SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I– FLUID MECHANICS– SCHA1303

 UNIT-I
FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

The branch of engineering science that has to do with the behaviour of fluids is called fluid
mechanics. Fluid mechanics has two branches: fluid statics which treats fluids in the equilibrium
state of no shear stress, and fluid dynamics, which treats fluids when portion of fluid are in motion
relative to other parts.

This force, which tends to make one surface slide parallel to an adjacent surface, is called a shear
force, and the stress in the glue, the force divided by the area of the glue joint, is called shear stress.

In the attempt to differentiate between fluids and solids, solids are substances, which can
permanently resist very large shear forces. When subjected to a shear force solid move a short
distance (elastic deformation), thereby setting up internal shear stresses, which resist the external
forces, and then they stop moving.

Materials that obviously are fluids cannot permanently resist a shear force, no matter how small.
When subjected to a shear force, fluids start to move and keep on moving as long as the force is
applied. A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no
matter how small that shear stress may be.

IDEAL AND REAL FLUIDS:

An ideal fluid is one that is non-viscous and with constant density. It also should not have any
surface tension and should not vaporize. Then it follows that the flow of an ideal fluid must be
frictionless and reversible. Though such a fluid does not exist in reality, the idealization greatly
simplifies the analysis of flow. However, simplifications do not have a value if they cannot assist
in solving problems.

In situations of extensive flows like motion around airplanes and submarines, the ideal fluid flow
analyses give partial solutions. They also help us in obtaining the structure of relationships leaving
the coefficients to be determined or modified. The term ideal fluid should not be confused with a
perfect gas which may possess viscosity.

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A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice are real
fluids.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:

Mass density or Density:

Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a
fluid is called density. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ρ’.

Mathematically, Density () = Mass of fluid/ volume of fluid

The unit of density in SI unit is kg/m3

The density of water is 1 g/cm3 (or) 1000 kg/m3

For any given substance at a fixed temperature, a graph of mass versus volume produces a
linear relationship. The slope yields the density of the substance.
Specific weight or Weight density:

Specific weight of a fluid is the ratio between weight of a fluid and its volume. Thus weight per
unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by ‘w’.

Weight of fluid
w=
Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid x acceleration due to gravity
=
Volume of fluid

Mass of fluid x g
= =  xg
Volume of fluid

Specific volume:

Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume
per unit mass of the fluid is called specific volume.

Volume of fluid 1 1
SpecificVolume = = =
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid 
Volume

3
Thus, specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. The specific volume is the volume
occupied by unit mass of fluid. It is expressed as m3/kg.

Specific gravity or Relative density:

Relative density or Specific gravity = Density of the substance

Density of water
Experimentally the specific gravity of a substance (liquid) can be obtained by following the steps
given below:
1. Weigh empty specific gravity bottle (pycnometer), let the weight be w1.
2. Weigh pycnometer filled with the liquid, let the weight be w2.
3. Weigh pycnometer filled with water, let the weight be w3.
4. Find the specific gravity of the liquid as (w2 – w1)/(w3 – w1) i.e., ratio of weight of liquid to
weight of water for same volume. (Refer Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.1 Determination of specific gravity of liquid

Viscosity:

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer
of fluid over another adjacent layer of fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move
one over the other at different velocities, say ‘u’ and ‘u +du’ as shown in the Figure 1.2.

4
 Figure 1.2 Velocity variations near a solid boundary

The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress
on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with
respect to ‘y’. It is denoted by symbol ‘  ’.

Mathematically,

 du 
 
 dy 

 du 
 =  
 dy 

where,  = proportionality constant known as absolute viscosity (or) dynamic viscosity,

 du 
  = rate of shear strain or velocity gradient
 dy 


Now dynamic viscosity can be written as follows,  =
 du 
 
 dy 

Thus viscosity can be defined as the shear stress required producing unit rate of shear strain. The
unit of viscosity is g/cm.s. Also, 1 Poise = 1 g/cm.s = 0.1 Pa.s

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Kinematic Viscosity:

The ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of a fluid is called kinematic viscosity. It is
denoted by . In the SI system the unit of  is m2/s. In the CGS system the unit of  is stoke (St)
which is equal to 1 cm2/s.

Surface tension:

The force required to break a film of specific length is called surface tension. The magnitude of
this force per unit length of the free surface has the same value as the surface energy per unit area.
In MKS units it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI unit as N/m (or) J/m2

Pressure:
Imagine a closed container with air inside. Air, as a gas, is composed of molecules that can be
imagined as round elastic balls. Molecules move in straight lines until they collide with
neighbouring molecules or the container wall. Molecules of gas hitting the wall impose a force
on the wall. The amount of this impact force per area of the container inner walls is called
pressure. The mathematical definition of pressure can be written as
P = F/A
where F is the force of impact of molecules on the walls and A is the area of the walls. The unit
for pressure in the SI system is Pa (Pascal). However, there are other units for pressure still in
use: bar, atm, and Torr. The ratios between different units are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Ratios between different pressure units

Unit Pa Bar atm Torr
Pa 1 0.00001 9.869x10-6 7.501x 10-3
bar 100000 1 9.869x10-1 750.1
atm 101325 1.01325 1 760
Torr 133.32 0.001333 1.316x10-3 1

Hydrostatic Pressure:
It is important to understand that pressure defined above is a property of gas. In the case of
liquids, the pressure at the certain position in liquid is created by the weight of the fluid column.
The pressure imposed by the height of water is called hydrostatic pressure and is directly
proportional to the height of the fluid above and its density. The mathematical definition of

6
hydrostatic pressure is P = gh where ‘h’ is the height of the fluid column, ‘’ is fluid density
and ‘g’ is acceleration due to gravity.

Vapour Pressure:
The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, known as vapour pressure. The
vapour pressure of a given fluid depends upon temperature and increases with it. When the
pressure above a liquid equals the vapour pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs.

COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS:

If the density is little affected by moderate changes in temperature and pressure, the fluid is said
to be incompressible, and if the density is sensitive to changes in these variables, the fluid is said
to be compressible. Liquids are considered to be incompressible and gases compressible.

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Newton’s law of viscosity:
Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient
𝑑𝑢
or shear rate. 𝜏 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦)

where, the proportionality factor  is called the dynamic viscosity or coefficient of viscosity.
Fluids are classified based on Newton’s law of viscosity as
i. Newtonian – fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity
ii. Non-Newtonian – fluids which does not obey Newton’s law of viscosity.

Figure 1.3 Rheological behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids

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Non-Newtonian fluids:
Non-Newtonian fluids can be classified as follows
a. Time independent
 Bingham plastic fluids
 Pseudoplastic fluids
 Dilatant fluids
b. Time dependent
 Thixotropic fluids
 Rheopectic fluids

Time independent fluids

Bingham plastic fluids resist a small shear stress indefinitely, but flow easily under large shear
stresses. So, at low stresses, the viscosity in infinite, and at higher stresses, the viscosity
decreases with increasing velocity gradient. Examples are bread dough, toothpaste, jellies, and
some slurry. Good toothpaste should be a Bingham fluid, so that it can be easily squeezed out of
the tube but will not drip off the toothbrush as water.

Pseudoplastic fluids show a viscosity that decreases with increase in velocity gradient. Examples
are most slurries, mud, polymer solutions, solutions of natural gums, and blood. Good motor oil
should be pseudoplastic, so that in the bearing, where the value of du/dy is high, it will offer little
frictional resistance and so that at all the gaskets and joints, where the value of du/dy is low, it
will be viscous and not leak through.

Dilatant fluids show a viscosity that increases with increase in velocity gradient. They are
uncommon, but starch suspensions, etc., behave in this way.

Time dependent fluids

The viscosity can remain constant with time, in which case the fluid is called time independent.
The viscosity can decrease with time, in which case the fluid is called thixotropic. The viscosity
can increase with time, in which case the fluid is called rheopectic.

A good paint should be thixotropic, so that in the container it is very viscous and the pigment

8
will not settle to the bottom, but when it is stirred, it will become less viscous and can be easily
brushed onto a surface. In addition, the brushing should temporarily reduce the viscosity, so that
the paint will flow sideways and fill in the brush marks (called levelling in the paint industry);
then, as it stands, its viscosity should increase, so that it will not form drops and run down the
wall.

A cream should be rheopectic, so that in the container it is less viscous. But, when stirred, it
becomes more viscous.
PASCAL’S LAW:
Pascal’s law states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in
all directions. Pascal’s law finds numerous examples in our daily life such as:
➢ ydraulic brake system
➢ Hydraulic jack
➢ Hydraulic press
➢ Hydraulic machines.

MEASUREMENT OF FLUID PRESSURE (MANOMETRY)

INTRODUCTION:
Pressure can be measured by allowing it to act on known cross-sectional area. Such method of
measuring pressure is called manometry. Manometers are the devices used for measuring
pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of
fluid. They are classified as
• Simple manometers
• Differential manometers

SIMPLE MANOMETERS:
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube, having one of its end connected to a point, where
the pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of
simple manometers are piezometer or pressure tube and U- tube manometer.

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Piezometer:

Figure 1.4 Piezometer

This is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressure. One end of this is
connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere
as shown in Figure 2.1. The rise of liquid, gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point a, the
height of liquid say water is ‘h’ in piezometer tube, then the pressure at A is Pa = agh. The
piezometer will not work for negative gauge pressure, because air will flow into the container
through the tube. It is also impractical for measuring large pressure, since the vertical tube would
need to be very long.

Simple U-tube Manometer:

It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure
is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in the Figure 2.2. The
tube contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity
of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

Let ‘B’ = Point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is ‘p’,

A-A = Datum line

h1= Height of the light liquid above the datum line

h2 = Height of the heavy liquid above the datum line

S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid

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 ρ1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 x S1

S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid

ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S2

Figure 1.5 Simple U-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure

As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface, pressure above the horizontal datum lines
A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same.

Pressure above A-A in the left column= P + 1 g h1

Pressure above A-A in the right column =  2 g h2

Hence equating the two pressures, P + 1 g h1 =  2 g h2

Therefore, P =  2 g h2 − 1 g h1

To measure negative pressure

Similar to the one solved above, we shall solve for measuring the negative gauge pressure
(vacuum) as shown in the Figure 1.6

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 Figure 1.6 Simple U-tube manometer to measure vacuum pressure

As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum
lines A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same.

Pressure above A-A in the left column= Pa + a g h1 + b g h2

Pressure above A-A in the right column = 0

Hence equating the two pressures,

Pa + a g h1 + b g h2 = 0, because point 4 is exposed to atmosphere.

Solving for Pa will give Pa = - (b g h2 + a g h1)

DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER:

Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressure between
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U- tube,
containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. Most common types of differential manometers are U- tube differential
manometer and Inverted U-tube differential manometer.

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U- tube Differential Manometer:

Figure 1.7 U-tube differential manometer

It consists of a simple U-tube. Both ends of this manometer are connected to two different pipe
lines, where the pressure difference is to be measured as shown in Figure 1.7. Let the differential
manometer be connected to two different pipe lines, A and B which is not in the same level and
whose pressure difference is to be measured as shown in the above figure. Let the liquid in pipe A
have more pressure than the liquid in the pipe B. Due to high pressure in the pipe A, the gauging
liquid in the left limb will move down. Consequently, the gauging liquid will rise in the right limb.
In this case the gauging liquid level in the left is taken as datum level Z-Z

Let Z-Z – datum level.

Pa – pressure of liquid in the pipe A

Pb – pressure of liquid in the pipe B

h1 – height of liquid in pipe A in the left limb above datum line Z-Z

h2 - height of gauging liquid in the right limb above datum line Z-Z

h3 – height of liquid of pipe B in the right limb above gauging liquid

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 1 – Density of liquid in pipe A

2 – Density of gauging liquid (mercury)

3 – Density of liquid in pipe B

Pressure head at C = Pa + h1 1 g

Pressure head at D = Pb + h2 2 g + h3 3 g ‘m’ of water

We know that,

Pressure head at C = Pressure head at D

Pa + h1 1 g = Pb + h2 2 g + h3 3 g

Then pressure difference is given by,

Pa − Pb = h2  2 g + h3  3 g − h1 1 g

Note - (i)

If both the pipes are at the same level and contains different liquids. In this case, h1 = h2 + h3

Then, the pressure difference is,

Pa − Pb = h2  2 g + h3 3 g − h1 1 g

Pa − Pb = h2 2 g + h3 3 g − (h2 + h3 )1 g

Pa − Pb = h2 2 g + h3 3 g − h2 1 g − h3 1 g

Pa − Pb = h2 g (2 − 1 ) + h3 g (3 − 1 ) .

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Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer:

Figure 1.8 Inverted U-tube differential manometer

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected
to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured as shown in Figure 2.5. It is used for
measuring difference of low pressures. The following shows an inverted U-tube differential
manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure
at B.

Let h1 = height of liquid in the right limb below the datum line X-X

h2 = height of liquid in the left limb

h = Height of manometric liquid in left limb

ρ1 = Density of liquid at A

ρ2 = Density of liquid at B

ρs = Density of manometric liquid

pA = pressure at A

pB = Pressure at B

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Taking X-X as datum line, then,

Pressure in the right limb below the X –X = p A − 1 gh1

Pressure in the left limb below the X –X = pB −  2 g h2 −  S g h

Equating the two pressures,

p A − 1 gh1 = pB −  2 g h2 −  S g h
pB − pB = 1 g h1 −  2 g h2 −  S g h

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 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II– FLUID MECHANICS– SCHA1303

 UNIT-II
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES OF FLOW

INTRODUCTION

Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion relative to other parts. The flow patterns are
classified in the following different categories.

Steady and unsteady flow:

The flow of fluid is said to be steady when the flow conditions like velocity, pressure, density and
other similar characteristics at a point do not change with respect to time.

    P   v 
 =0  =0  =0
 t   t   t 

The flow of fluid is said to be unsteady, when the flow characteristics at a point change with time.

    P   v 
 0  0  0
 t   t   t 

Uniform and non- uniform flow:

The flow is said to be uniform, when there is no variation in the magnitude and direction of the
velocity from one point to another along the path of the flow (both velocity and area of flow must
be same at every cross section) or the velocity does not change along the length of the flow. A
flow of a fluid is said to be non-uniform, when the velocity of flow doesn’t remain constant at all
the points in space during a given interval.

Rotational and irrotational flow:

Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines
also rotate about their own mass axis. If the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines do not
rotate about their own mass axis, then it is called irrotational flow.

2
Compressible and incompressible flow:

Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to
point. Incompressible flow is one in which the density of the flowing fluid is constant.

One-, two- and three-dimensional flow:

One-dimensional flow is the flow in which flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time
and one space co-ordinate. Two-dimensional flow is one in which flow parameter such as velocity
is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates. Three-dimensional flow is one in
which the flow parameter, velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular space
coordinates.

Potential flow

A moving fluid uninfluenced by stationary solid walls is not subjected to shear, and shear stresses
do not exist within it. The flow of incompressible fluid with no shear is called potential flow.
Potential flow has two characteristics,

i. Neither circulation nor eddies can form with in the stream, so that potential flow is also called
irrotational flow.
ii. Friction cannot develop, so that there is no dissipation of mechanical energy into heat.

REYNOLDS NUMBER

Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, which is defined as the ratio between inertia force
to viscous force. It is denoted by NRe

Reynolds Number (NRe) = Inertiaforce

Viscousforce

Reynolds number of a fluid flowing through a pipe is calculated as follows;

Reynolds Number (NRe) = Du



where, D = Diameter of the pipe, m

3
 u = Velocity of flowing fluid, m/sec,

 = Density of the flowing fluid, kg/m3

 = Viscosity of fluid, kg/ m.sec.

Reynolds number is used to decide whether the flow is laminar flow or turbulent flow.

If NRe < 2100, then the flow is laminar flow.

If NRe > 4000, then the flow is turbulent flow.

If NRe is between 2100 and 4000, then the flow is in transition region.

Laminar flow

Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined
paths or stream line and all the stream- lines are straight and parallel. Thus, the particles move in
laminas or layers sliding smoothly over the adjacent layer (Figure 2.1). This type of flow is called
stream-line or Laminar flow or viscous flow.

Figure 2.1 Laminar flow

Characteristics of Laminar flow:

i. The fluid particles move in a definite and observable path parallel to the side of the pipe as
shown in the above figure.
ii. In any layer, the velocity of fluid particle is low.

4
iii. Viscosity of the fluid is responsible for this type of flow. High viscosity fluids develop laminar
flow.
iv. Reynolds number for laminar flow is < 2100.
v. Velocity profile for laminar flow is as shown in Figure 2.3.

Turbulent flow:

Turbulent flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zigzag way.
Due to the movement of fluid particles in zigzag way, eddies formation take place which are
responsible for high energy loss (Figure 3.2).

Figure 2.2 Turbulent flow

Characteristics of turbulent flow:

i. The fluid particles do not follow a definite path and move at random as shown in the above
figure.
ii. Fluid particles in one layer collide with that of another layer.
iii. In any layer, the velocity of fluid particle is high.
iv. The magnitude and direction of fluid particles varies with time.
v. Reynolds number for turbulent flow is > 4000.
vi. Velocity profile for turbulent flow is as shown in Figure 2.3.

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 Figure 2.3 Velocity profile in laminar and turbulent flow

Transitional flow:

It is the type of flow when there is a change over from the laminar flow to turbulent flow or vice
versa.

APPLICATION OF CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

Basic equations of flowing fluid

The rate of mass entering the flowing system equals that leaving as mass can neither be
accumulated nor depleted with in a flow system under steady conditions.

Continuity equation

Consider a stream tube as shown in the Figure 1.4,

Velocity,
ub

Density ,
b

Area, Sb
Figure 1.4 Stream tube

6
Let the fluid enter at a point where the area of cross section of the tube is Sa and leaves where the
area of cross section is Sb. Let the velocity and density at the entrance be ua and a respectively
and the corresponding quantities at the exit be ub and b. Assume density in a single cross section
is constant. Also assume that the flow through the tube is potential flow. Then the velocity ua is
constant across the area Sa and velocity ub is constant across area Sb.

 = a u aSa = b u bSb
The mass of fluid entering and leaving the tube per unit time is m
where m is the rate of flow in mass per unit time.

 =  u S = cons tan t
For a stream tube m

This equation is called the equation of continuity. It applies to both compressible and
incompressible flows

For incompressible flow, the above equation reduces to

Q = u a Sa = u bSb

Average velocity:

Average velocity equals the total volumetric flow rate of the fluid divided by the cross-sectional
area of the conduit. The average velocity ū can be described as the volume flux of the fluid.

Q
Average velocity u =
S

where Q is the volumetric flow rate, m3/s, and

S is the cross sectional area of the conduit.

Mass Velocity:

Mass velocity G, is calculated by dividing the mass flow rate by the cross sectional area of channel,
[unit: kg/m2.s]. The mass velocity ‘G’ can also be described as the mass current density or mass
flux, where flux is defined generally as any quantity passing through an unit area in unit time.

Mass velocity G =

where m is the mass flow rate, kg/s.

S is the cross-sectional area of the conduit.

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 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION (OR) THEOREM

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

For potential flow, the total head at any cross section is constant. The total head consists of pressure
head, velocity head (kinetic head) and datum head (potential head).

P u2
+ + z = constant
g 2g

P1 u 1 2 P u 2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
g 2g g 2g

MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

For real fluids that are passing through pipe are influenced by the solid boundaries. To extend the
Bernoulli’s equation to cover these practical situations two modifications are required. They are

i. Fluid friction correction factor

ii. Kinetic energy correction factor

Fluid friction correction factor:

Fluid friction correction factor can be defined as conversion of mechanical energy into heat in the
flowing stream. So, in frictional fluid the total head is not constant along a stream line and always
decrease in the direction of flow. In accordance with the principle of conservation of energy an
amount of heat generated is equivalent to the loss in mechanical energy. So, for incompressible
fluids, the Bernoulli’s equation is corrected for friction by adding a term to the right hand side of
the equation.

Pa u a2 Pb u 2b
+ gz a + = + gz b + + hf
 2  2 ,

8
where hf represents all the friction generated per unit fluid that occurs in the fluid between stations
a and b.

Friction appears in boundary layers because the work done by shear forces in maintaining the
velocity gradients in both laminar and turbulent flow is eventually converted into heat by viscous
action. Friction generated in unseparated boundary layers is called skin friction. When the
boundary layers separate and form wakes, additional energy dissipation appears within the wake
and friction of this type is called form friction since it is a function of the position and shape of the
solid. In a given situation both skin friction and form friction may be active in varying degrees.
The total friction hf in the above equation includes both types of frictional loss.

Kinetic energy correction factor: Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the
kinetic energy of the flow per second based on actual velocity across a section to the kinetic energy
of the flow per second based on average velocity across the same section. It is denoted by . Hence
mathematically,

Kinetic energy of the flow per second based on actual velocity across a section: Consider an
element of cross-sectional area S. The mass flow rate through this is  u ds. Each kg of fluid
flowing through area ds carries kinetic energy in amount u2/2 and the energy flow rate through

u 2 u 3
area ds is therefore, dE k = (uds ) = ds , where Ek represents the time rate of flow of
2 2
kinetic energy.

s

 the total rate of flow of kinetic energy through the entire cross section s , E=
2 
u 3 ds .
0

9
 s s
 3
 
1
u ds u 3 ds
2 2
 =
m 0
= 0
But total rate of mass flow, s uds ,

 uds
0

u2
so K.E/sec based on average velocity =
2


1
u 3 ds s

 u ds
2 3
0
uds
K.E. correction factor  = = 0
u2 u 3S
2

PUMP PROBLEMS:

Work supplied to the pump from shaft work = ws

Pump work = wp

Total friction in the pump/kg of fluid = hfp

Net mechanical energy available to the flowing fluid = wp - hfp

Pump efficiency  = wp - hfp/ wp

 The mechanical energy delivered to the flowing fluid = wp m



Power, P = wp m
 , watts or wp m
 /746, hp

Applying the bernoulli’s equation around the pump, the pressure drop developed by the pump is
calculated as follows

P1 u2 P u2
+ gz 1 + 1 + w p = 2 + gz 2 + 2 , here z1 = z2 (as pump is parallel to datum line)
 2  2

ū1 = ū2 (rate of flow is steady and dia of the pipe on suction side and delivery side are same )

P2 P1
 − = w p
 

10
 P2 P1  u 2 − u 22 
if ū1  ū2 − = w p  1 
   2 
 

PROBLEMS ON PUMPS:
4.11. In the figure shown a pump draws a solution of specific gravity 1.84 from a storage
tank through a 75 mm pipe. The efficiency of the pump is 60%. The velocity in the suction
line is 0.914 m/s. The pump discharges through a 50 mm pipe to an overhead tank. The end
of the discharge pipe is 15 m above the level of the solution in the feed tank. A frictional loss
in the entire piping system is 30 J/kg. What pressure must the pump develop and what is the
power of the pump?

Let ‘a’ be the surface of the solution in the feed tank. ‘b’ be the discharge point.
From the figure za = 0 and zb = 15m.

va is very small compared to vb (due to large cross sectional area of the feed tank)

v a2
 can be neglected
2

Let the datum line passes through the surface of the liquid in the tank.

Pressures at both a and b will same, because both are opened to atmosphere.

Writing Bernoulli’s equation in energy form (because the frictional loss is given in the form of
energy)

Pa v a2 P v2
+ + gz a + Wp = b + b + gz b + h f , this equation reduces to the following equation after
 2  2

incorporating the above assumptions

11
 v 2b
Wp = + gz b + h f → (1)
2

Diameter of suction pipe, Da=0.075m

Diameter of delivery pipe, Db=0.075m

Velocity in suction pipe, va = 0.914m/s

Area of suction pipe, Sa = (/4)*Da2=4.417*10-3 m2.

Area of delivery pipe, Sb = (/4)*Db2=1.963*10-3 m2.

We know from continuity equation that Sava = Sbvb

S a v a 4.417 * 10 −3 * 0.075 2
vb = = =2.057m/s
Sb 1.963 * 10 −3

Substituting vb in equation (1), and solving

2.057 2
0.6Wp = + 9.81 * 15 + 30 Wp=298.776J/kg.
2

 wp= *va*Sa*Wp
Power, P = m

P=1840*0.914*4.417*10-3 *298.776

P=2219.408 J/s = 2219.408W

P = 2.219kW
To find the pressure drop developed across the pump, let
1 be input to the pump and 2 be output from the pump

from the figure z1  z2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation across points 1 and 2,

P1 v12 P v2
+ + gz 1 + Wp = 2 + 2 + gz 2 + h f ,
 2  2

here hf, because there is no piping system for the loss of head/energy in the pipe.

 Bernoulli’s equation reduces to

12
 P1 0.914 2 P 2.057 2
+ + 0.6 * 298.779 = 2 +
1840 2 1840 2

solving for P2-P1, we get

P2-P1 = 3.267*105N/m2

13
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III FLUID MECHANICS SCHA1303

 UNIT-III
FLOW PAST IMMERSED BODIES AND FLUIDIZATION

FLOW OVER SPHERE AND NON-SPHERICAL OBJECTS:

Figure 3.1 Shows flow over sphere and non-spherical objects

Flow of fluids outside immersed bodies appears in many chemical engineering applications and
other processing applications. These occur, for example, in flow past spheres in settling, flow
through packed beds in drying and filtration, flow past tubes in heat exchangers, and so on. It is
useful to be able to predict the frictional losses and /or the force on the submerged objects in these
various applications.

Consider the flow of fluid inside of a conduit, the transfer of momentum perpendicular to the
surface resulted in a tangential shear stress or drag on the smooth surface parallel to the direction
of flow. This force exerted by the fluid on the solid in the direction of flow is called skin or wall
drag. For any surface in contact with a flowing fluid, skin friction will exist. In addition to skin
friction, if the fluid is not flowing parallel to the surface but change directions to pass around a
solid body such as sphere, significant additional losses will occur and this is called form drag. The
flow of fluid over different type of objects is as shown in the following figure.

2
Drag coefficient:

From the above discussions it is evident that the geometry of the immersed solid is a main factor
in determining the amount of total drag force exerted on the body. Correlations of the geometry
and flow characteristics for solid objects suspended or held in a free stream (immersed objects) are
similar in concept and form to the friction factor- Reynolds number correlation given for flow
inside conduits. In flow through conduits, the friction factor was defined as the ratio of the drag
force per unit area (shear stress) to the product of density times velocity head.

In similar manner for flow past immersed objects, the drag coefficient ‘CD’ is defined as the ratio
vO2
of total drag force per unit area to .
2

 FD 
 
CD =  2 P 
A
 v O 
 2 


where, FD – total drag force

AP – Area

v 0 - free –stream velocity.

 - density of fluid

AP is area obtained by projecting the body on a plane perpendicular to the line of flow.

DP2
For a sphere, AP = , where Dp – diameter of sphere.
4

For cylinder, AP = LDP, where L – Length of cylinder

From the above equation the total drag force is,

v02
FD = C D AP
2

3
Reynolds number for a given solid immersed in a flowing liquid is,

DP v0 
NRe =


D P G0
NRe = Where G0 = v0 


FLOW THROUGH PACKED BED:

A porous medium is a continuous solid phase with many pores, or void spaces in it. Sponges,
plaster walls, filters, and the packed beds used for adsorption, distillation etc. are some examples
of porous media. In many porous solid, such as foamed polystyrene drinking cups or ice boxes,
the void spaces are not connected, so there is no possibility of a fluid flowing through them. A bed
of granular solids or sand has fewer pores than a foamed plastic cup, but the pores are all connected,
so a fluid can easily flow through it. Porous media which do not have interconnected pores are
permeable. The flow of fluids through permeable porous media is of great practical signification
in ground-water hydrology, oil and gas production, filters, packed absorption and distillation
columns and fixed bed catalytic reactors.

Consider the flow of a single-phase fluid through a bed of uniformly sized spherical particles. If
the average velocity at any cross-section perpendicular to flow is based on the entire cross-
sectional area of the pipe (bed), it is called the superficial velocity. It is given by

Q
u0 = ---------------- (1)
Apipe

It may, on the other hand, be based on the area actually open to the flowing fluid, in which case it
is called the interstitial velocity, given by

u0 Q
u= = -------------- (2)
e eApipe

where, e is the porosity, or void fraction, of the bed.

4
 total volume of bed − volume of solids in bed
e =
total volume of bed

freevolume available for fluid flow

= ------- (3)
total volume of fixed bed

From the theoretical standpoint interstitial velocity is more important; it determines the kinetic
energy, the fluid forces and whether the flow is streamline or turbulent. From the practical
standpoint the superficial velocity is generally more useful.

For a packed bed the hydraulic radius varies from point to point. It is given by

wetted cross sec tion normal to flow

rH =
wetted perimeter

volume open to flow

rH =
total wetted surfacearea of packing

For a porous medium made of equally sized spherical particles,

total volume of bed  e

rH =
number of particles surfacearea of one particle

volume of bed  (1 − e)
But, number of particles =
volume of one particle

e
Therefore, rH =
 surfacearea 
(1 − e)    of a particle
 volume 

e
=
 d p2 
(1 − e)   3 
 ( / 6)d p 

dp e
=  ----------- (4)
6 1− e

5
where, dp is the particle diameter.

In this case of flow through packed beds, the Reynolds number and the friction factor become, Re
u  
= (4rH)  0 
 e 

dp e u 
=4    0 
6 1− e  e 

2d p u 0 
= ----------------- (5)
3 (1 − e)

 Pf  (4rH )
f =  − 
 L
2
 2(u 0 / e)

 Pf  dp e e2
=  −  4   2
 L  6 1 − e 2u 0

1  Pf  dp e3
=  −  2  ----------------- (6)
3  L  u0 1 − e

Thus, the modified friction factor and the Reynolds number are defined as

 Pf  dp e2
fm =  −  2  ----------------- (7)
 L  u0 1 − e

d p u0 
Rem = -------------(8)
 (1 − e)

Correlation of experimental data on the pressure drop in the flow of single-phase fluids through
packed beds gives,

150
fm = + 1.75 ---------------- (9)
Re m

6
Equation (9) is known as the Ergun equation. It fits experimental data well for Rem ranging from
1 to over 2000.

For Rem < 10, when the flow is streamline, the resistance to the flow is due to the viscous drag at
the surface of the particles and the losses can be attributed mainly to skin friction. The second term
in Eq. (9) becomes negligible compared tom the first and,

150
fm = -------------- (10)
Re m

Pf u0 L (1 − e) 2
or, − = 150  ------------ (11)
 d p2  e3

Equation (11) is known as the Blake-Kozeny, or Kozeny-Carman equation.

It may be noted that the flow of fluids in the earth or in industrial filters is usually streamline.

For Rem > 1000, when the flow is turbulent, resistance to the flow is mainly due to the loss caused
by turbulent eddies and the sudden changes in the cross-sections of the flow channels. At high
flow rates and in very thin beds, where the enlargement and contraction losses become significant,
the effect of viscous force is negligible.

fm = 1.75 -------------- (12)

Pf u 02 L 1 − e
or, − = 1.75  3 ---------------- (13)
 dp e

This equation is known as the Burke-Plummer equation.

The diameter dv of a nonspherical particle may be defined as the diameter of a sphere with the
same volume as that of the particle. A screen analysis approximates dv fro irregular, nearly
spherical particles. A screen analysis may underestimate or overestimates dv of regular, non
spherical particles, depending on the shape of the particles. In general it gives the second largest
dimension of the particle.

For non spherical particles, the shape factor or sphericity  s is defined as,

7
 Surfacearea of a sphere having the same volume as that of the particle
 s= (14)
Surfaceof a particle

For spheres  s = 1, and 0<  s < 1 for all other particle shapes.

The diameter dp in Eqs (4)-(12) is replaced by  s dv for beds of non spherical granular solids, so
that the Ergun equation becomes,

− Pf u 0 (1 − e) 2 u 02 L 1 − e
= 150  + 1.75  ---------- (15)
  ( s d v ) 2 e3 s d v e3

Motion of solids in fluid:

Many processing steps, especially mechanical separation, involve the movement of solid particles
or liquid drops through a fluid. The fluid may be gas or liquid, and it may be flowing or at rest.
Examples are the elimination of dust and fumes from air or flue gas, than removal solids from
liquid wastes, and the recovery of acid mists from the waste gas of an acid plant.

Mechanics of particles in motion:

The movement of particle through a fluid requires external force acting on the particle. This force
may come from a density difference between the particles and the fluid, or it may be the result of
electric or magnetic fields. In this section only gravitational or centrifugal forces, which arise from
density differences are considered.

Three forces acting on the particles moving through a fluid are,

1. The external force, gravitational, or centrifugal

2. The buoyant force which acts parallel with the external force but in the opposite direction, and
3. The drag force which appears, whenever there is a relative motion between the particle and
fluid.
The drag force acts to oppose the motion and parallel with the direction of movement but in the
opposite direction.

8
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving through a fluid under the action of external force ‘Fe’ the
velocity of particle is ‘u’. Let the buoyant force is ‘Fb’ and the drag force ‘FD’. then the resultant
force on the particle is Fe –Fb -FD . The acceleration of the particle is (du/dt). The force balance
is,

du
m = Fe − Fb − FD
dt

where, m – is constant,

Fe = External force = m ae

ma e
Fb = Buoyant force =
P

C D u 02 AP
FD = Drag force =
2
ae = acceleration

4.8 FLUIDIZED BED AND FLUIDIZATION:

Fluidization is an operation by which fine granular solids are transformed into a fluid-like state
through contact movement of granular solid particles through a series of processing steps in a
continuous fashion.

The chief advantages of fluidization are that it ensures contact of the fluid with all parts of the
solid particles, prevents segregation of these particles by thoroughly agitating the bed, minimizes
temperature variations even in a large reactor and ensures high heat and mass transfer rates.
Fluidization finds application in the catalytic-cracking reactors in the petroleum industry, drying
and sizing crystals, transporting solids, coating metal surfaces with plastic materials, roasting ores,
and synthesis reactions.

The disadvantages of fluidization include greater power requirement, higher breakage of solid
particles, serious erosion of pipelines and containers, and need for bigger reactors.

Consider the upward flow of a fluid through a vertical bed of fine particles. At a low flow rate, the
fluid merely percolates through the void spaces between stationary particles in a fixed bed.
Neglecting kinetic energy terms, Bernoulli’s equation becomes,

9
∆P + gL = − Pf -------------(1)

where the friction loss is obtained from Kozeny-Carman equation, if the flow is streamline. Since
gL is usually much less compared to Pf , the pressure difference across the bed of solid
particles P is found to be linearly proportional to the superficial fluid velocity u0.

If the flow rate of the fluid be increased steadily, a point is reached when the particles are all just
suspended in the upward flowing fluid. At this point the friction force between a particle and fluid
counterbalances the weight of the particle, and the pressure drop through any section of the bed
nearly equals the weight of the particles in that any section. The bed is considered to be just
fluidized and is referred to as an incipiently bed. Thus, for bed at minimum fluidization

PA = W = (A Lmf ) (1 − e ) (
mf p −  )g --------------- (2)

where, A is the cross-sectional area of the tube, and  p is the density of the particle.

P
Therefore, = (1 − emf )(  p −  ) g ----------------- (3)
Lmf

In many practical applications of fluidization, the particles are very small and the fluid velocity is
low, so that the flow is streamline, and from Kozeny-Carman equation.

− P u mf (1 − emf ) 2

= 150 2 2  ----------------- (4)

Lmf s d p e 3 mf

Equating right hand sides of Eqs (3) and (4), the superficial fluid velocity at minimum fluidization
conditions given by

d p2 p −   emf3

u mf =  g  ------------ (5)
150  1 − emf 

For fluid velocities less than the minimum fluidization velocity umf, the bed behaves as a packed
bed. However, as the velocity increases past umf, not only does the bed expand, but the particles
move about relative to each other, as e increases, the particles move apart and are able to slide past
each other, and the entire particle-fluid mass behaves as a fluid which can be poured from one
vessel to another an be pumped, etc. as the velocity increases further, the bed becomes more
expanded, and the solid content becomes more and more dilute. Finally, as the velocity becomes

10
equal to the terminal settling velocity of the individual particles, the last particles are swept out of
the system. Thus the velocity range for which a fluidized bed can exist is from u mf to the free
settling velocity of the particles.

For a given fluid-solid system, Eqs (3) and (4) predict that

P
= k1
L(1 − e)

1− e
= k2uo
e3

where, k1 and k2 are constants.

Thus the variation of the bed porosity e with superficial fluid velocity u0 in a fluidized bed is given
by

e3
u0 = k k ------------- (6)
1− e

where, k is constant for the system.

Equation (6) has been found to hold good for a liquid-solid system for e<0.80. The relationship
between bed heights and bed voidages is defined by

L 1 − emf
=
Lmf 1− e --------------- (7)

The free settling velocity ut of a spherical particle in a fluid medium is given by stokes’ law

d p2 (  p −  ) g
ut =
18
-------------------- (8)

Provided that,

d p ut 
Ret =  0.3


11
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV– FLUID MECHANICS– SCHA1303

 UNIT-IV
TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS

TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIIDS

TRANSPORTATION OF LIQUIDS - PUMPS:

A pump may be defined as a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy supplied to it
(by an electrical motor or oil engine) into hydraulic energy.

Pump may also be defined as a devices used for lifting liquids from a lower level to a higher level.
Pumps are broadly classified as follows:

1. Positive displacement pumps

(i). Reciprocating pumps

a).Piston pumps

b).Plunger pumps

c).Diaphragm pumps

(ii). Rotary pumps

a). Gear pumps (Internal and External)

b). Lobe pumps

c). Screw pumps

d). Vane pumps

2. Centrifugal pumps (kinematics pumps)

(i). Single suction pumps

(ii). Double suction pumps

2
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

In the positive displacement pump a definite volume of liquid is trapped in a chamber, which is
alternatively filled from the inlet and emptied at a high pressure through the discharge.

Positive displacement pumps apply pressure directly to the liquid by reciprocating piston or by
rotating members which forms chambers alternatively filled by and emptied of the liquid.

Reciprocating pump:

In reciprocating pumps, the liquid is sucked and displaced due to the thrust exerted on it by a
moving piston or plunger. Hence they are also known as positive displacement pumps. The
maximum discharge pressure of piston pump is 50 atm. The reciprocating pumps can be classified
as single acting pump and double acting pump according to the contact of liquid with the sides of
piston or plunger.

Single acting reciprocating pump:

In a single acting pump, the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger. It has one
suction pipe and one delivery pipe. Delivery of liquid takes place only in delivery stroke.

3
Construction:

Figure 4.1 Single acting reciprocating pump

Figure 5.1 shows a single acting reciprocating pump. It consists of a pump cylinder, piston or
plunger, piston rod, crank, connecting rod, suction pipe, delivery pipe, suction valve, delivery
valve. Suction and delivery valves are one way (non return) valves. The crank is driven by the
prime mover. The rotation of crank moves the piston to and fro inside the cylinder.

Working:

During suction stroke, piston moves to the right and vacuum is created inside the cylinder. Due to
this, suction valve opens and the liquid from the sump enters (sucked into) the cylinder through
the suction pipe and suction valve. Delivery valve remains closed during this stroke.

4
During delivery stroke, piston moves to the left and forces liquid out of the cylinder. Due to this,
delivery valve opens and the liquid is delivered to the required height through the delivery valve
and delivery pipe. Suction valve will remain closed during this stroke. Crank rotates one revolution
for completing one suction and one delivery stroke. The same cycle is repeated as the crank
revolves.

Applications:

The speed of this pump is limited and hence they are suitable for small capacity and high heads. It
is generally used for

1. Marines (for pumping water),

2. Pneumatic pressure system,

3. Pumping feed water to small boilers,

4. Pumping light oil.

Double acting reciprocating pump:

In a double acting pump, the liquid is in contact with both sides of the piston or plunger. It has two
suction pipes and two delivery pipes. Liquid is delivered during each stroke.

Construction:

A double acting reciprocating pump is as shown in the following figure. It has two suction pipes,
two delivery pipes, two suction valves and two delivery valves. The valves are non return valves
(Figure 4.2).

5
 Figure 4.2 Double acting reciprocating pump

Working:

When the piston moves to the right, a partial vacuum is created in the left side of the piston. The
liquid from the sump is forced into the cylinder through the left side suction valve. When the piston
returns (moves to the left) vacuum is created in the right side of the piston. The liquid from the
sump is sucked in to the cylinder through the right side suction valve. At the same time, the liquid
in the left side of the piston is forced out through the left side delivery valve and delivery pipe.
The operations are repeated. During each stroke, suction takes place on one side of the piston and
delivery takes place on the other side of the piston. Thus the liquid is delivered continuously.

Plunger pump:

Construction:

The plunger pump consists of heavy walled cylinder inside of which a movable plunger is
connected to motor through a shaft. A stationary packed seal is provided around the plunger. The

6
diameter of plunger is small when compared to piston diameter. Plunger pumps also available with
more than one cylinder. Inlet and outlet paths are provided with check valves (Figure 7.3).

Figure 4.3 Plunger pump

Working:

During suction stroke, plunger moves to the right and vacuum is created inside the cylinder. Due
to this, suction valve opens and the liquid from the sump enters (sucked into) the cylinder through
the suction pipe and suction valve. Delivery valve remains closed during this stroke.

During delivery stroke, plunger moves to the left and forces liquid out of the cylinder. Due to this,
delivery valve opens and the liquid is delivered to the required height through the delivery valve
and delivery pipe. Suction valve will remain closed during this stroke. Crank rotates one revolution
for completing one suction and one delivery stroke. The same cycle is repeated as the crank
revolves.

7
Applications:

These pumps build up very high pressures up to 1500 atm. They are suitable for rough works such
as pumping of water containing sand. The plunger pump may be single acting or double acting.

Diaphragm pump:

Construction:

The diaphragm pump consists of a flexible diaphragm made up of metal, plastic or rubber as a
reciprocating member. This eliminates the need for packing or seals exposed to the liquid being
pumped. The diaphragm pump also consists of pumping chamber, crank, connecting rod, suction
pipe, delivery pipe, suction valve(inlet), delivery valve(outlet). Suction and delivery valves are
ball valves. The crank is driven by the electric motor. The rotation of crank moves the piston to
and fro inside the cylinder (Figure 7.4).

Figure 4.4 Diaphragm pump

8
Working:

During suction stroke, diaphragm moves up and vacuum is created inside the chamber. Due to this,
suction valve opens and the liquid from the sump enters (sucked into) the chamber through the
suction pipe and suction valve. Delivery valve remains closed during this stroke.

During delivery stroke, diaphragm moves down and forces liquid out of the chamber. Due to this,
delivery valve opens and the liquid is delivered to the required height through the delivery valve
and delivery pipe. Suction valve will remain closed during this stroke.

Crank rotates one revolution for completing one suction and one delivery stroke. The same cycle
is repeated as the crank revolves.

Applications:

These pumps build up very high pressures in excess of 100 atm. They are suitable for pumping of
toxic or corrosive liquids. The diaphragm pump handle small to moderate amounts of liquid, up to
about 100 gal/ min.

Differences between piston and plunger pumps:

Piston pump Plunger pump

The reciprocating component is a piston
1. The reciprocating component is a plunger.
with a piston rod.
The plunger has no piston rings. Packing
2. Piston requires piston rings (packing rings) rings are held in position with stationary
cylinder by packing glands.
3. It is used for moderate pressure up to 50 It can develop very high pressure up to
atm. 1500 atm.

It is used for pumping clean water as the

It can be used for pumping water
4. clearance between the cylinder and the
containing sand and similar material.
piston is very small.
5. More wear and tear. Less wear and tear.
Liners are provided in the cylinder which
6. No liners are used.
requires periodical replacement.

9
Discharge, work done and power required to drive reciprocating pump:

10
Slip:

The difference between the theoretical discharge and actual discharge is called slip of the
pump.

Generally, the slip is expressed in percentage which is given by

where, Cd is coefficient of discharge

Problem 4.1

11
12
Problem 4.2

4.2 Rotary pump:

In rotary pump the liquid is carried from the suction side to the discharge side through rotation of
a body. The rotating body may be a gear, lobe, vane etc. Rotary pumps are classified as follows:

i. External gear pump

ii. Internal gear pump
iii. Vane pump
iv. Lobe pump
v. Screw pump.

External Gear Pump:

Construction:

13
 4.5 External gear pump

In external gear pump gear meshing arrangement is actually outside of the gear wheel, so it is
called external gear pump. Gear pump consists of two gears in a casing. One gear is rotating in
clockwise direction and another gear is rotating in anticlockwise direction. Only one gear is
connected to a driving shaft and another gear is rotates freely. In special circumstances both the
gears are connected to driving shaft (Figure 4.5).

Working:

When the gears rotate, it creates partial vacuum inside the casing which causes the suction of
liquid. The entered liquid is carried to the discharge line by the rotation of gears, since the space
between the casing and gears are so small the pressure of the liquid increases whiles it carrying
from suction to discharge. Due to the meshing of gear the liquid cannot return back to the suction.
The liquid leaves the gear pump at moderate pressure.

Internal Gear Pump:

Construction:

14
 4.6 Internal gear pump

In internal gear pump two gears are meshed internally inside a casing, where the inside is driven
gear and other one is stationary one. The driven gear runs eccentrically to the stationary gear. The
spaces between the gears are sealed with a crescent shaped projection which is actually acts as
partition to prevent the liquid entering from discharge side to suction side (Figure 4.6).

Working:

When the pump starts, the teeth in the gear wheels intermesh completely. Due to eccentric
movement, when the teeth come out of the stationary gear, and hence partial vacuum is created
which causes suction of liquid inside the casing. When the pump runs continuously the trapped
liquid between the driven gear and crescent is discharged through the outlet at high pressure.

15
Vane Pump:

Construction:

4.7 Vane pump

A Vane pump consists of a circular casing consists of a rotor disk which is connected to the motor
shaft. The rotor disk consists of radial rectangular slots. Inside the rectangular slot, rectangular
vanes are present which can freely moves inside the slot. They all there one put inside a casing
(Figure 4.7).

Working:

When the pump runs in clockwise direction, due to the centrifugal force the vanes moves outward
radially and makes air tight contact with the casing, due to which a partial vacuum is created
between the vanes and casing which causes suction of liquid. When the pump runs continuously
the trapped liquid discharges at high pressure. And the pumping of liquid continues.

Lobe Pump:

Construction:

4.8 Lobe pump

16
A lobe pump actually resembles gear pump. It consists of two lobes are rotates inside a casing.
One lobe is connected to driven motor shaft which rotates clockwise direction and another lobe
rotates freely in anticlockwise direction. Numerous designs of lobes are available; in every design
functions are same (Figure 4.8).

Working:

When the lobes are rotates, it creates a partial vacuum inside the casing and causes suction of
liquid. When the lobes run continuously the trapped liquid is discharged at high pressure in the
discharge side. The main disadvantage of lobe pump is discharge of liquid is not constant when
compared with gear pump.

Screw Pump:

Construction:

4.9 Screw pump

Screw pumps are suitable for the liquids having high viscosity. Screw pumps are modified form
of external gear pump. There are two types of screw pump:

i. Single screw pump- where only one rotor rotates.

ii. Double screw pump- where two rotors rotate.

In screw pump, a rotating screw (rotor) is present in a casing. The rotor is connected to a motor
through a shaft. The rotors are meshed with casing internally. The space between rotor and casing
is so small (Figure 4.9).

17
Working:

When the shaft rotates, the liquid enters in the suction side. It divides into two streams. The liquid
flows into two extreme sides of rotor. The pressure of the fluid increases when it moves axially
when the shaft rotates. The increase in pressure due to the meshing of the rotor screws with casing.
The liquid discharges through the opening present in the centre of the rotor.

4.2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:

A hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy of liquid into pressure energy by means
of centrifugal force acting on the liquid is called centrifugal pump.

4.2.1 Principle:

The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This means that
the flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward directions. The centrifugal pump works on
the principle of forced vortex flow which means that when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by
an external torque, the rise in pressure head of rotating liquid takes place. The rise in pressure head
at any point of rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the liquid at
that point [i.e. rise in pressure head = (V2/2g) or (w2r2/2g)]. Thus at the outlet of the impeller where
radius is more, rise in pressure head will be more and the liquid will be discharged at the outlet
with high pressure head. Due to this high-pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a high level.

4.1.2.2 Construction:

The main components of centrifugal pump are

1. Impeller,

2. Casing,

3. Suction pipe,

4. Delivery pipe,

5. Delivery valve and

6. A prime mover.

18
 Figure 4.9 Centrifugal pump

Impeller:

Impeller is a rotor, provided with a series of curved vanes or blades. It is mounted on a shaft. This
shaft is rotated by a prime mover such as electric motor or oil engine.

Casing:

The casing surrounds the impeller. It is an air –tight and water-tight casing. The casing is designed
with a gradually increasing area. Hence, when water flows through the casing, the kinetic energy
of water is converted into pressure energy, before the water leaves the casing.

19
Suction pipe:

The upper end of the suction pipe is connected to the inlet of the pump. The lower end is submerged
into suction well or sump from which water is to be pumped. The lower end of suction pipe is
fitted with a foot valve and strainer.

Delivery pipe:

The lower end of delivery pipe is connected to the outlet of the pump. The other end delivers water
at the required level.

Delivery valve:

A delivery valve is provided in the delivery pipe just near the outlet of the pump. It is provided to
control (to regulate) the flow from the pump into the delivery pipe.

Prime mover:

It is used to drive (rotate) the impeller of the pump. Usually, an electric motor is provided for this
purpose

4.1.2.3 Working:

The first step in the operation of a centrifugal pump is ‘priming’. Priming is the operation of filling
up water in the suction pipe, casing and a portion of delivery valve. It is done to remove the air
present inside. If any air is present, the pressure developed across the impeller will not be sufficient
to suck the water from the sump. The delivery valve is kept closed during priming.

After priming, the impeller is rotated by a prime mover keeping the delivery valve still closed. The
rotating vanes give centrifugal head to the pump. When the pump attains a constant speed, the
delivery valve is gradually opened. The water flows in a radially outward direction. Then, it leaves
the vanes at the outer circumference with high velocity and pressure.

20
As the liquid flows along the spiral casing, its kinetic energy gradually converted into pressure
energy. The high pressure water is discharged through the delivery pipe to the required length.

When the water is forced away from the centre of the impeller by the centrifugal force, partial
vacuum is created at the centre of the impeller known as ‘eye’. Due to this, water from the sump
enters into the eye of the impeller through the suction pipe. Thus the water enters and leaves the
impeller continuously to maintain a continuous discharge to the required height. The suction head
is generally limited to 7.90 ‘m’ of water to avoid cavitation.

4.1.2.4 Applications:

Centrifugal pump is most commonly used in water works, sewage works, irrigation, water pressure
schemes, drainage, oil refineries, etc.

4.1.2.5 Terminology:
Suction Head (hs):

Suction head is defined as the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump above the
water surface in the tank or pump from which water is to be lifted. This height is also called suction
lift and is denoted by ‘hs’.

Discharge HeaD (hd):

Discharge head is defined as the vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the
water surface in the tank to which water is delivered is known as delivery head. This is denoted by
‘hd’.

Developed Head (Hd):

Developed head is defined as the sum of suction head and discharge head. This is denoted by ‘Hd’.
It is also known as static head Hd = hs + hd

21
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):

Suction limitations of a pump: Whenever the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapour pressure
corresponding to its temperature, the liquid will vaporize. When this happens within an operating
pump, vapor bubbles will be carried along to a point of higher pressure, where they suddenly
collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.

Cavitation in a pump should be avoided, as it is accompanied by metal removal, vibration, reduced

flow, loss of efficiency, and noise. When the absolute suction pressure is low, cavitation may occur
in the pump inlet and damage result in the pump suction and one of the impeller vanes near the
inlet edges. To avoid the phenomena, it is necessary to maintain a required net positive suction
head (NPSH)R which is the equivalent total head of liquid at the pump centre line less the vapor
pressure ‘p’. Each pump manufacturer publishes curves relating (NPSH)R to capacity and speed
for each pump.

When a pump installation is being designed, the available net positive suction head must be equal
to or greater than the (NPSH)R for the desired capacity. The (NPSH)A can be calculated as follows;
(NPSH)A = hss – hfs – p.

If (NPSH)A is to be checked on a exiting installation, it can be determined as follows; (NPSH)A =

atm + hgs – p + hvs

Practically, the NPSH required for operation without cavitation and vibration in the pump is
somewhat greater than the theoretical. The actual (NPSH)R depends on the characteristics of the
liquid, the total head, the pump speed, the capacity, and impeller design. Any suction condition
which reduce (NPSH)A below that required to prevent cavitation at the desired capacity will
produce an unsatisfactory installation and can led to mechanical difficulty.

22
4.1.2.6 Cavitation:

When the suction lift is high for a centrifugal pump, a large vacuum is created ate the pump inlet.
This vacuum pressure falls below the vapour pressure of the water corresponding to that
temperature. At this condition, water will vaporize and cavities are formed. This phenomenon is
known as cavitation.

When cavitation occurs, vapour bubbles are formed. They move from low pressure side (entry to
the impeller) to the high pressure (exit of the impeller) and collapse suddenly. When they collapse,
they hit the vanes of impeller and impeller may worn out. This damaging of impeller is known as
‘pitting’.

Effects of cavitation:

1. The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
2. Due sudden collapses of vapour bubble, considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
3. Due to pitting the efficiency of the pump is decreases.

Prevention of cavitation:

1. The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should not be allowed
to fall below its vapour pressure
2. The special materials or coatings such as aluminium – bronze and stainless steel, which are
cavitation resistance material.
3. Suction lift is kept between 5 m to 6 m,
4. The velocity in the suction pipe should be low,
5. The pump speed should be reasonably low.
6. Sharp bends in the suction pipe should be avoided to reduce frictional losses.
7. Impeller is provided with more number of vanes to reduce turbulence.

23
4.1.2.7 Priming:

Priming is a process of filling up water in the casing and suction pipe of a centrifugal pump for the
removal of air before starting it. If any air is present inside the casing, discontinuity of flow may
be caused. If the pump is started with air in the casing and suction pipe, there will be only a
negligible pressure difference across the impeller. This will not be sufficient to create enough
vacuum to suck the water into the casing from the sump. Hence, the pump will not work. Therefore
priming is very essential before starting the pump.

The pumps can be primed in several ways. They are,

1. Manual priming,

2. Priming by vacuum, and

3. Self-priming

In manual priming, water is poured through the priming cock by a funnel and the air vent in the
casing is opened. When all the air has been displaced from the suction- pipe and casing, the cock
is then closed and the pump can be started.

In large pumps, priming is done by evacuating the casing and suction pipe with the aid of an air
pump or ejector. Thus the water is drawn into the suction pipe from the sump. This is called
priming by vacuum. In self-priming, the priming is done automatically by having a special
reservoir containing water between suction line and pump. Self-priming devices are used with big
size pump only, as it requires large expenses.

4.2 GAS MOVING MACHINERIES

Gas moving machinery comprises mechanical devices used for compressing and moving gases.
They are often classified from the stand point of the pressure heads produced and are fans for low
pressures, blowers for intermediate pressures, and compressors for high pressures.

4.2.1 FANS:

Fans discharge large volumes of gas into open spaces or large ducts. They are low speed machines
that generate very low pressures, on the order of 0.04 atm. Fans may be radial or axial flow type
and they come in sizes ranging from small portable model used in automobiles to very large
ventilating and industrial fans. Radial flow fans generate centrifugal force to propel the gas while
the axial flow fans impel the gas along the path parallel to the axis of the fan.

24
The volume of gas propelled by a specific fan under specified operating conditions is directly
proportional to the fan speed. Similarly, for a specific fan and operating conditions, the static
pressure varies as the square of the fan speed while power consumption varies as the cube of the
fan speed.

4.2.1.1 Centrifugal fans:

Figure 4.10 Straight Blade Fan

They have 5 to 12 radial blades mounted on rotor of comparatively large diameter. These blades
resemble paddle wheels. They are best suited for low speed duty. Frequently they are used as
exhaust fan where air stream is involved to transport air-borne waste.

4.2.1.2 Axial Flow Fans:

In axial flow fans air enters in an axial direction and leaves in an axial direction. The axial flow
fans are two types:

1. Disk type, and

2. Propeller type.
The disk type fans have plain or curved blades. They are used for general circulation or exhaust
work without duct.

25
The axial flow fans have blade designs similar to those used in aircrafts. They are usually of two
staged type as shown in the following figure.

Ventilating fans are available for large volumetric flow (220740 m3/h) and low pressure increase
(1400 Pa). The fans operate in the range of 40% to 70% of efficiency.

Figure 4.11 Two stage axial flow fan

4.2.2 BLOWERS:

Blowers are high speed rotary devices that can develop a maximum pressure of about 2 atm. They
are used to handle large volume of gas gases at a pressure higher than the fans. There are two types
of blowers as follows:

1. Rotary or Positive displacement blowers

2. Turbo or Centrifugal blowers.

4.2.1 Rotary or Positive displacement blowers:

A rotary or positive displacement blower (lobe type) is as shown in the above figure. These
machines operate as gear pumps do except that, because of the special design of the “teeth” the
clearance is only a few thousands of an inch. The relative position of the impellers is maintained
precisely by heavy external gears. A single stage blower can discharge gas at 0.4 to 1 atm. Gauge,
a two-stage blower at 2 atm. The blower shown in the above figure has two lobes. Three - lobe
machines are also common.

26
 Figure7.12 Rotary or Positive displacement blowers
4.2.3 COMPRESSOR:

Compressors are used to handle large volume of gas and discharge at pressures from 2 atm. to
several thousand atm. Compressor can be classified as follows:

1. Continuous flow compressors

- Centrifugal compressors

- Axial flow compressors

2. Positive-displacement compressors

- Rotary compressors

- Reciprocating compressors

4.2.3.1 Reciprocating Compressor:

Reciprocating compressors are used mainly when high- pressure head is required at a low flow.
Reciprocating compressors are furnished in either single stage or multi stage types. The number
stages are determined by the required compression ratio p2/p1. The compression ratio per stage is
generally limited to 4, although low capacity units are furnished with compression ratios of 8 and

27
even higher. The maximum compression ratio is determined by the maximum allowable discharge
gas temperature.

Figure 4.13 Reciprocating compressor

Reciprocating compressors operate mechanically in the same way as reciprocating pumps, with
the differences that leak prevention is more difficult and the temperature rise is more important. In
reciprocating compressors a piston, a cylinder fitted with suitable suction and discharge valves
plus a crank shaft with a drive. The cylinder wall and cylinder heads are cored for cooling jackets
using water or refrigerant. Reciprocating compressors are usually motor driven and are nearly
always double-acting. The reciprocating motion of the piston propels the gas through the
successive stages of expansion, suction, compression and discharge. The overall efficiency of the
reciprocating compressor is in the range of 65% - 80%.

Suction: When the piston moves to left the inlet valve opens and gas enters into the cylinder and
discharge valve closed.

Compression: When the piston moves to right the gas is compressed to high pressure, and suction
valve closed.

Discharge: When the piston moves to left the discharge valve opens and compressed gas is
delivered at high pressure. On multi stage compressors, intercoolers are provided between stages.
These heat exchangers remove the heat of compression from the gas and reduce its temperature to
approximately the temperature existing at the compressor intake. Such cooling reduces the volume

28
of the gas going to the high pressure cylinders reduces the power required for compression, and
keeps the temperature within safe operating limits.

References

1. R. K. Bansal, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics, First Edition, Laxmi Publications (P) LTD.,
New Delhi, (2012).
2. Warren McCabe, Julian Smith and Peter Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, Seventh Edition, Mc-Graw hill International Edition (2017)
3. C. P. Kothandaraman and R. Rudramoorthy, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, Third
Edition, New Academic Science Limited, UK, (2013).
4. K.A. Gavhane, Unit Operation -1, Nirali Prakashan, Twelth Edition Educational
Publishers, India, (2010).

29
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V FLUID MECHANICS– SCHA1303

 UNIT-V
METERING OF FLUIDS
FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

5.1 VENTURIMETER
Venturimeter is a variable head meter used for finding the discharge of liquid flowing at any point
along a pipe line. This is a device also used to find out the rate of discharge of liquid flowing
through a pipe. This apparatus follows the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem, that total head of a
flowing fluid remains constant i.e., when liquid passes through a converging cone, its increase in
kinetic head is due to the decrease in pressure head. By measuring the pressure difference with the
help of a differential manometer, the velocity of flow and hence the rate of discharge can be
evaluated.

A venturimeter consists of the following three parts (Figure 5.1):

1 2

Figure 5.1 Venturimeter [2]

Converging cone:

It is a short tapering pipe whose diameter gradually decreases from the diameter of the pipe to the
smaller diameter at the pipe to the smaller diameter at the throat. The inclined angle is about 20oC.
The length of converging cone is 2.5 times the pipe diameter and its slope is 1 in 4 to 1 in 5.

Throat:

It is a small portion of constant diameter which is placed in between the converging cone and
diverging cone. Its diameter is ¼ to ¾ times the diameter of pipe at inlet so that the pressure at the

2
throat may not fall below 2.5m of water, otherwise the separation will take place even at
atmospheric temperature.

Diverging cone:

This is also a tapering pipe whose diameter gradually increases from the diameter at throat to the
diameter of the pipe. When fluid flows through this position of venturimeter, it is retarded. Due to
the retardation, the velocity head of the fluid decreases and consequently its pressure head
increases. If the pressure is rapidly increases then there is a every possibility that the fluid may
break away from the walls of pipe due to boundary layer effect. For this reason the length of
diverging cone is 3 to 4 times the length of converging cone. The inclined angle is about 5o.

The basic equation for venturimeter can be obtained by writing Bernoulli's equation for
incompressible fluid between two stations, upstream taping and throat. Friction is neglected, meter
is assumed to be horizontal and there is no pump.

P1 u 12 P u2
+ + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2 → (1)
 2  2

Since the meter is horizontal z1 = z2

P1 u 12 P2 u 22
 + = +
 2  2

2(P2 − P1 )
u 22 − u 12 = → (2)


According to continuity equation S1ū1 = S2 ū2 →(3)

 2 
D1 u 1 = D 22 u 2
4 4

2
 D2 
ū1 =   u 2
 D1 

ū1 = 2 ū2

Eliminating ū1 from equation 2

3
 2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 −  4 u 22 =


2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 (1 −  4 ) =


2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 =
(1 −  4 )

2(P1 − P2 )
u2 = → (4)
(1 −  4 )

But we know P1-P2=gh

P1 − P2
= gh


Substituting in equation 4

2gh
u2 = → (5)
(1 −  4 )

Equations 4 and 5 apply to the frictionless flow of incompressible flow. To account for friction
loss between 1 and 2, equation 4 is corrected by introducing a empirical factor Cv, called venturi
coefficient.

2(P1 − P2 )
u2 = Cv → (6)
(1 −  4 )

Venturi coefficient is determined experimentally. When D2/D1 is less than 0.25 the term  can be
neglected. For well-designed meter Cv is about 0.98 to 0.99.

The mass flow rate through venturimeter can be calculated from the velocity at throat ū2 using
continuity equation.

 = u 2 S 2  = C v S 2 2(P1 − P2 ) → (7)
m

where m - mass flow rate

4
 S2 – Area of throat.

Volumetric flow rate is obtained by dividing mass flow rate by the density


m 2(P1 − P2 )
q= = C vS2 → (8)
 (1 −  4 )

Cv can be found experimentally.

Advantages of Venturi meter

1. High accuracy is attainable.
2. Pressure recovery is high, i.e., pressure losses are minimum.
3. Resistance to abrasion is minimum.
4. Ideally suited where the measured fluid contains large amount of suspended solids.

Disadvantages of Venturimeter
1. Lot of space is required.
2. Initial cost is high
3. The device is bulky and required good support.

WORKED EXAMPLES:

5.1. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm respectively
is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to the
inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Assume Cv = 0.98.

Solution:

D1= 30 cm =0.30 m; D2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m

 =D2/D1 = 0.15/0.30 = 0.5

S2 = D22/4 = *0.152/4 = 0.0177 m2

Rm= 20 cm =0.20 m

P = Rm*g*(m-) = 0.20*9.81*(13600-1000) = 24721 N/m2.

5
 2P
Q = C vS2
(1 −  4 )

2 * 24721
Q = 0.98 * 0.0177 = 0.126 m3/s
1000 * (1 − 0.5 4 )

5.2. A venturimeter has a pipe of 1.2 m diameter and throat of 0.6 m diameter. Find the discharge
through the venturimeter and velocity of water at the throat, if the pressure is 4 cm of Hg, venturi
coefficient is 0.98.
Solution: Given: D1=1.2 m D2=0.6 m Rm=4 cm=0.04 m. Cv =0.98

 =D2/D1 = 0.6/1.2 = 0.5

S2 = D22/4 = *0.62/4 = 0.283 m2

P = Rm*g*(m-) = 0.04*9.81*(13600-1000) = 4944.24 N/m2.

2P
Q = C vS2
(1 −  4 )

2 * 4944.24
Q = 0.98 * 0.283 = 0.9 m3/s.
1000 * (1 − 0.5 4 )

Q 0.9
Average velocity ū2 = = = 3.18 m/s.
S 2 0.283

5.2 ORIFICEMETER
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper
device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle of venturimeter. It
consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice which is
concentric with the pipe (Figure 5.2). The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the
diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

6
 Figure 5.2 Orificemeter

A differential manometer is connected at section, which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2

times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate and at section 2, which is at a
distance about half the diameter of the pipe on the downstream side from the orifice plate.

Let P1, ū1 and S1 are pressure, average velocity and cross sectional area respectively at
section 1 and P2, ū2 and S2 are corresponding values section 2.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2

P1 u 12 P u2
+ + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2 → (1)
 2  2

Since the meter is horizontal z1 = z2

P1 u 12 P2 u 22
 + = +
 2  2

2(P2 − P1 )
u 22 − u 12 = → (2)


 2 
According to continuity equation S1ū1 = S2 ū2 →(3) D1 u 1 = D 22 u 2
4 4

2
D 
ū1 =  2  u 2
 D1 

ū1 = 2 ū2

Eliminating ū1 from equation 2

2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 −  4 u 22 =


7
 2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 (1 −  4 ) =


2(P1 − P2 )
u 22 =
(1 −  4 )

2(P1 − P2 )
u2 = → (4)
(1 −  4 )

But, P1-P2=gh

P1 − P2
= gh


Substituting in equation 4

2gh
u2 = → (5)
(1 −  4 )

Equations 4 and 5 apply to the frictionless flow of incompressible flow. In practice the diameter
of the stream at vena contracta is not known, but the orifice diameter is known. Hence the above
equation may be written in terms of velocity through the orifice. If a constant is inserted in the
equation to correct the difference between this velocity and the velocity at the vena contracta, there
is some loss by friction and this also may be included in the constant. Then the above equation
becomes

2(P1 − P2 )
u 2 = Co → (6)
(1 −  4 )

where Co is the orifice coefficient.

The mass flow rate through orifice meter can be calculated from the velocity at throat ū2 using
continuity equation.

 = u 2 S 2  = C o S 2 2(P1 − P2 ) → (7)
m

where  - mass flow rate and S2 – Area of throat.

m

8
Volumetric flow rate is obtained by dividing mass flow rate by the density


m 2(P1 − P2 )
q= = C oS2 → (8)
 (1 −  4 )

Co can be found experimentally and is generally 0.61.

Advantages
1. It is cheap device
2. It can be installed between existing pipe flanges.

Disadvantages
1. Pressure recovery is very poor, i.e., pressure losses are high.
2. It is susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from wear and abrasion.
3. It may be damaged by pressure transients because of its lower physical strength.

WORKED EXAMPLES:

5.3. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is inserted in a pipe of 20 cm diameter. The
pressure gauge fitted to the upstream and downstream of the orifice meter give readings of
1.95x105 N/m2 and 1x105 N/m2 respectively. Coefficient of discharge for the meter is given as
0.6. Find the discharge of water through pipe.

Solution:

D2 =10 cm = 0.1 m.

 
S2 = D 22 = 0.12 =7.854*10-3 = 0.007854 m2
4 4

=0.1/0.2=0.5

P = (1.95x105 - 1x105) = 95000 N/m2.

2P
Q = C vS2
(1 −  4 )

9
 2 * 95000
Q = 0.6 * 0.007854 = 0.0693 m3/s = 69.3 lps
1000 * (1 − 0.5 4 )

5.4. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter. The
pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of
the orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of Hg. Find the rate of flow of oil of specific gravity
0.9, when the coefficient of discharge of the meter is 0.61.

Solution:

D2 =15 cm = 0.15 m.

 
S2 = D 22 = 0.15 2 =0.0177 m2
4 4

=0.15/0.3=0.5

Rm= 50 cm =0.50 m

P = Rm*g*(m-) = 0.50*9.81*(13600-1000) = 61803 N/m2.

2P
Q = C vS2
(1 −  4 )

2 * 61803
Q = 0.61 * 0.0177 0.1309 m3/s = 131 lps
1000 * (1 − 0.5 4 )

PITOT TUBE:
Pitot tube is a flow measuring device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe
or a channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the
pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In its
simplest form, the Pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles.

10
 Figure 5.3 Pitot tube

The lower end, which is bent through 90 is directed in the upstream direction as shown in the
Figure 5.3. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic to pressure energy. The
velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.

Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just as the inlet of
the pitot tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.

Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points (1) and (2),

P1 u12 P u2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 → (1)
g 2 g g 2 g

Since z1 = z2 and v2 = 0,

Let pressure head at point (1) be H,

pressure head at point (2) be (H+h),

u12
H+ = H + h → (2)
2g

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by where Cv is pitot

coefficient.

11
EXERCISES:
5.5. A 30 cm x 15 cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in
the upward direction. The difference in elevation of throat section and entrance section of
throat section and entrance section of venturimeter is 30 cm. A differential mercury
manometer is connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of 25 cm. Find the discharge.
Take Cv= 0.98. Find the pressure difference between entrance and throat.

5.6 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter. The
pressure gauge fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter reads 14.715N/cm 2 and
9.81 N/cm2 respectively. Find the rate of flow of water through the pipe in litres /s. take CO
= 0.60

5.7 A horizontal pipe having diameter of 30cm and the orifice diameter of 15 cm is used to
measure the flow of oil of sp.gr.is 0.8.. The discharge of oil through the orifice is 50 litres per
second. Find the reading of oil mercury differential manometer. Take Co =0.61

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