INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

IN
EDUC 30013

CHILD AND ADLOLESCENT LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Compiled by:
Dr. IMELDA C. ALTOVAR
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OVERVIEW

Children and adolescents are not short adults - they are qualitatively different. They have
physical, psychological and social needs that must be met to enable healthy growth and
development. The extent to which parents, the family, the community and the society are able to
meet these developmental needs (or not) has long-term consequences for the kinds of adults they
will become. Armed conflict, displacement, disruption of normal life, and separation from family
and/or community can have powerful, long-lasting effects that need to be compensated for in
protection and assistance interventions.
Children and adolescents are not a homogenous group. While they share basic universal
needs, the expression of those needs depends on a wide range of personal, social and cultural
factors. To be effective, an understand is necessary, in a given situation, of what differences
among gender, age, maturity, social class or caste, cultural or religious background have
operational implications. Taking these factors into account is basic to good programming.
Children need the care, protection and guidance which is normally provided by parents or
other caregivers, especially during the early years when they are most dependent. While their
emerging abilities and capacities change the nature of this vulnerability from infancy through
adolescence, their need for attention and guidance at each stage remains.
Parents and communities have the primary responsibility for protecting and caring for their
children, and initiating them into culturally relevant skills, attitudes and ways of thinking.
Interventions by outsiders are significant largely to the extent that they strengthen (or inadvertently
undermine) family and community capacities to provide this care and protection.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................ 1
COURSE OUTCOMES ............................................................................................................... 3
LESSON 1 .................................................................................................................................. 4
MAJOR CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES ............................................................................ 4
LESSON 2 .................................................................................................................................. 6
FREUD’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY .................................................................................................. 6
LESSON 3 ................................................................................................................................ 12
SULLIVAN’S INTERPERSONAL PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY ............................................. 12
LESSON 4 ................................................................................................................................ 16
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................... 16
LESSON 5 ................................................................................................................................ 22
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................. 22
LESSON 6 ................................................................................................................................ 30
HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASK THEORY .................................................................... 30
LESSON 7 ................................................................................................................................ 33
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ..................................................................................... 33
LESSON 8 ................................................................................................................................ 37
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY ..................................................................................... 37
LESSON 9 ................................................................................................................................ 40
ATTACHMENT THEORY ......................................................................................................... 40
LESSON 10 .............................................................................................................................. 45
Bruner - Learning Theory in Education ................................................................................. 45
GRADING SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 50
RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................... 51
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COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the student would be able to:

1. Distinguish significant constructs related to child and adolescent development.

2. Analyze the biological and environmental factors influencing physical development of child
and adolescents and their implications to teaching and learning.
3. Apply the principles of cognitive processing in developing learning activities intended for
young and adolescent learners.
4. Develop pedagogical framework of language learning practices in K-12.
5. Analyze the development of social identity and emotions of young learners.
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CHAPTER II
Perspective and Approaches in the Study of Human Development

In the study of human development and the complex changes that occur in each of the
stages, it is necessary to have set of explanations that will guide one's understanding and the
interest to further study a particular phenomenon. Theories about human development depending
on its intention can offer description, prediction, rationalization, and justifications on those that are
happening within the individual brought about by factors that have identified. These are essentials in
identifying appropriate actions, especially in developing instructional materials and conducting
learning assessment.

Although theories have different premises and assumptions, they are having similarities as
well allowing them to form a school of thought with regard to the experience and process of
development. For instance, a set of theories explain how people develop cognitive abilities, the
changes that happen in-between these stages, and the elements found to contribute in this
development. They are essentially helpful in identifying expectations, for example when a particular
change is expected to occur and become basis for knowing the developmental norm.

It is important however, to note that many of them provide only possible means to
understand a particular phenomenon. In some instances, they require critical and reflective actions
with regard to their suitability and applicability. While there are some empirical evidences on their
applicability on wide range of situations, like in classroom, others have still not been tested, hence
should not be taken as they are. In some extreme case, it is necessary to be validated through
cultural validation. Notwithstanding, these are immediate handles in knowing the learners and
changes one is experiencing.

In this Chapter, we shall discuss these perspectives in the study of human development
particularly in children and adolescents. They will be distinguished with one another as well as
identify their implications in their learning process. These perspectives are behaviorism, socio-
cultural, ethology, contextual, and feminist.

ENGAGE
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The perspective on the science of study of human development have largely evolve in the
past 50 years. Inclusion of other factors such as culture and human agency in the discussion have
been given much attention hence, shifted the direction of research activities in the area of human
development and other phenomena that are associated in the process. The efforts to cross-culturally
validate existing knowledge and identify the context by which these knowledge can be appreciated
have become essentially the focus of human development scientist. Also, it is becoming more
prominent that interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach has been taking place in recent
researches. This is considered a significant progress since human development not only entail
understanding of psychological aspects, instead it is a product of simultaneous, sequential, and/or
complement of other changes within the individual. Significantly, there is the inclusion of
perspectives such neuroscience, public health, microbiology, biochemistry, nutrition and, diatetics,
education, and other social sciences. It sets direction that collaborative effort is needed in order to
have the whole of an individual.

Perspectives in Human Development

1. Learning Paradigm

Learning theories work on the assumption that people undergo the stages of
development through the process of interaction with one's environment via observation,
conditioning reward, and punishment system. The extent which stimuli are associated with
one another leading to the acquisition and modification of behaviors is the unintentional
experience. For instance, children eventually develop high level of appreciation in reading
books (early literacy) due to the deliberate reward system by parents. The favorable
consequences of such behavior lead to constantly engaging in such activity. On the other
hand, stimulus-response relationship may be established without conscious intention to do
so. Teachers, without noticing it, may frequently say how much mathematics can be
difficult. Consequently, children develop negative perception and eventually attitude toward
that subject.

The major premise of learning theories generally revolves around the understanding of the
relationship of stimulus and response. The relationship of the two, affecting the development of the
learner may be complicated rather than simple linear. There could be numerous stimuli present in
one's environment where one's change behavior leading to development may be associated with.
Classroom, for instance, that has many cognitively stimulating decorations may facilitate learning
aside from the instructional strategies and effort of the teachers and one's interaction with
classmates. Hence, learned behavior (response) as a result a presentation of stimuli can be
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associated with those that present in the specific environment. Using learning paradigm therefore
requires a systematic identification of a stimulus or stimuli that can influence, directly or indirectly, in
the development of an individual. In order for teachers to be effective in influencing the development
of learners, whichever domain, must take conscious actions in doing so.

a. Classical Conditioning explains human development based on the pairing of two stimuli
which lead to a learned behavior (response). With the association of classical conditioning
with behavioral orientation, it denies the influence of cognitive and affective processes in
development of behavior. Observable responses are the ones given much attention.

Since children's initial responses are reflective or automatic, they are considered as
unconditioned response (UR). This response is expected to be aroused when a specific
stimulus is presented which Pavlov called the unconditioned stimulus (US). It is called
unconditioned (stimulus and response) since it has not been paired with other stimuli or
response. An example of reflexive response is the sucking behavior of infants. This
response is automatic in a sense that when an infant's mouth or lips are touched (US),
one's automatic response is to suck (UR). When the US is paired repeatedly with another
originally neutral stimulus, conditioning takes place. The cyclical presentation of these
stimuli creates an association between them which lead to the same response. However,
the response this time is no longer unconditioned, instead it is already a product of
conditioning, therefore conditioned response (CR). The neutral stimulus paired with the US
s no longer neutral but conditioned already (CS). If touching the mouth or lips is
subsequently followed by an act of feeding (nipple as the CS), a repetition of such
sequence will condition the infant that whenever the mouth is being touched, it is followed
by another stimulus such as the nipple. Eventually, this conditioning process can happen in
other stimuli.

b. Operant Conditioning explains development based on the association of responses. The

response that follows another response is an important predictor of this association. Like
the classical conditioning, responses are conditioned when repeatedly followed one
another. More importantly, B.F. Skinner gives much attention on the functions of
reinforcement in the process of conditioning. Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior
that increases the probability of its repetition. Therefore, the intention of giving
reinforcement is for the person to repeat the behavior. Reinforcement, however, should not
necessarily be presented in a positive manner. Tantrums among children are mostly
reinforced in contrast to being punished. Since parents have the tendency to give what
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children wants in return to behaving well. When there is a cycle of experience between
crying and getting what a child wants, it will establish and eventually strengthen the
connection between them.

Children's interest toward attending school depends on the quality of experience they have.
When attending school our learning becomes rewarding to students, they develop the
strongest desire to learn further. Attendance in the school is a child’s response and the
experience that followed it determines whether one will have interest to continue. when
school or learning experience has become challenging or difficult to the learners, it
becomes the detrimental to further encourage them to become engaged.

c. Social Cognitive Learning Theory assumes that development is centered with one’s
interaction with other people. Imitation and modeling are central in the premise of bandura
as to learn new behaviors. Equally important is the role of models who becomes the
reference of children on what behavior they will imitate. However, when children interact
with adults, not everyone is considered models. These people typically have some degree
of influence on an individual.

Social cognitive learning theory involves 4 processes: attention, retention, motor

reproduction, and motivation. Attention pertains to the extent of 1's exposure to others
behavior in order for one to notice it. Since people are exposed to many behaviors every
day, it is not possible that people pay attention to all of them. Instead, those behaviors that
are of significance have more impact on one’s behavior. Retention is the process of storing
to and recalling from memory appropriate available circumstances. This is crucial since
memory can be prone to forgetting as it can only keep it in the working memory for a
specific period of time. It is possible that stored behavior in the memory will be forgotten,
and imitation become impossible already. When it is still available in the working memory
reproduction may follow. This pertains to the opportunity to exhibit the behavior aside from
possible environmental limitations, physical and personal capabilities of the person may
intervene or contribute into actualizing the behavior. Lastly, the consequence of the
production behavior may determine whether such behavior will be repeated. A favorable
consequence will lead to a validation of repeated behavior while 2.

Parents, siblings, classmates, teachers, among others can serve as models of behavior.
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children's behavior can be a reflection of the kind of behaviors these people are showing.
The judgement children have about moral issues could be an extension of adults’ modal
judgment. Aggressive behavior as well as prosocial behaviors can be strengthened by
showing appropriate behaviors that are consistent with the desired outcome. If the intention
is to teach children to become socially responsive by offering help to those who are in need,
this can be encouraged by showing a wide range and kinds of helping behaviors. in doing
so, children can have range of repertoire of behavior that can catch one's attention and
eventually become conditioned to do such constantly.

2. Socio Cultural Theories

This perspective highlights the influence of the collective experiences of people found in the
same cultural orientation. It assumes the centrality of culture, such as language and
communication, as well as social norms in the developmental process. They become the
lenses that shadowed affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences and changes within
the individual. This is highly evident in the type of values one learns through interacting with
others culture bearers such as family members most especially the elders, school
personnel, community members, and even classmates. The process of allowing children to
internalize cultural beliefs and practices is through words, symbols, and representations via
social interaction. Developmentally, culture reflects parental practices, interpersonal
relationship processes like friendship information and expression of adhesion towards
others, political and social preferences and among others.

A. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky is one of the prominent developmental theories

under this perspective. He is known as the father of social cultural perspective. He
emphasized the important role of social interaction particularly in facilitating cognitive
development of children. An iconic concept that he introduced was the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) which identifies the gap between assisted and non-assisted
development of children's cognition. Specifically, the assistance provided widens the
potential to effectively and efficiently use cognitive functioning such as the performance of
executive functions, cognitive processing, and acquisition of new information. actions
consistent to this is referred to as scaffoldings. learning activities that hope to encourage
students to further learn a concept is an example of scaffoldings. children's creativity
become more evident and further hone when children are given learning opportunities to
utilize such talent. The expansion of ZPD therefore, reflects the degree of one's
environment to providing quality opportunities for learning.
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B. The cognitive theory of development of Jean Piaget also provides support in further
explaining the premise of this perspective. Piaget highlights the cognitive simulation, but
adults provide in the movement through stage of cognitive development-sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. in providing cognitive
stimulation, content, materials and the activities reflect the culture and their corresponding
artifacts. for instance, language plays a significant role in achieving cognitive developmental
milestones from preoperational to concrete operational stage. Considering the spurt on the
language development at the parallel ages of these stages, it can accelerate the processing
of information as well as in making meaning with one’s environment. language facilitates
the manipulation of ideas in the mind such as capability to create connections between and
among them. More importantly, it is through language that new information is acquired.
3. Ethology-evolutionary and socio-biological

This perspective accounts for two interacting factors that explain human development. These
are genetics and adaptation to one’s changing environment. Due to the process of
maturation, inherited characteristics unfold according to one's readiness. It therefore
emphasizes the nature of an individual. Although there could be some observed
exceptional developments, it explains the normative development of people. Normative
development pertains to the observance of developmental behaviors according to a certain
age. Whether these pertain to cognitive, social, moral, motor, or physical changes. The
other factor is adaptation. Changes brought about by development are a result of one’s
need to adapt, therefore they serve survival function. Consequently, development becomes
a pattern of behaviors that serve survival function. Consequently, development becomes a
pattern of behaviors that are responsive to better engage with the demands of one’s
developmental stage. This is regardless of one’s cultural preference and influence. In most
cases, children learn to walk at about 18 months and begin to talk at two years. Despite
possible variations, humans go through the same milestones all throughout life and almost
in the same phase. This is because these behavioral changes are essential to better cope
in the demands of that developmental stage. This perspective has progressed to a field
called evolutionary developmental psychology that converges the views on human
adaptation and survival (the Darwinian perspective) with the changes that take place across
the life span.

A. One of the most influential scientists who have initially advanced the ethological perspective
was Konrad Lorenz who is the Nobel Prize winner for Physiology. He was able to discover
how animals are able to develop behavioral patterns which have adaptive values for one’s
survival. He believes that species are genetically constructed in order to specifically
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process certain information. This gives the readiness of almost all species to respond to
their needs, most especially those that are physiological in nature. Animals develop
reflexive reactions that are endogenous in their system. He later on extended his work in
making inference about human behavioral pattern asserting similarities with those that he
found with other animal species. similar to the animal behavior patterns are the reflexive
reactions of infants which is essential to communicate their needs. in doing so, caregivers
can respond better in providing the needs of infants. He also observed great similarities and
the proportion of head with the body of animal and human infants together with other
features that makes them look cute. He called it babyishness. This explains the favorable
attention, if not affection, to new born infants.
B. Attachment Theories such as John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Melanie Klein were also
inspired by the ethology perspective. The basic tenet of attachment theory is that children
develop a sense of emotional bond with the immediate caregiver, most especially to
mothers, which becomes a prototype in developing a social connection in the future. The
ability to initiate, sustain, and end social relationships are based on the quality of initial
relationship the mother has established. This can be traced back to their relationship upon
birth, particularly in the infant-nipple relationship. Using the strange situation technique,
Ainsworth observed three kinds of attachment styles, namely secure, insecure avoidant,
and insecure ambivalent. They generally describe the degree of anxiety and stress an
infant experience when separated and reunited with one’s mother. Klein, on the other hand,
focused on the building of prototypical relationships through the nipple experience. This is
whether the nipple is generous or otherwise. Teachers in school may understand tat
students may find it challenging to establish relationship with their classmates or other
school personnel due to the mental representation they have about social relationship. In
same manner, children may experience separation anxiety during the first few days of
schooling due to the stress and anxiety they have about their new environment. Children
may experience a challenge in adapting to a new environment while others may appear to
easily adjust with this new environment.
4. System Approach

This perspective aims to put an integrated view about human development. integrated looks at
into all the possible factors, genes, culture, and learning are skills in explaining the changes
across lifespan. Hence, it takes the view that the human person is a product of an
interaction of nature and nurture. The person is not exclusively taken as a biological
individual but also taken into consideration the context by which the individual is situated.
While certain developments may be normative to most people, it is expected that changes
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may be influenced by, for instance, the nourishment one is exposed to. because of the
context, it is supposed to provide a holistic view about the individual and not having a
limited view using a single perspective. the context of development may include, but not
limited to sociopolitical events, history, religion, educational system, parental involvement
and among others that may have direct or indirect impact on the individual.

a. the contextualism theory of Richard Lerner can be considered as one of the most
influential personality, most especially during the establishment of this school of thought.
Lerner highlights the embeddedness of the organism (or the individual) within the context.
for him, it is not possible to understand the individual with having knowledge into the
situations by which the individual is in. since the contexts may not necessarily to be the
same from time to time and person to person, it can be expected that development strongly
have variations among individuals. in fact, he believes that development has larger room of
being malleable that highly predeterminism pic pattern of changes. adapting the principle of
probabilistic epigenesis, he strongly argued that the sequence and the outcome of
development is rather probable than certain. putting this in the context of education, the
theory provides implications with regard to seeing learners as having unlimited possible
capabilities when given the opportunity to learn and acquire sufficient and appropriate
knowledge. because of the concept of plasticity in development, it is possible that a specific
talent can be further honed if some degree of environmental support are actually felt.
b. the ecological system theory or Urie Bronfenbrenner, in the contemporary time, is one of
the most influential theories in this school of thought, if not in the field of human
developmental science. in his proposition, there are four systems that work in the
development of an individual. These are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and latest addition was the chronosystem. the microsystem is composed of
the changes that take place within the individual; the mesosystem constitute the immediate
environment of a developing child who has a direct influence to child such as the parents,
neighbors, friends and school personnel; the exosystem is composed of social institutions
that may have indirect impact onto the child, like the school policies, employment set-up,
mass media, and other similar agencies; the macrosystem is sociological, political, cultural,
and economic in nature that when modified, may have impact on the development of the
child. of these are encompassing in the chronological system which pertains to the time
component. for instance, when a law (macrosystem) is passed modifying the number of
working days of employees, it will have impact in the policies of labor organization
(exosystem) to which one’s parents may be employed. if this happens, parents
(mesosystem) will be able to spend more or less time with the child. Possibly, the child’s
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basic needs (microsystem) will be attended appropriately. This change is bound only in a
given period of time (chronosystem). After some time, it is possible that this kind of
employment set up will change according to the need of time.

The perspective discussed is considerably improving and volving throughout time. They are
continuously improving and evolving throughout time. They are continuously tested empirically the various
kinds of situations and cultural orientation in order to propose a grand theory of human development. This is
essential in order to have a consensus, if not universal, understanding about the changes people go through
in the life span. further empirical testing is needed in order to validate the extent by which these theories can
provide explanations to wide range of situations.

Research Integration

In the 2014 editorial paper, Misra and Babu, they have provided an update of research findings on the
various human development perspectives in the past and recent years. Consequently, they made a quick
assessment on the progress of these perspectives, most especially in the area of conducting empirical
investigations. Criticisms were also made to perspectives that have been given less attention while featuring
empirical findings that promote cultural perspective and that is cross-disciplined.

Examine the research findings presented in their editorial in terms of how they reflect the education
practices in the country. Reflect on the current classroom problems our teachers are experiencing and the
ways those findings may fit to approach those problems.
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EXPLORE

Task 1. Matrix of Human Development Perspectives

Summarize the different perspectives presented earlier in terms of the following areas. Complete the
table and present it as individual or group output.

Human Development Central Assumption Teacher’s Role to Student’s Role to

learning Learning

Task 2. My Teaching Philosophy

Write in the space below your pledge to the teaching profession. In writing your pledge, include your
personal belief about what teaching is to you, your perception of the learning process, and who is a learner
to you. As much as possible, it should reflect a perspective presented earlier and focus on their consistencies.

Teaching Perspectives My Personal Beliefs and Pledge

DEFINITION OF TEACHING
PROFESSION

PERCEPTION OF LEARNING PROCESS

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS

APPLY
Teachers being the frontliners in school and directly interacting with the learners should be guided with a
certain perspective about their students. It is imperative that one is conscious on it. interview at least one
teacher for grade school, for junior high school, for Senior High School, and for college about their beliefs on
their learners. You may use the following questions as your guide. You may need to translate them according
to language communication in your community.

1. What prominent behavior have you observed among your students?

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2. Where do you attribute this observation?

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3. Why do you think your students behave in this way?

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ASSESS
Based on the table you completed earlier, think of teaching approaches that are aligned with the learning
principles you were able to learn in this chapter. present the strategies and learning principles to the class
and see whether you have similar answers with your classmates.