upper half of the muscle is
supplied by the superior epigastric artery (a branch of the internal thoracic artery).
The artery enters the rectus abdominis alongside the xiphisternal junction with its
companion veins. The lower half of the rectus abdominis is supplied by the deep
inferior epigastric artery, a branch of the external iliac artery. Myocutaneous rota-
tion flaps may be fashioned using either the upper or lower halves of the rectus
abdominis muscle [1].
The abdominal wall receives its blood supply from direct cutaneous vessels and
musculocutaneous perforating vessels [12]. The wall of the arteries perforating the
rectus muscle contains more elastic fibres than average. This allows these vessels to
keep their perfusion capacity between two gliding tissues: the rectus sheath and
deep adipose tissue (Fig. 1.12).
If torn by blunt dissection, these arteries can escape into the rectus fascia and
cause intramuscular bleeding, which can lead to long-term pain after abdomino-
plasty. In obese patients the distribution of these arteries is severely altered.
The deep perforator arteries supply the deep adipose tissues. Superficial adipose
tissue is supplied by the arteries from the superficial arterial system. Late lipolyses
occurring after abdominoplasty can be explained by the total undermining of the
flap from the deep muscular perforated arteries and partial necrosis in the deep fatty
tissues [7].
The umbilicus receives blood flow from the surrounding subdermal plexus. In
addition, there are three distinct additional sources: the right and left deep infe-
rior epigastric arteries, the ligamentum teres, and the median umbilical liga-
ment. The deep inferior epigastric artery is the dominant blood supplier to the
umbilicus.
The umbilicus is more at risk during abdominoplasty performed on a morbidly
obese individual because it is elongated and the vascular anatomy is potentially
distorted. Shortening the umbilicus by resecting the distal portion may be advanta-
geous in preserving the viability of the umbilicus in these situations [13].
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 15

1.7 Lymphatic System of the Abdomen

The lymphatic channels reside within the sub-scarpal fat layer superficial to the
anterior rectus sheath. Soft tissue lymphatics above the umbilicus drain to axillary
lymph nodes, while those below the umbilicus drain to the superficial inguinal
lymph nodes. It has been reported that preservation of the subfascial lymphatic sys-
tem diminishes the accumulation of serious post-abdominoplasty fluid and the need
for drains. There are many publications discussing the advantages of this technique
[6–8, 10, 14–17].

1.8 Abdominal Nerves

Cutaneous innervation of the abdominal wall is consistent with the segmental der-
matomal pattern. The anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the ventral rami of
the 7th–12th intercostal nerves and the ventral rami of the first and second lumbar
nerves have important sensory and motor functions [9] (Fig. 1.13).

1.8.1 Thoracoabdominal Nerves

The lateral cutaneous branches of intercostal and subcostal nerves supply sensation
to the lateral portion of the abdomen. The anterior branches of the intercostal and
subcostal nerves supply sensation to the midline abdomen.
These nerves are deep structures. Taking small amounts of fat from a periumbili-
cal area is permitted by superficial local anaesthetics, but in the long-term, patients
complain about pain in this area. It is advised to deeply inject the anaesthetics into
the fascia to obtain long-term comfort. This is because terminal nerves from the
iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves are also supplying the periumbilical area.

1.8.2 Iliohypogastric Nerve (T12, L1)

Iliohypogastric nerve innervates the skin and soft tissue over the iliac crest and lat-
eral thigh. Nerve entrapment during the rectus anterior sheath plication has been
reported. Persistent lower abdominal wall pain occurring postoperatively, despite
negative gastrointestinal and/or gynecologic pathology, should alert the surgeon to
the possibility of iliohypogastric or ilioinguinal nerve entrapment. Diagnosis can be
made if there is subsequent relief after nerve block and treatment consists of
16 D. Bingöl et al.

Thoraco-
abdominal nerves

T7

T8

T9 Superior epigastric
artery, vein

Transversus
T10 abdominis muscle

T11
Posterior
rectus sheath
Subcostal nerve, T12

T12, L1, Ilichypogastric nerve

Arcuate line
L1, Ilichypogastric nerve

Linea alba

Deep circumflex artery

Interior epigastric
artery, vein

Cremaster artery

Shelving edge of poupart ligament

Femorel artery, vein

Fig. 1.13 Nerve supply of the anterior abdominal wall (Ahluwalia et al. [9])

performing a neurectomy at the level of the retroperitoneum to avoid recurrent pain-

ful neuromas [18].
1 Surgical Anatomy of the Abdominal Wall 17

1.8.3 Ilioinguinal Nerve (L1)

The ilioinguinal nerve innervates lower abdominal skin. Coursing from the mons
superiorly, these nerves are often divided bilaterally during caesarean sections, and
many post-caesarean section patients have numbness of the lower abdominal skin.
This may be an advantage for post-operative comfort.

1.8.4 Genitofemoral Nerve

This nerve exits the muscular fascia at the level of the inguinal ligament in the
middle of its length. The surgeon shall preserve the lateral femoral cutaneous
branch, which innervates the anterior thigh. The damage to this branch results in
chronic numbness of the anterior thigh, which can be very annoying because of the
difference between the sensitivity perception on the left and right sides [6].

Things to Remember
• Shortening the umbilicus by resecting the distal portion may be advanta-
geous in preserving the viability of the umbilicus in these situations.
• Persistent lower abdominal wall pain occurring postoperatively, despite
negative gastrointestinal and/or gynecologic pathology, should alert the sur-
geon to the possibility of iliohypogastric or ilioinguinal nerve entrapment.
• The surgeon shall preserve the lateral femoral cutaneous branch, which
innervates the anterior thigh.

References

1. Mahadevan V. Anatomy of the anterior abdominal wall and groin. Surgery (Oxford).
2003;21(2):25–7.
2. Grevious MA, Cohen M, Shah SR, Rodriguez P. Structural and functional anatomy of the
abdominal wall. Clin Plast Surg. 2006;33(2):169–79, v.
3. Cunningham SC, Rosson GD, Lee RH, et al. Localization of the arcuate line from surface
anatomic landmarks: a cadaveric study. Ann Plast Surg. 2004;53(2):129–31.
4. Lancerotto L, Stecco C, Macchi V, et al. Layers of the abdominal wall: anatomical investiga-
tion of subcutaneous tissue and superficial fascia. Surg Radiol Anat. 2011;33(10):835–42.
5. Lockwood TE. Superficial fascial system (SFS) of the trunk and extremities: a new concept.
Plast Reconstr Surg. 1991;87:1009–18.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
sleepy fellows. On this occasion these causes were sufficient to
enchain their senses, in spite of the repeated exhortations of Jesus,
for on his coming to them the second time, and saying in a warning
voice, “Rise and pray, lest ye enter into temptation; why sleep ye?”
they wist not what to answer him, for their eyes were very heavy, and
they slept for sorrow. Still again he retired about a stone’s throw from
them, as before, and there, prone on the ground, he renewed the
strife with his feelings. Alone and unsympathized with by his friends,
did the Redeemer of men endure the agonies of that hour, yet not
wholly alone nor unsupported; for as Luke assures us, there
appeared to him an angel from heaven, strengthening him. At last
the long struggle ceased. Distant voices coming over the glen
through the stillness of the night, and the glare of torches flashing
from the waters of the Kedron through the shades of the garden,
gave him notice that those were near who came to drag him to a
shameful death. Yet the repugnance of nature with which his late
strife had been so dreadful, was now so overcome that he shrank
not from the ♦ approaching death, but calmly walked to meet it.
Coming forward to his sleeping disciples, he said to them, “Sleep on
now and take your rest; behold, the time is at hand when the son of
man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. Arise, let us be going.”
The rush of the armed bands of the temple guards followed his
words, and when the apostles sprung to their feet, their drowsiness
was most effectually driven off by the appalling sight of a crowd of
fierce men, filling the garden and surrounding them. As soon as the
villainous leaders of the throng could overcome the reverence which
even the lowest of their followers had for the majestic person of the
Savior, they brought them up to the charge, and a retainer of the
high priest, by name Malchus, with the forward officiousness of an
insolent menial, laid hold of Jesus. Now was the time for Galilean
spunk to show itself. The disciples around instantly asked, “Lord,
shall we smite with the sword?” But without waiting for an answer,
Peter, though amazed by this sudden and frightful attack, as soon as
he saw the body of his adored Master profaned by the rude hands of
base hirelings, foremost in action as in word, regardless of numbers,
leaped on the assailants with drawn sword, and with a movement too
quick to be shunned, he gave the foremost a blow, which, if the
darkness had not prevented, might have been fatal. As it was, there
could not have been a more narrow escape, for the sword lighting on
the head of the priest’s zealous servant, just grazed his temple and
cut off his ear. But this display of courage was after all, fruitless; for
he was surrounded by a great body of men, armed in the expectation
of this very kind of resistance; and in addition to this, the
remonstrance of Jesus must have been sufficient to damp the most
fiery valor. He said to his zealous and fierce defender, “Put up thy
sword again into its sheath, for they that take the sword shall perish
by the sword. The cup which my Father hath given me, shall I not
drink? Thinkest thou that if I should now pray to my Father, he would
not instantly send me twelve legions of angels at a word? But how
then shall the scriptures be fulfilled, which say that it must be thus?”
Having thus stopped the ineffectual and dangerous opposition of his
few followers, he quietly gave himself up to his captors, interceding
however for his poor, friendless and unprotected disciples. “I am
Jesus of Nazareth: if therefore you seek me, let these go their way.”
This he said as it were in reference to a literal and corporeal
fulfilment of the words which he had used in his last prayer with his
disciples,――“Of them whom thou gavest me I lost none.” The
disciples after receiving from Jesus such a special command to
abstain from resistance, and perceiving how utterly desperate was
the condition of affairs, without waiting the decision of the question,
all forsaking him, fled; and favored by darkness and their familiar
knowledge of the grounds, they all escaped in various directions.

♦ “ap-approaching” replaced with “approaching”

Gethsemane.――This place has already been alluded to in the description of Mount

Olivet. [Note on p. 96.] From the same source I extract a further brief notice of the present
aspect of this most holy ground. “Proceeding along the valley of Kedron, at the foot of
Mount Olivet, is the garden of Gethsemane: an even plat of ground, not above fifty-seven
yards square, where are shown some old olive trees, supposed to identify the spot to which
our Lord was wont to repair. John xviii. 1, 2.” [Modern Traveler, Palestine, p. 156.] It is also
remarked by Dr. Richardson, [p. 78 of the same work,] that “the gardens of Gethsemane are
still in the sort of a ruined cultivation; the fences are broken down, and the olive trees
decaying, as if the hand that dressed and fed them was withdrawn.”
 The etymology and meaning of the name Gethsemane, is given by Lightfoot, (Centuria
Chorographica in Matthew, chapter 41.) The name is derived from the product of the tree
which was so abundantly raised there, and which gave name also to the mountain.
Gethsemane is compounded of ‫גת‬, “a press,” and ‫שמנא‬, “olive oil,”――“an oil-press;”
because the oil was pressed out and manufactured on the spot where the olive was raised.

Ten o’clock.――This I conclude to have been about the time, because (in Matthew xxvi.
20) it is said that it was evening already, (that is, about 6 o’clock,) when Jesus sat down to
supper with his disciples, and allowing time on the one hand for the events at the supper-
table and on the walk, as well as those in the garden,――and on the other hand for those
which took place before midnight, (cock crowing,) we must fix the time as I have above.

The glare of torches.――John (xviii. 3.) is the only evangelist who brings in this highly
picturesque circumstance of the equipment of the band with the means of searching the
dark shades and bowers of the garden.

his three-fold denial.

Peter, however, had he not so soon forgot his zealous attachment

to Jesus, as to leave him in such hands, without farther knowledge of
his fate; but as soon as he was satisfied that the pursuit of the
disciples was given up, he, in company with John, followed the band
of officers at safe distance, and ascertained whither they were
carrying the captive. After they had seen the train proceed to the
palace of the high priest, they proceeded directly to the same place.
Here John, being known to the high priest, and having friends in the
family, went boldly in, feeling secure by his friendship in that quarter,
against any danger in consequence of his connection with Jesus.
Being known to the servant girl who kept the door, as a friend of the
family, he got in without difficulty, and had also influence enough to
get leave to introduce Peter, as a friend of his who had some
curiosity to see what was going on. Peter, who had stood without the
door waiting for the result of John’s maneuver, was now brought into
the palace, and walked boldly into the hall where the examination of
Jesus was going on, hoping to escape entirely unnoticed by keeping
in the dimly lighted parts of the hall, by which he would be secure, at
the same time that he would the better see what was going on near
the lights. Standing thus out of the way in the back part of the room,
he might have witnessed the whole without incurring the notice of
anybody. But the servants and others, who had been out over the
damp valley of the Kedron after Jesus, feeling chilled with the walk,
(for the long nights of that season are in Jerusalem frequently in
strong contrast with the warmth of mid-day,) made up a good fire of
coal in the back part of the hall, where they stood looking on. Peter
himself being, too, no doubt thoroughly chilled with his long exposure
to the cold night air, very naturally and unreflectingly came forward to
the fire, where he sat down and warmed himself among the servants
and soldiers. The bright light of the coals shining directly on his
anxious face, those who stood by, noticing a stranger taking such
interest in the proceedings, began to scrutinize him more narrowly.
At last, the servant girl who had let him in at the door, with the
inquisitive curiosity so peculiarly strong in her sex, knowing that he
had come in with John as his particular acquaintance, and
concluding that he was like him associated with Jesus, boldly said to
him, “Thou also art one of this man’s disciples.” But Peter, like a true
Galilean, as ready to lie as to fight, thinking only of the danger of the
recognition, at once denied him, forgetting the lately offensive
prediction, in his sudden alarm. He said before them all, “Woman, I
am not!――I know him not; neither do I understand what thou
sayest.” This bold and downright denial silenced the forward
impertinence of the girl, and for a time may have quieted the
suspicions of those around. Peter, however, startled by this sudden
attack, all at once perceived the danger into which he had
unthinkingly thrust himself, and drawing back from his prominent
station before the fire, which had made him so unfortunately
conspicuous, went out into the porch of the building, notwithstanding
the cold night air, preferring the discomfort of the exposure, to the
danger of his late position. As he walked there in the open air, he
heard the note of the cock sounding clear, through the stillness of
midnight, announcing the beginning of the third watch. The sound
had a sad import to him, and must have recalled to his mind some
thought of his master’s warning; but before it could have made much
impression, it was instantly banished altogether from his mind, by a
new alarm from the inquisitiveness of some of the retainers of the
palace, who, seeing a stranger lurking in a covert manner about the
building at that time of night, very naturally felt suspicious enough of
him to examine his appearance narrowly. Among those who came
about him, was another of those pert damsels who seem to have
been very numerous and forward about the house of the head of the
Jewish faith. She, after a satisfactory inspection of the suspicious
person, very promptly informed those that were there also about him,
“This fellow also was with Jesus of Nazareth.” Peter’s patience being
at last worn out with the pertinacious annoyances of these spiteful
lasses, not only flatly contradicted the positive assertion of the girl,
but backed his words with an oath, which seems to have had the
decisive effect of hushing his female accusers entirely, and he
considered himself to have turned off suspicion for a time so
effectually, that, after cooling himself sufficiently in the porch, being
distracted with anxiety about the probable fate of his beloved Master,
he at last ventured again into the great hall of the palace, where the
examination of Jesus was still going on. Here he remained a deeply
interested spectator and auditor for about an hour, without being
disturbed, when some of the bystanders who were not so much
interested in the affair before them as to be prevented by it from
looking about them, had their attention again drawn to the stranger
who had been an object of such suspicion. There were probably
more than one that recognized the active and zealous follower of the
Nazarene, as Peter had been in such constant attendance on him
throughout his whole stay in Jerusalem. But no one seems to have
cared to provoke an irascible Galilean by an accusation which he
might resent in the characteristic manner of his countrymen; till
another of the servants of the high priest, a relation of Malchus,
whose ear Peter had cut off, after looking well at him, and being
provoked at the impudence of such a vagabond in thrusting himself
into the home of the very man whom he had so shockingly mutilated
and so nearly murdered, determined to bring the offender to
punishment, and speaking to his fellow-servants, he indignantly and
confidently affirmed, “This fellow also was with him, for he is a
Galilean.” And turning to Peter, whom he had seen in Gethsemane,
when engaged at the time of the capture of Jesus, he imperiously
asked him, “Did I not see thee in the garden with him?” And others,
joining in the charge, said decidedly to him, “Surely thou art one of
them also: for thy very speech, thy accent, unquestionably, betrays
thee to be a Galilean.” Peter began at last to see that his situation
was growing quite desperate, and finding that his distress about his
Lord had brought him within a chance of the same fate, determined
to extricate himself by as unscrupulously using his tongue in his own
defense as he had before used his sword for his Master. Besides, he
had already told two flat lies within about three hours, and it was not
for a Galilean in such a pass to hesitate about one more, even
though seconded by a perjury. For he then began to curse and to
swear, saying, “Man, I know not what thou sayest.――I know not the
man of whom ye speak.” And immediately, while he was yet
speaking, the cock crew the second time. At that moment, the Lord
turned and looked upon Peter, and at the same sound the
conscience-stricken disciple turning towards his Lord, met that
glance. And what a look! He who cannot imagine it for himself,
cannot conceive it from the ideal picture of another; but its effect was
sufficiently dramatic to impress the least picturesque imagination. As
the Lord turned and looked upon him, Peter remembered the word of
the Lord, how he had said to him, “Before the cock shall crow twice
this night, thou shalt deny me thrice.” And thinking thereon, he went
out, and wept bitterly. Tears of rebuked conceit,――of self-humbled
pride, over fallen glory and sullied honor,――flowed down his manly
cheeks. Where was now the fiery spirit once in word so ready to
brave death, with all the low malice of base foes, for the sake of
Jesus? Where was that unshaken steadiness, that dauntless energy
that once won him from the lips of his Master, when first his
searching eye fell on him, the name of the rock,――that name by
which again he had been consecrated as the mighty foundation-
rock of the church of God? Was this the chief of the apostles?
――the keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven?――binding
and loosing on earth what should be bound or loosed in heaven?
Where were the brave, high hopes of earthly glory to be won under
the warlike banners of his kingly Master? Where was that Master
and Lord? The hands of the rude were now laid on him, in insult and
abuse,――his glories broken and faded,――his power vain for his
own rescue from sufferings vastly greater than those so often
relieved by him in others,――his followers dispirited and
scattered,――disowning and casting out as evil the name they had
so long adored. The haughty lords of Judaism were now exulting in
their cruel victory, re-established in their dignity, and strengthened in
their tyranny by this long-wished triumph over their deadly foe. He
wept for bright hopes dimmed,――for crushed ambition,――but
more than all, for broken faith,――for trampled truth,――and for the
three-fold and perjured denial of his betrayed and forsaken Lord.
Well might he weep――

“There’s bliss in tears,

When he who sheds them inly feels

Some lingering stain of early years

Effaced by every drop that steals.

The fruitless showers of worldly woe

Fall dark to earth and never rise;

But tears that from repentance flow,

In bright exhalement reach the skies.”

The soldiers, &c.――It has been supposed by some that this armed force was a part of
the Roman garrison which was always kept in Castle Antonia, close by the temple; (see
note on page 95;) but there is nothing in the expressions of either of the evangelists which
should lead us to think so; on the contrary, their statement most distinctly specifies, that
those concerned in the arrest were from a totally different quarter. Matthew (xxvi. 47)
describes them as “a great throng, with swords and staves, from the chief priests and elders
of the people.” The whole expression implies a sort of half-mob of low fellows, servants and
followers of the members of the Sanhedrim, accompanying the ordinary temple-guard,
which was a mere band of Levite peace-officers under the priests, whose business it was to
keep order in the courts of the temple――a duty hardly more honorable than that of a
sweeper or “doorkeeper in the house of the Lord,” from which office, indeed, it was probably
not distinct. These watchmen and porters, for they were no better, were allowed by the
Roman government of the city and kingdom, a kind of contemptuous favor in bearing
swords to defend from profane intrusion their holy shrine, which Gentile soldiers could not
approach as guards, without violating the sanctity of the place. Such a body as these men
and their chance associates, are therefore well and properly described by Matthew, as a
“throng with swords and clubs;” but what intelligent man would ever have thought of
characterizing in this way, a regular detachment of the stately and well-armed legion which
maintained the dignity and power of the Roman governor of Judea? Mark (xiv. 43) uses
precisely the same expression as Matthew, to describe them: Luke (xxii. 52) represents
Jesus as speaking to “the chief priests and captains of the temple and the elders, who had
come against him, saying, ‘Have you come out as against a thief, with swords and clubs?’”
John (xviii. 3) speaks of the band as made up in part of the servants of “the chief priests and
Pharisees,” &c. So that the whole matter, unquestionably, was managed and executed
entirely by the Jews; and the progress of the story shows that they did not call in the aid of
the heathen secular power, until the last bloody act required a consummation which the
ordinances of Rome forbade to the Jews, and then only did they summon the aid of the
governor’s military force. Indeed, they were too careful in preserving their few peculiar
secular privileges still left, to give up the smallest power of tyrannizing, permitted by their
Roman lords.

The long nights in contrast with the heat of the day.――It should be remembered, that
according to a just calculation, these events happened in the month of March, when the air
of Palestine is uncomfortably cold. Conder, in his valuable topographical compilation, says,
“during the months of May, June, July and August, the sky is for the most part cloudless; but
during the night, the earth is moistened with a copious dew. Sultry days are not unfrequently
succeeded by intensely cold nights. To these sudden vicissitudes, references are made in
the Old Testament. Genesis xxxi. 40: Psalm cxxi. 6.” [Modern Traveler, Palestine, p. 14.]

The cold season, (‫ קור‬Qor,) immediately following the true winter, (‫ חרפ‬Hhoreph,) took in
the latter part of the Hebrew month Shebeth, the whole of Adar, and the former half of
Nisan; that is in modern divisions of time,――from the beginning of February to the
beginning of April, according to the Calendarium Palestinae, in the Critica Biblica, Vol. III:
but according to Jahn, (Archaeologia Biblica § 21,) from the middle of February to the
middle of April, the two estimates varying with the different views about the dates of the
ancient Hebrew months.

Galilean, ready to lie as to fight.――This may strike some, as rather too harsh a
sentence to pass upon the general character of a whole people, but I believe I am borne out
in this seeming abuse, by the steady testimony of most authorities to which I can readily
refer. Josephus, whom I have already quoted in witness of their pugnacity, (on page 102,)
seems to have been so well pleased with this trait, and also with their “industry and activity,”
which he so highly commends in them, as well as the richness of the natural resources of
the country, all which characteristics, both of the people and the region, he made so highly
available in their defense during the war with the Romans, that he does not think it worth
while to criticise their morals, to which, indeed, the season of a bloody war gives a sort of
license, that made such defects less prominent, being apparently rather characteristic of the
times than the people. But there is great abundance of condemnatory testimony, which
shows that the Galileans bore as bad a character among their neighbors, as my severest
remark could imply. Numerous passages in the gospels and Acts show this so plainly, as to
convey this general impression against them very decidedly. Kuinoel (on Matthew ii. 23)
speaks strongly of their proverbially low moral character. “All the Galileans were so
despised by the dwellers of Jerusalem and Judea, that when they wished to characterize a
man as a low and outcast wretch, they called him a Galilean.” On other passages also, (as
on John vii. 52, and Matthew iv. 17,) he repeats this intellectual and moral condemnation in
similar terms. Beza and Grotius also, in commenting on these passages, speak of Galilee
as “contempta regio.” Rosenmueller also, (on John vii. 52,) says “Nullus, aiunt, Galilaeus
unquam a Deo donatus est spiritu prophetico: gens est Deo despecta.” That is, “It was a
saying among them, that no Galilean was ever indued with a spirit of prophecy: they are a
people despised by God.” I might quote at great length from many commentators to the
same effect, but these will serve as a specimen. It should be remarked, however, that the
Galileans, though they might be worse than most Jews in their general character, were not
very peculiar in their neglect of truth; for from the time of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, to the
present moment, the Asiatic races, generally, have been infamous for falsehood, and there
are many modern travelers who are ready to testify that an Oriental, generally, when asked
an indifferent question, will tell a lie at a venture, unless he sees some special personal
advantage likely to result to him from telling the truth.

Yet in minute legal observances, the Galileans were, for the most part, much more rigid
in interpreting and following the law of Moses, than the inhabitants of Judea, as is
abundantly shown by Lightfoot in his numerous Talmudic quotations, (Centuria
Chorographica chapter 86,) where the comparison is, on many accounts, highly favorable to
such of the Galileans as pretended to observe and follow the Jewish law at all.

Thy accent betrays thee.――Lightfoot is very rich in happy illustrations of this passage,
(Centuria Chorographica chapter 87.) He has drawn very largely here from the Talmudic
writers, who are quite amusing in the instances which they give of the dialectic differences
between the Galileans and the Judeans. Several of the puns which they give, would not be
accounted dull even in modern times, and indeed, the Galilean brogue seems to have been
as well marked, and to have given occasion for nearly as much wit as that of Ireland. The
Galileans, thus marked by dialect as well as by manners, held about the same place in the
estimation of the pure Judean race, as the modern Irish do among those of Saxon-English
tongue and blood; and we cannot better conceive of the scorn excited in the refined Jews
by the idea of a Galilean prophet with his simple disciples, than by imagining the sort of
impression that would be made, by a raw Irishman attempting the foundation of a new sect
in London or Boston, with a dozen rough and uneducated workmen for his preachers and
main supporters.

The bright light of the fire shining on his face, &c.――This incident is taken from Luke
xxii. 56, where the expression in the common version is, “a certain maid saw him as he sat
by the fire.” But in the original Greek this last word is φῶς, (phos,) which means “light,” and
not “fire;” and it is translated here in this peculiar manner, because it evidently refers to the
light of the fire, from its connection with the preceding verse, where it is said that “Peter sat
down among them ‘before’ the fire which they had kindled;” the word fire in this passage
being in the Greek πυρ, (pur,) which is never translated otherwise. But the unusual
translation of the word φῶς, by “fire” in the other verse, though it gives a just idea of Peter’s
position, makes a common reader lose sight of the prominent reason of his detection, which
was, that the “light of the fire” shone on his face.

In speaking of Peter’s fall and its attendant circumstances, Lampius (in Gospel of John
xviii. 17,) seems to be most especially scandalized by the means through which Peter’s ruin
was effected. “Sed ab ancilla Cepham vinci, dedecus ejus auget. Quanta inconstantia! Qui
in armatos ordines paulo ante irruperat nunc ad vocem levis mulierculae tremit. Si Adamo
probrosum, quod a femina conjuge seductus erat, non minus Petro, quod ab ancilla.” That
is, “But that Cephas should have been overcome by a girl, increases his disgrace. How
great the change! He who, but a little before, had charged an armed host, now trembled at
the voice of a silly woman. If it was a shame to Adam, that he had been seduced by his
wife, it was no less so to Peter, that he was by a girl.”
 The cock crew.――By this circumstance, the time of the denial in all its parts is well
ascertained. The first cock-crowing after the first denial marked the hour of midnight, and
the second cock-crowing announced the first dawn of day. As Lampius says, “Altera haec
erat αλεκτροφῶνια, praenuncia lucis, non tantum in terra, sed et in corde Petri, tenebris
spississimis obsepto, mox iterum oriturae.” “This was the second cock-crowing, the herald
of light, soon to rise again, not only on earth, but also in the heart of Peter, now overspread
with the thickest darkness.”

And thinking thereon, he wept.――This expression is taken from Mark xiv. 72, and
accords with our common translation, though very different from many others that have
been proposed. The word thus variously rendered, is in the original Greek, επιβαλων,
(epibalon,) and bears a great variety of definitions which can be determined only by its
connections, in the passages where it occurs. Campbell says, “There are not many words in
scripture which have undergone more interpretations than this term;” and truly the array of
totally diverse renderings, each ably supported by many of the most learned Biblical
scholars that ever lived, is truly appalling to the investigator. (1.) Those who support the
common English translation are Kypke, Wetstein, Campbell and Bloomfield, and others
quoted by the latter.――(2.) Another translation which has been ably defended is, “he
began to weep.” This is the expression in the common German translation, (Martin
Luther’s,) “er hob an zu weinen.” It is also the version of the Vulgate, (“Coepit flere,”) the
Syriac, Gothic, Persian, and Armenian translations, as Kuinoel and Heinsius observe, who
also maintain this rendering.――(3.) Another is, “He proceeded to weep,” (“Addens flevit.”)
which is that of Grotius, LeClerc, Simon, Petavius and others.――(4.) Another is, “covering
his head, he wept.” This seems to have begun with Theophylact, who has been followed by
a great number, among whom Salmasius, Wolf, Suicer, Macknight, and Krebs, are the most
prominent.――(5.) Another is, “rushing out, he wept.” This is maintained by Beza,
Rosenmueller, Schleusner, Bretschneider and Wahl.――(6.) Another is, “Having looked at
him,” (Jesus,) “he wept.” This is the version of Hammond and Palairet.――“Who shall
decide when” so many “doctors disagree?” I should feel safest in leaving the reader, as
Parkhurst does, to “consider and judge” for himself; but in defense of my own rendering, I
would simply observe, that the common English version is that which is most in accordance
with the rules of grammar, and is best supported by classic usage, while the second and
third are justly objected to by Bloomfield and Campbell as ungrammatical, and unsupported
by truly parallel passages, notwithstanding the array of classical quotations by Bp.
♦Bloomfield and others; and the fourth and fifth equally deserve rejection for the very tame
and cold expression which they make of it, the fourth also being ungrammatical like the
second and third. The sixth definition also may be rejected on grammatical grounds, as well
as for lack of authorities and classic usage to support such an elliptical translation.――For
long and numerous discussions of all these points, see any or every one of the writers
whose names I have cited in this note.

♦ “Blomfield” replaced with “Bloomfield”

christ’s crucifixion.

From that moment we hear no more of the humbled apostle, till

after the fatal consummation of his Redeemer’s sufferings. Yet he
must have been a beholder of that awful scene. When the multitude
of men and women followed the cross-bearing Redeemer down the
vale of Calvary, mourning with tears and groans, Peter could not
have sought to indulge in solitary grief. And since the son of
Zebedee stood by the cross during the whole agony of Jesus, the
other apostles probably had no more cause of fear than John, and
Peter also might have stood near, among the crowd, without any
danger of being further molested by those whom he had offended,
since they now looked on their triumph as too complete to need any
minor acts of vengeance, to consummate it over the fragments of the
broken Nazarene sect. Still, it was in silent sorrow and horror that he
gazed on this sight of woe, and the deep despair which now
overwhelmed his bright dreams of glory was no longer uttered in the
violent expressions to which his loquacious genius prompted him. He
now had time and reason enough to apprehend the painfully literal
meaning of the oft-repeated predictions of Christ about these sad
events――predictions which once were so wildly unheeded or
perversely misconstrued as best suited the ambitious disciples’
hopes of power, which was to be set up over all the civil, religious,
and military tyrants of Palestine, and of which they were to be the
chief partakers. These hopes all went out with the last breath of their
crucified Lord, and when they turned away from that scene of
hopeless woe, after taking a last look of the face that had so long
been the source of light and truth to them, now fixed and ghastly in
the last struggle of a horrible death, they must have felt that the
delusive dream of years was now broken, and that they were but
forlorn and desperate outcasts in the land which their proud thoughts
once aspired to rule. What despairing anguish must have been
theirs, as climbing the hillside with sad and slow steps, they looked
back from its top down upon the cross, that might still be seen in the
dark valley, though dim with the shades of falling night! Their Lord,
their teacher, their guide, their friend,――hung there between the
heavens and the earth, among thieves, the victim of triumphant
tyranny; and they, owing their safety only to the contemptuous
forbearance of his murderers, must now, strangers in a strange land,
seek a home among those who scorned them.
 The vale of Calvary.――This expression will no doubt excite vast surprise in the minds
of many readers, who have all their lives heard and talked of Mount Calvary, without once
taking the pains to find out whether there ever was any such place. Such persons will, no
doubt, find their amazement still farther increased, on learning that no Mount Calvary is
mentioned in any part of the Bible, nor in any ancient author.

The whole account given of this name in the Bible, is in Luke xxiii. 33, where in the
common translation it is said that Christ was crucified in “the place called Calvary.” In the
parallel passages in the other gospels, the Hebrew name only is given, Golgotha, which
means simply “a skull.” (Matthew xxvii. 33: Mark xv. 22: John xix. 17.) This particular place
does not seem to be named and designated in any part of the Old Testament, but a very
clear idea of its general situation can be obtained, from the consideration of the fact, that
there was a place beyond the walls of Jerusalem, where all the dead were buried, and
whither all the carcasses of slain animals were carried and left to moulder. This was that
part of the valley of the Kedron which was called the valley of Tophet, or the vale of the son
of Hinnom. This is often alluded to as the place of dead bodies. (Jeremiah vii. 32, &c.)
Besides, all reason and analogy utterly forbid the supposition, that dead carcasses would
be piled up on a “mount” or hill, to rot and send their effluvia all over the city in every
favorable wind; while on the other hand, a deep valley like that of Hinnom would be a most
proper place for carrying such offensive matters. Josephus, in his description of the temple,
very particularly notices the fact, that all the blood and filth which flowed from the numerous
sacrifices, was conveyed by a subterraneous channel or drain to this very valley.

the resurrection.

With such feelings they returned to Jerusalem, where the eleven,

who were all Galileans, found places of abode with those of Christ’s
followers who were dwellers in the city. Here they passed the
Sabbath heavily and sorrowfully, no doubt, and their thoughts must
now have reverted to their former business, to which it now became
each one of them to return, since he who had called them from their
avocations could now no more send them forth on his errands of
love. On the day after the sabbath, while such thoughts and feelings
must still have distressed them, almost as soon as they had risen,
some of them received a sudden and surprising call from several of
the alarmed women, who having faithfully ministered to all the
necessities of Jesus during his life, had been preparing to do the last
sad offices to his dead body. The strange story brought by these
was, that having gone early in the morning to the sepulcher, in the
vale of Calvary, with this great object, they had been horror-struck to
find the place in which the body had been deposited on sabbath eve,
now empty, notwithstanding the double security of the enormous
rock which had closed the mouth of the cave, and the stout guard of
Roman soldiers who were posted there by request of the Jews, to
prevent expected imposition. On hearing this strange story, Peter
and John, followed by Mary of Magdala, started at once for the
sepulcher. As they made all possible haste, the youth of John
enabled him to reach the place before his older companion; but
Peter arrived very soon after him, and, outdoing his companion now
in prompt and diligent examination, as he had before been outdone
in bodily speed, he immediately made a much more thorough search
of the spot, than John in his hurry and alarm had thought of. He had
contented himself with looking down into the sepulcher, and having
distinctly seen the linen clothes lying empty and alone, he went not
in. But when Simon Peter came following him, he went into the
sepulcher and saw the linen clothes lie; and the napkin that was
about his head, not lying with the other clothes, but folded up
carefully in a place by itself. Having thus made a thorough search, as
this shows, into every nook and corner, he satisfied himself perfectly
that the body had in some way or other been actually removed, and
on his reporting this to his companion, he also came down into the
cave, and made a similar examination, with the same result. The
only conclusion to which these appearances brought their minds,
was that some person, probably with the design of further insult and
injury, had thus rifled the tomb, and dragged the naked body from its
funeral vestments. For, as yet, they understood not the scripture, nor
the words of Christ himself, that he must rise from the dead. The two
disciples, therefore, overwhelmed with new distress, went away
again to their own temporary home, to consult with the rest of the
disciples, leaving Mary behind them, lingering in tears about the
tomb.

Some time after their return, but before they had been able to
explain these strange appearances, Mary followed them home, and
as soon as she found them, added to their amazement immensely,
by a surprising story of her actually having seen Jesus himself, alive,
in bodily form, who had conversed with her, and had distinctly
charged her to tell his disciples, and Peter especially, that he would
go before them into Galilee, where he would meet them. When she
came and told them this, they were mourning and weeping. But
when they had heard that he was alive, though the story was
confirmed with such a minute detail of attendant circumstances, and
though assured by her that she had personally seen him, they yet
believed not. So dark were their minds about even the possibility of
his resurrection, that afterwards, when two of their own number, who
had gone about seven miles into the country, to Emmaus, returned in
great haste to Jerusalem, and told the disciples that they too had
seen Jesus, and had a long talk with him, they would not believe
even this additional proof, but supposed that they, in their credulous
expectation, had suffered themselves to be imposed on by some one
resembling Jesus in person, who chose to amuse himself by making
them believe so palpable a falsehood. Yet some of them, even then,
suffering their longing hopes to get the better of their prudent
scepticism, were beginning to express their conviction of the fact,
saying, “The Lord has risen indeed, and has appeared unto Simon.”
Of this last-mentioned appearance, no farther particulars are any
where given, though it is barely mentioned in 1 Corinthians xv. 5. and
it is impossible to give any certain account of the circumstances.
While assembled at their evening meal, and thus discussing the
various strange stories brought to their ears in such quick
succession, after they had fastened the doors for security against
interruption from the Jews, all at once, without any previous notice,
Jesus himself appeared standing in the midst, and said, “Peace be
unto you.” They seeing the mysterious object of their conversation,
so strangely and suddenly present among them, while they were just
discussing the possibility of his existence, were much frightened, and
in the alarm of the moment supposed that they were beholding a
disembodied spirit. But he soon calmed their terrors, and changed
their fear into firm and joyful assurance, that he was indeed the
same whom they had so long known, and to prove that the body now
before them was the same which they had two days before seen
fastened expiring to the cross, he showed them his hands, his feet,
and his side, with the very marks which the spear and nails had
made in them. And while they yet could not soberly believe for joy,
and stood wondering, he, to show them that his body still performed
the functions of life, and required the same support as theirs, asked
them for a share of the food on the table, and taking some from their
hands, he ate it before them. He then upbraided them with their
unbelief and stupidity in not believing those who had seen him after
he was risen from the dead. He recalled to their minds his former
repeated warnings of these very events, literally as they had been
brought to pass. He said to them, “These are the words which I
spake to you while I was yet with you, that all things must be fulfilled
which are written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the
psalms, concerning me.” Then opened he their understandings, that
they might understand the scriptures. Then it was, that at last burst
upon them the light so long shut out; they knew their own past
blindness, and they saw in the clear distinctness of reality, all his
repeated predictions of his humiliation, suffering, death, resurrection,
and of their cowardice and desertion, brought before them in one
glance, and made perfectly consistent with each other and with the
result. So that, amid the rejoicings of new hope born from utter
despair, at the same time expired their vain and idle notion of earthly
glory and power under his reign. Their Master had passed through
all this anguish and disgrace, and come back to them from the
grave; yet, though thus vindicating his boundless power, he did not
pretend to use the least portion of it in avenging on his foes all the
cruelties which he had suffered from their hands. They could not
hope, then, for a better fate, surely, than his; they were to expect
only similar labors, rewarded with similar sufferings and death.

the meeting on the lake.

After this meeting with him, they saw him again repeatedly, but no
incident, relating particularly to the subject of this memoir, occurred
on either of these occasions, except at the scene on lake Tiberias,
so fully and graphically given by John, in the last chapter of his
gospel. It seems that at that time, the disciples had, in accordance
with the earliest command of Jesus after his resurrection, gone into
Galilee to meet him there. The particular spot where this incident
took place was probably near Capernaum and Bethsaida, among
their old familiar haunts. Peter at this time residing at his home in
Capernaum, it would seem, very naturally, while waiting for the visit
which Christ had promised them, sought to pass the time as
pleasantly as possible in his old business, from which he had once
been called to draw men into the grasp of the gospel. With him at
this time, were Thomas, or Didymus, and Nathanael, and the sons of
Zebedee, and two other disciples, whether of the eleven or not, is
not known. On his telling them that he was going out a fishing, they,
allured also by old habits and a desire to amuse themselves in a
useful way, declared that they also would go with him. They went
forth accordingly, and taking the fishing-boat, pushed off in the
evening as usual, the night being altogether the best time for
catching the fish, because the lake not then being constantly
disturbed by passing vessels, the fish are less disposed to keep
themselves in the depths of the waters, but feeling bolder in the
stillness, rise to the surface within reach of the watchful fisherman.
But on this occasion, from something peculiar in the state of the air
or water, the fish did not come within the range of the net; and that
night they caught nothing. Having given up the fruitless effort, they
were towards morning heavily working in towards the shore, and
were about a hundred yards from it, when they noticed some person
who stood on the land; but in the gray light of morning his person
could not be distinguished. This man called to them in a friendly
voice, as soon as they came within hailing distance, crying out in a
free and familiar way, “Boys! have you anything to eat?” To which
they answered “No.” The unknown friend then called to them in a
confident tone, telling them to cast the net on the right side of the
ship, and they should find plenty. They cast accordingly, and on
closing and drawing the net, were not able to pull it in, for the weight
of the fishes taken in it. In a moment flashed on the ready mind of
John, the remembrance of the former similar prodigy wrought at the
word of Jesus near the same spot, and he immediately recognized in
the benevolent stranger, his Lord. Turning to Simon, therefore, who
had been too busy tugging at the net to think of the meaning of the
miracle, he said to him, “It is the Lord.” Conviction burst on him with
equal certainty as on his companion, and giving way to his natural
headlong promptitude in action, he leaped at once into the water,
after girding his great coat around him, and by partly swimming and
partly wading through the shallows, he soon reached the shore,
where his loved and long-expected Master was. At the same time,
with as little delay as possible, the rest of them, leaving their large
vessel probably on account of the shallows along that part of the
coast, came ashore in a little skiff, dragging the full net behind them.
In this they showed their considerate prudence, for had they all in the
first transport of impatience followed Peter, and left boat and net
together at that critical moment, the net would have loosened and
the fishes have escaped; thus making the kind miracle of no effect
by their carelessness. As soon as they were come to land they saw
Jesus placed composedly by a fire of coals which he had made, and
on which he had designed to cook for their common entertainment,
some fish previously caught, dished with some bread. Jesus without
ceremony ordered them to come and bring some of the fish they had
just caught. Simon Peter now mindful of his late heedless desertion
of his comrades in the midst of their worst labor, stepped forward
zealously, and, unassisted, dragged the heavy net out of the water;
and though on opening it they found one hundred and fifty-three
large fishes in it, notwithstanding the weight, the net was not broken.
When they had obeyed his command, and supplied the place of the
fish already cooked on the fire by fresh ones from the net, Jesus in a
kind and hearty tone invited them to come and breakfast with him on
what he had prepared. The disciples, notwithstanding the readiness
with which they had come ashore to their Master, still seem to have
felt somewhat shy; not, however, because they had any solid doubt
as to his really being the person they had supposed him, for no man
durst say to him “who art thou?” knowing him to be the Lord.
Perhaps it was not yet full day-light, which may account for their
shyness and want of readiness in accepting his invitation. But Jesus,
in order fully to assure them, comes and takes bread, and puts it into
their hands, with a share of fish likewise to each. They now took hold
heartily, and without scruple sat down around the fire to breakfast
with him. So when they had done breakfast, as men are usually best
disposed to be social after eating, he on this occasion addressed
himself to Peter in words of reproof, warning and commission. He
first inquired of him, “Simon, son of Jonah, lovest thou me more than
these?” To this Peter readily replied, “Yea, Lord, thou knowest that I
love thee.” Jesus then said to him, “Feed my lambs.” Peter had
learned some humility by his late fall from truth and courage. Before,
he had boldly professed a regard for Christ, altogether surpassing in
extent and permanency the affection which the other disciples felt for
him, and had, in the fullness of his self-sufficiency, declared that
though all the rest should forsake him, yet would he abide by him,
and follow him even to prison and to death. But now that high self-
confidence had received a sad fall, and the remembrance of his late
disgraceful conduct was too fresh in his mind to allow him any more
to assume that tone of presumption. He therefore modestly confined
his expression of attachment to the simple and humble reference to
the all-knowing heart of his Divine Master, to which he solemnly and
affectingly appealed as his faithful witness in this assertion of new
and entire devotion to him, whom he had once so weakly denied and
deserted. No more high-toned boastings――no more arrogant
assertion of superior pretensions to fidelity and firmness; but a
humble, submissive, beseeching utterance of devoted love, that
sought no comparisons to enhance its merit, but in lowly confidence
appealed to the searcher of hearts as the undeceivable testifier of
his honesty and truth. Nor was his deep and renewed affection, thus
expressed, disregarded; but Jesus accepting his purified self-
sacrifice, at once in the same words both offered him the consoling
pledge of his restoration to grace, and again charged him with the
high commission, which, while it proved his Lord’s confidence, gave
him the means of showing to all mankind the sincerity and
permanency of his change of heart. From the words of the Messiah’s
reply, he learned that the solid proof of his deserved restoration
should be seen in his devotion to the work which that Messiah had
begun; that by guiding, guarding and feeding the young and tender
of Christ’s flock, when left again without their Master, he might set
forth his new love. Already had Jesus, before that sad trial of their
souls, in his parting, warning words to his near and dear ones, told
them, “If ye keep my commandments ye shall abide in my love. Ye
are my friends if ye do whatsoever I command you. By this shall all
men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to another.”
And here, in practical comment on that former precept, did he give
his restored apostle this test of unchanged love. So harmoniously
and beautifully does the sacred record make precept answer and
accord with precept. In the minute detail of mere common incident,
we may wander and stagger bewildered among insignificant
differences and difficulties; but the rule of action, the guide of life,
leads steadily and clearly through every maze, uneffaced by the
changes of order, time and place.

“Boys.”――The Greek word here (παιδια paidia) has a neuter termination, and is
applicable to persons of both sexes, like the English word “children,” which is here given in
the common version. But Jerome’s Latin translation (the Vulgate) gives “pueri,” “boys,” as
the just meaning in this place, and I have preferred it, as more in accordance with our usual
forms of familiar address in such cases, than the one given in the common English version.

Great coat.――This I consider as giving a better idea of the garment called in the Greek
επενδυτην, (ependuten,) which is derived from a verb which means “putting on over another
garment,” and is of course described with more justice to the original by the English “great-
coat,” or “over-coat,” than by “fisher’s coat,” as in the common translation. I suppose it was
a rough outer dress designed as a protection against rain and spray, and which he put on in
such a way, that he might wade in it without the inconvenience of its hanging about his legs.
It must have been a sort of “over all,” that he had pulled off while at work, and put on to
wade in the water; for the verb διαζωννυμι (diazonnumi) has also that meaning as well as
“gird about,” and his object in thus “putting on his over alls” may have been to keep himself
dry, by covering both his legs and body from the water; for it may have come down over the
legs like a sort of outside trowsers, and being tied tight, would make a very comfortable
protection against cold water. See Poole and Kuinoel on this passage, John xxi. 7.

Luther in his German translation has very queerly expressed this word, “guertete er
das hemde um sich,” “he girt his shirt about him;” being led into this error probably, by
taking the following sentence in too strong a sense, concluding that he was perfectly naked.
But I have already alluded (note on page 101) to the peculiar force of this word in the Bible,
nor can it mean anything but that he was without his outer garments; and it implies no more
indecent exposure than in the case of Christ, when laying aside his garments to wash his
disciples’ feet. Besides, I have shown that the etymology of επενδυτης (ependutes) will not
allow any meaning to it, but that of an “outer garment” worn over other clothes.

A little skiff.――The Greek word here is πλοιαριον, (ploiarion,) and means “a small boat,”
and is the diminution of πλοιον, (ploion,) the word used in the third verse of the same
chapter, as the name of the larger vessel in which they sailed, and which probably drew too
much water to come close to the shore in this part of the lake, where it was probably
shallow, so as to make it necessary for them to haul the net ashore with this little skiff, which
seems to have been a sort of drag-boat to the larger vessel, kept for landing in such places.
 “Come and breakfast.”――This is certainly a vast improvement on the common
English version, which here gives the word “dine.” For it must strike an ordinary reader as a
very early dinner at that time of the morning, (John xix. 4,) and what settles the question is,
that the Greek word here is αριστησατε, (aristesate,) which primarily and almost always was
applied only to the eating of the earliest meal, or breakfast, being derived from αριστον,
“breakfast,” the first meal in the day, according to Homer and Xenophon.

Many other unrecorded words of wisdom and love must have

been spoken at this time, in the course of which Jesus again took
occasion to put this meaning and moving question, “Simon, son of
Jonah, lovest thou me?” The first answer of Peter had sufficiently
shown, that he had no more of that disposition to claim a merit
superior to his fellow disciples, and Jesus did not again urge upon
him a comparison with them, but merely renewed the inquiry in a
simple, absolute form. Again Peter earnestly expressed his love, with
the same appeal to Christ’s own knowledge of his heart for the
testimony of his loyalty, “Yea, Lord, thou knowest that I love thee.”
He saith to him, “Feed my sheep.” If thou lovest me, show that love,
by supplying the place of my earthly care, to those whom I love.
Love and feed those for whom I have bled and died.――What could
be more simple and clear than this question? What more earnest
and honest than the answer? What more abiding than the
impression made by this charge? Yet did not the far-seeing Savior
desist from trying his disciple with these questions. Once more was it
solemnly repeated, “Simon, son of Jonah, lovest thou me?” Peter
was grieved that he asked him the third time, “lovest thou me?” He
saw at last the reproachful meaning of the inquiry. Three times had
this same apostle, by his false-hearted denial, renounced all love
and interest in his Master, and three times did that injured and
forgiving Master call upon him to pledge again his forfeited faith and
affection. He thus pointed out the past weakness of Peter, and
showed the means of maintaining and insuring future fidelity. Peter
again still more movingly avowed his honest attachment, half
remonstrating at this repetition of the question by one who must
already know the heart of the answerer too fully for words to inform
him anew.――“Lord, thou knowest all things; thou knowest that I
love thee.” Jesus said to him, “Feed my sheep.” He now passed on