Current Issues in Tourism

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Embracing the metaverse: cultivating sustainable

tourism growth on a global scale

Nadia Adnan, Muhammad Faisal Rashed & Wajahat Ali

To cite this article: Nadia Adnan, Muhammad Faisal Rashed & Wajahat Ali (13 Aug 2024):
Embracing the metaverse: cultivating sustainable tourism growth on a global scale, Current
Issues in Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2024.2390678

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CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2024.2390678

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Embracing the metaverse: cultivating sustainable tourism growth

on a global scale
Nadia Adnana, Muhammad Faisal Rashedb and Wajahat Alic
a
Department of Management and Marketing, College of Business Administration, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd
University, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia; bSchool of Management Science, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering
Sciences and Technology, Topi, Swabi, Pakistan; cDepartment of Statistics & Operations Research, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The tourism sector must integrate sustainability to mitigate Received 17 April 2024
environmental impacts, ensure destination profitability, and promote Accepted 5 August 2024
responsible travel. Emerging technologies, particularly the metaverse,
KEYWORDS
have the potential to revolutionise environmental, economic, and social Metaverse tourism;
sustainability. Although recent research on metaverse-based sustainable sustainable growth;
development has expanded, studies on its application within tourism behavioral theories;
remain limited. This paper addresses this gap by exploring the immersive experiences;
metaverse’s potential to advance sustainable practices in tourism, creative economy
aligning with sustainable development goals (SDGs).By integrating
three behavioural theories – the Theory of Planned Behavior,
Technology Acceptance Model, and Self-Determination Theory – this
research provides a comprehensive framework to assess the impact of
metaverse tourism on sustainability and identify the most relevant
SDGs. Through a systematic meta-analysis, the study presents four key
propositions: foundational technologies will redefine travel experiences
through immersive engagements; metaverse tourists may develop more
realistic expectations, altering travel dynamics; understanding the
diverse identities of metaverse tourists is crucial; and metaverse tourism
introduces an innovative business model aligned with the creative
economy. This interdisciplinary approach offers insights into the
transformative potential of metaverse tourism, bridging technology,
tourism, and behavioural psychology. The research underscores the
importance of exploring these intersections, contributing valuable
insights to the evolving tourism landscape amidst changing consumer
expectations and sustainability imperatives.

Introduction
The concept of ‘metaverse’ combines the prefixes ‘meta’ and ‘universe’, originating from its initial
usage in the 1992 science fiction novel Snow Crash. Describing a 3D virtual environment prioritising
interpersonal connections, the metaverse involves communication through avatars or actual partici­
pants (Gursoy et al., 2022). It serves as a symbolic representation of a virtual realm, transcending the
physical world. Following Aristotle’s perspective, physics is identified as the primary law governing
the nature and existence of things. In contrast, ‘metaphysics’, meaning ‘after physics’, delves into
consciousness and the interplay between the mind and matter. In the ever-evolving landscape of
global tourism, the confluence of cutting-edge technologies and innovative digital experiences
has given rise to the metaverse – a dynamic and transformative force redefining how individuals

CONTACT Nadia Adnan [email protected], [email protected]

© 2024 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. ADNAN ET AL.

perceive, engage with, and experience destinations (Gretzel et al., 2020; Junaid et al., 2024). The
advent of the metaverse is particularly pertinent in the post-COVID era, where the tourism industry
is compelled to adapt and seek novel solutions for its survival and growth. This technological para­
digm introduces a three-dimensional virtual space that seamlessly converges the realms of digital
and physical existence thanks to the integration of virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR),
extended reality (XR), mixed reality (MR) and blockchain (Dwivedi et al., 2022; Gursoy et al., 2022;
Wong et al., 2023). The profound impact of the metaverse extends beyond mere technological
advancements; it marks a fundamental shift in how individuals connect, share, and immerse them­
selves in diverse activities within this shared digital space. In this era, where social, economic, and
environmental considerations loom, the metaverse emerges as a futuristic concept and a tangible
and transformative solution, offering unprecedented opportunities to address challenges associated
with traditional travel practices (Zhang et al., 2022).
Metaverse tourism can be defined as a combination of virtual and augmented reality to create
immersive, multisensory travel experiences within collective spatial environments, blending physical
and virtual worlds, and promoting sustainability by reducing the need for physical travel (Dwivedi
et al., 2022; Go & Kang, 2023). In simple words metaverse tourism is experiencing immersive
travels in digital environments. The multifaceted facets of metaverse tourism include examining
its technological foundations, the imperative for its integration, and its potential to usher in a
new era of sustainable tourism development. As we traverse the realms of virtual landscapes and
immersive experiences, the metaverse beckons us to reconsider and reshape the very essence of
the tourism experience, inviting us to envision a future where the boundaries between the physical
and the digital blur, giving rise to a more sustainable and inclusive tourism paradigm. The theoretical
underpinnings of metaverse tourism lie in the advancements of information technology, particularly
in the domains of virtual reality, augmented reality, 3D & 360° technology, blockchain, and the Inter­
net of Things (IoT) (Dwivedi et al., 2022; Gursoy et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2023). The term ‘metaverse’
itself combines the prefix ‘meta’, meaning after, behind, or beyond, and the word ‘universe’, defining
it as an ecosystem of shared and interconnected digital and physical environments (Golf-Papez et al.,
2022).
As we navigate this exploration, it is imperative to recognise the pivotal role of technological
innovation in post-COVID society and its recovery. During the pandemic, information technology
became a crucial vector of change, enabling tourism through virtual experiences and shaping the
industry’s recovery after that (Gretzel et al., 2020; Shin & Kang, 2020). The metaverse, made possible
by Internet 3.0, is a three-dimensional virtual environment that focuses on social connections and
allows users to interact and connect regardless of physical location (Gursoy et al., 2022). Although
a contemporary concept, the metaverse has historical roots, with its name coined in Neal Stephen­
son’s, 1992 science fiction novel ‘Snow Crash’ and gaining popularity following the launch of the
virtual world platform Second Life in 2003 (Hollensen et al., 2022). The recent rebranding of Face­
book as Meta in 2021 underscores the growing influence and recognition of the metaverse
concept (Kim, 2021). In the context of tourism, the metaverse introduces novel touchpoints with con­
sumers, providing immersive experiences that transcend the limitations of physical travel (Dwivedi
et al., 2022). The metaverse facilitates virtual exploration, socialising, working, playing, learning,
shopping, and more, offering a substitute or alternative version of actual destinations (Zhang
et al., 2022). The alignment between metaverse tourism and sustainability becomes evident in its
potential to mitigate the environmental impact of conventional travel (Boluk et al., 2019; Go &
Kang, 2023; Sharpley, 2021). By presenting virtual alternatives, metaverse tourism allows individuals
to explore destinations without physical transportation, reducing carbon emissions and lessening
the ecological footprint associated with traditional tourism (Johri et al., 2024; Koo et al., 2023;
Nunkoo et al., 2023). The significance of sustainable development in the global context is under­
scored by the Brundtland Report, defining sustainable development as meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundt­
land, 1987, p. 43). The adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the United
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 3

Nations in 2015 further emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive guide for global sustainable
development initiatives (UN, 2020 ). Numerous studies have been conducted to help the organisa­
tions align themselves with the sustainable development in many fields including tourism (Boluk
et al., 2019; Rasheed et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024).
Metaverse tourism, as explored in this study, plays a pivotal role in contributing to specific
SDGs, including Quality Education (SDG 4), Gender Equality (SDG 5), Decent Work and Economic
Growth (SDG 8), Resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation, and
foster innovation (SDG 9), Reduce Inequalities (SDG 10), Sustainable Cities and Communities
(SDG 11), Responsible Consumption and Production (SDG 12), and Climate Action (SDG 13). The
metaverse offers immersive experiences through meta tutorials, simulations, and gamification
for educating diverse populations, creating tourism hubs accessible to all genders universally, pro­
viding inclusive virtual experiences, reducing travel disparities, supporting sustainable urban and
community development, minimising physical resource consumption, and mitigating carbon
emissions through virtual travel.
Within this scholarly discourse, however, notable theoretical gaps exist in understanding the role
of metaverse tourism in attaining these SDGs. This study seeks to address these gaps by comprehen­
sively analysing the metaverse’s potential contributions to sustainable tourism development. The
following sections explore the technological foundations of the metaverse, its applications in
tourism, and its critical intersections with sustainable development goals. As we embark on this
journey through the metaverse, it is essential to acknowledge the interdisciplinary nature of this
exploration, drawing on insights from information technology, tourism studies, environmental
science, and sustainable development. The integration of these diverse perspectives aims to
provide a holistic understanding of the metaverse’s transformative potential and its implications
for the future of global tourism.

Theoretical background:
Metaverse tourism and its context
Technological advancements in information technology (IT) have played a crucial role in transform­
ing the tourism industry following the COVID-19 pandemic. IT played a significant role in supporting
tourism during the pandemic, as emphasized by Gretzel et al. (2020), and it continues to contribute
to the industry’s revival (Shin & Kang, 2020). Technological advancements such as virtual reality (VR),
augmented reality (AR), 3D and 360° technology, blockchain, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are
gradually changing the way tourism operates, improving the immersive experiences between
businesses and consumers (Dwivedi et al., 2022; Gursoy et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2023). The term
‘metaverse’ refers to a digital and physical ecosystem that is collective and interconnected. It is
derived from the prefix ‘meta’, which means beyond, and the word ‘universe’. According to
Dwivedi et al. (2022), Lee and Kim (2022), and Njoku et al. (2023), it refers to the simultaneous
and seamless integration of physical and technological realities in shared environments, as
defined by Golf-Papez et al. (2022). Enabled by Internet 3.0, the metaverse is a 3D virtual environ­
ment emphasizing social connections (Gursoy et al., 2022). The term ‘metaverse’, initially coined
by Neal Stephenson in the 1992 science fiction novel Snow Crash (Stephenson, 1992), traces its con­
ceptual roots back to E. M. Forster’s work, The Machine Stops, in 1909. Subsequent to the launch of
Second Life in 2003, acknowledged by Hollensen et al. (2022) as an early metaverse prototype, its
prevalence expanded across diverse industries. Notably, in 2021, the social media giant Facebook
rebranded itself as Meta, underscoring the growing significance of the metaverse concept (Kim,
2021). In the metaverse, people can connect and engage regardless of physical proximity, enabling
activities like socialising, working, playing, travelling, learning, shopping, and more (Zhang et al.,
2022). Table 1 shows different types of technologies, commonly used under the umbrella of meta­
verse tourism.
4 N. ADNAN ET AL.

Table 1. Underlying technologies in metaverse tourism.

Type of
Technology Description Citation
Augmented reality ‘Augmented reality (AR)’ involves the integration of digital information with the Dwivedi et al. (2022)
(AR) user’s surroundings. This integration can be either constructive, involving the
addition of real-world objects, or destructive, wherein real-world objects are
obscured or masked.
Virtual reality (VR) ‘Virtual reality (VR)’ is a simulated environment created with artificial scenes Dwivedi et al. (2022)
and objects that closely mimic reality. It enables individuals to engage in
immersive experiences that feel as authentic as if they were occurring in the
real world.
Mixed reality (MR) Mixed Reality (MR) is a fusion of the physical and digital realms, seamlessly Tučková and Balcarová
combining them into a unified and immersive experience. This technology (2023)
facilitates natural and intuitive interactions among 3D representations of
humans, computers, and the environment.
Extended reality ‘Extended Reality (XR) encompasses Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality Tučková and Balcarová
(XR) (VR), Mixed Reality (MR)’, and potential future innovations. It represents a (2023)
comprehensive spectrum of immersive technologies that expand our
experiential boundaries by seamlessly blending virtual and objective
elements.
Artificial Artificial Intelligence (AI), pertains to the capacity of a machine or computer to Tučková and Balcarová
intelligence (AI) replicate human intelligence processes through mechanisms such as learning (2023)
and automation.

Metaverse tourism aligns with sustainability by reducing the environmental impact of traditional
travel (Boluk et al., 2019). By offering virtual alternatives, it allows exploration without physical trans­
portation, cutting carbon emissions and minimising the ecological footprint of conventional tourism.
Scholars and practitioners in the tourism industry view the metaverse as an advantageous, sustain­
able tool. In light of the challenges of over-tourism, where specific destinations are vulnerable to
degradation, metaverse technology offers a solution (Martins et al., 2023; Nunkoo et al., 2023). Visi­
tors can experience these destinations virtually without causing physical harm or environmental
deterioration. According to tourism scholars (Cerutti et al., 2016; Liburd et al., 2022), the metaverse
offers a substitute or alternative version of the actual destination, which makes this possible.
The foundational framework of sustainable development gained prominence through the Brundt­
land Report: ‘Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland, 1987, p. 43). The
subsequent adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the United Nations in the 2015
General Assembly has provided a comprehensive guide for global sustainable development initiatives
(UN, 2020). These SDGs, acting as the driving force for sustainable development, shape a collective
vision for the future. The UN Statistical Division oversees SDG efforts at the global level, akin to the
‘armed forces’ of sustainable development. When delving into the metaverse to pursue sustainable
development, destination management organisations possess the capability to advance various
SDGs to some extent, with a potentially higher degree of success in specific goals given below in
Table 2. These goals are directly linked to promote environmental sustainability by reducing carbon
emissions and ensuring equality by introducing metaverse tourism within the economies.
Researchers quoted the SDGs (i.e ‘Life Below Water, Life on Land’ as an integral part of environ­
mental sustainability can be achieved through the application of technology (Go & Kang, 2023).
However, metaverse tourism can contribute to environmental sustainability and reduce the
human footprint on natural habitats, the specific goals of SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG 15
(Life on Land) require more focused conservation efforts that are not directly addressed by virtual
tourism solutions. Within the scholarly discourse on the role of metaverse tourism in attaining Sus­
tainable Tourism Development Goals (SDGs), notable theoretical gaps exist. This study endeavours
to augment the ‘Theory of Planned Behavior’ by positing the influence of sociopsychological, tech­
nological, environmental, and self-efficacy factors on individuals’ intentions to adopt metaverse
tourism for reducing carbon footprints. Specifically, the focus is on mitigating carbon emissions,
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 5

Table 2. Role of the Metaverse to improve SGDs performance (Tučková & Balcarová, 2023; UN SDG, 2015).
SDGs Description Role of Metaverse Tourism
SDG 4 Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality Immersive experiences through meta tutorials,
Quality Education education and promoting lifelong learning simulations, and gamification assist in
opportunities for all educating diverse populations for achieving
sustainable tourism development
SDG 5 Achieving gender equality and empowering all Creating metaverse tourism hubs accessible to
Gender Equality women and girls all genders universally across the globe
SDG 8Decent work and Promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable Creating metaverse tourism hubs accessible to
Economic Growth economic growth, full and productive all genders universally across the globe
employment, and decent work for all
SDG 9 Building resilient infrastructure, promoting Enhancing virtual tourism infrastructure,
Industry, Innovation, inclusive and sustainable industrialisation, and promoting innovation in tourism services, and
and Infrastructure fostering innovation supporting sustainable industrial growth
SDG 10 Reducing inequality within and among countries Providing inclusive virtual experiences, reducing
Reduce Inequalities travel disparities, and fostering equal access
for diverse populations
SDG 11 Sustainable Cities Making cities and human settlements inclusive, Providing virtual exploration, reducing physical
and Communities safe, resilient, and sustainable travel impact, and supporting sustainable
urban and community development
SDG 12 Responsible Ensuring sustainable consumption and Minimising physical resource consumption and
Consumption and production patterns improving supply chains in the hospitality
Production sector through virtual travel experiences
SDG 13 Taking urgent action to combat climate change Mitigating carbon emissions through virtual
Climate Action and its impacts travel, contributing to climate action and
environmental sustainability

thereby contributing to the broader achievement of sustainable development goals. This extension
seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the motivational drivers shaping individuals’
inclination to engage with metaverse tourism in a manner conducive to environmental sustainability
and the pursuit of overarching sustainable development objectives. In this study, variables are
grouped into three categories: independent, mediating, and dependent factors. The independent
variables here are Sociopsychological, Technological, Environmental, and self-efficacy factors. The
mediating variable is adoption intention for metaverse tourism, while the contingent variable of
this study is achievement Sustainable tourism development. The key focus of the study lies on
the three SDG’s: ‘sustainable cities and communities’, responsible consumptions, ‘climate action’.

Sociopsychological factors
Sociopsychology reveals how culture and values shape ideas and decisions, offering insights into the
profound impact of these elements on thought processes. This underscores its pivotal role in com­
prehending human behaviour and interactions (Adnan et al., 2020). Different sociopsychological the­
ories highlight the importance of moral negotiation, while the Theory of planned behaviour TPB
stated above describes intention as the result of primarily consequence-based reasoning. Consider­
ing that choices made by individuals regarding more or less sustainable activities frequently affect
other individuals, including future generations and species, it is plausible to suppose that moral con­
siderations influence these choices to some extent (Dütschke et al., 2022). By educating people
about the advantages and legitimacy of new technologies, perceived awareness is thought to
impact citizens’ adoption of them (Koo et al., 2023; Lallmahomed et al., 2017). Studies indicate a
robust relationship between disposition and the propensity to adopt novel technologies in many
settings. This link emphasizes how important attitudes determine people’s propensity to adopt
new technologies. For technology integration in diverse contexts to be successful, it is imperative
to recognise and address these attitudes (Chakraborty et al., 2023). Attitude encompasses our
emotions, convictions, and actions directed at a particular object, person, or situation, which is
why a user’s mindset is impacted by how they are introduced to new technologies. In essence, atti­
tude represents our perspective and response, while subjective norms, on the other hand, reflect the
6 N. ADNAN ET AL.

prevailing societal opinion on the acceptability of a behaviour. Subjective norms mirror the collective
judgement of whether a specific conduct is appropriate. Together, they play a crucial role in shaping
our behaviours and decisions (Albayati et al., 2023), so we can say that given societal attitudes
towards particular behaviours and the reference group of other members of the community, per­
ceived behavioural control is regarded as a critical component for customers and can affect an indi­
vidual, a group, or an organisation that deals with concepts and ideas in addition to material goods
(Noor et al., 2020).
Additionally, the measure of perceived behavioural control gauges how simple or complex a
person believes a given behaviour to be. The quick development and broad use of technology
have given the idea new relevance and impetus. This innovation-driven environment has given
the idea of new life and shows how vital perceived control is in determining human behaviour
(Chen et al., 2023). Considering the above discussion, the following series of sub-hypotheses are
postulated:
H1 Socio-psychological factors positively influence adoption intention for metaverse tourism.

H1a: Socio-psychological factors of “perceived awareness” influence the adoption intention for metaverse
tourism to reduce carbon footprint.

H1b Socio-psychological factors of “perceived attitude” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism
to reduce carbon footprint.

H1c: Socio-psychological factors of “subjective norm” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to
reduce carbon footprint.

H1d: Socio-psychological factors of “perceived behavioural control” influence the adoption intention for meta­
verse tourism to reduce carbon footprint.

Technological factors
The infrastructure and human resources needed for technology-related projects and all the technol­
ogies enabling the growth of metaverse tourism are referred to as technological factors (Chen et al.,
2023). ‘Relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, tribality, and observability’ are considered
technological factors (Jan et al., 2023) acting like enablers rather than barriers to technology adop­
tion (Tong et al., 2020). The relative advantage is referred to as the extent to which an innovation is
thought to be better than the concept it has replaced (Maier & Hadrich, 2011), or it can be defined as
the degree to which individuals believe that anything new and innovative is superior to something
old and conventional. This term is used in the current study to refer to the degree to which tourists
believe that using metaverse tourism can reduce their carbon footprint. One key external aspect of
accepting technology is its compatibility with people’s historical habits, recognised as compatibility.
Furthermore, perceived compatibility is the individuals’ thinking that how they accept new technol­
ogies will correspond with their behaviours (Toraman & Geçit, 2023). While studying farmers’ adoption
behaviour, Adnan et al. (2020) asserted the belief that older farmers exhibit reduced enthusiasm for
adopting modern technology and possess a more limited perspective. That can be due to one of
the reasons for Complexity, which is the degree to which people find an innovation challenging to
use and comprehend, or it is defined as the degree to which end users believe innovations to be chal­
lenging to understand and easy to utilise. According to researchers, the Complexity of internet usage
has a negative impact on adoption rates. Researchers have discovered that the intricacy of internet
usage adversely impacts adoption rates. The general adoption of online technology is hampered
when Complexity gets in the way of ease of use (Al-Jabri & Sohail, 2012). Based on this definition,
the current study uses these terms to refer to the extent of difficulty the tourists face that affects
their metaverse tourism adoption intention. Likewise, trialability efficiently deals with novel concepts
(Roy et al., 2023). Perceived Tribality is defined as the degree to which prospective users feel they can
test the technology before deciding to utilise it. It has been found to impact people’s intention to use
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 7

the metaverse platform (Al-Sharafi et al., 2023). Thus, people considering implementing the available
innovation typically perceive it as having less uncertainty, and they also tend to gain from the experi­
ence. Perceived observability indicates the degree to which the invention of technology is noticed and
valued by many other individuals or the degree to which ‘the outcome of the innovation is noticeable
by others’ (Hosseinikhah Choshaly, 2019). It is considered that an adopter’s friends and neighbours will
regularly inquire about their experiences. It is believed that visibility encourages peer discussion of
novel concepts. This was studied by researchers (Salloum et al., 2023) in a medical training context.
Enhanced comprehension of the technological factors influencing end-users’ acceptance of metaverse
tourism as a viable alternative to traditional travel experiences can be attained through a systematic
evaluation of these factors. Consequently, a set of sub-hypotheses is postulated.
H2 Technological factors positively influence adoption intention for metaverse tourism.

H2a: Technological Factors of “relative advantage” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to
reduce carbon footprint.

H2b Technological Factors of “Compatibility” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H2c: Technological Factors of “Complexity” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H2d: Technological Factors of “trialability” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H2e: Technological Factors of “observability” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

Environmental factors
In the metaverse tourism context, environmental factors such as global warming, climate change,
and sustainable development play a significant role in lowering carbon emissions and helping the
tourism sector achieve its sustainable development goals (Golf-Papez et al., 2022; Gursoy et al.,
2022). Environmental concern has a positive impact on consumer perceptions of products that
aim to protect the environment, and environmentally conscious managers are more likely to recog­
nise the gravity and immediacy of environmental issues and highlight shared environmental objec­
tives in their work (Leclercq-Machado et al., 2022). Tourism is both a progenitor and a casualty of
climate change, making it imperative for travellers to adopt more sustainable travel practices
(Olya et al., 2023). Human activity is increasingly seen as the cause of ongoing degradation
brought on by climate change (Liu et al., 2023). A heightened awareness of climate change is
expected to influence individuals’ preferences in hotel selection and travel destinations (Leclercq-
Machado et al., 2022). This shift in consumer attitudes may lead to engagement in virtual hospitality
and tourism activities, such as events and museums in the metaverse (Olya et al., 2023). The buildup
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, caused by global warming, has increased the emphasis on
sustainable tourism practices (Gu, 2023). The escalating impacts of climate change have compelled
the tourism industry to adopt eco-friendly measures, promoting sustainable tourism initiatives such
as energy-efficient accommodations, conservation efforts, and community engagement. The
imperative to mitigate the adverse effects of global warming aligns with the principles of sustainable
tourism, fostering a more responsible and environmentally conscious approach within the industry
(Olya et al., 2023; Wong et al., 2023; Xue et al., 2021).
Sustainable development entails morality and equality for all generations and involves greening
efforts that mutually recognise cost savings (Olya et al., 2023; Wong et al., 2023; Xue et al., 2021).
Three essential components must be balanced for sustainable development: social inclusion, econ­
omic growth, and environmental preservation. These components were found to be correlated with
8 N. ADNAN ET AL.

the adoption of technology, service, and business model innovations in the prior literature on
tourism (Cook & Davíðsdóttir, 2021; Elmo et al., 2020; Gürlek & Koseoglu, 2021; Suchek et al.,
2021). Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3 Environmental factors positively influence adoption intention for metaverse tourism.

H3a: Environmental factors of “Environmental concern” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism
to reduce carbon footprint.

H3b Environmental factors of “Climate Change” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H3c: Environmental factors of “Global warming” influence the intention to adopt metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H3d: Environmental factors of “Sustainable development” influence the intention to adopt metaverse tourism to
reduce carbon footprint.

Self-efficacy factors
Bandura (1977) emphasized the importance of perceived self-efficacy in shaping behaviour and
acquiring new behaviours. This concept is influenced by mastery experiences, social influence, indir­
ect experiences, and physical and mental well-being (Yi & Hwang, 2003). Self-efficacy is determined
by the evaluation of one’s capabilities in executing a specific action or behaviour (Bandura, 1999).
Success experiences, observing others, verbal persuasion, and physiological circumstances can
increase self-efficacy (Rahmawati, 2019). FFCS self-efficacy, which refers to the belief in one’s
ability to engage in free-floating car-sharing, is influenced by affect, social persuasion, active experi­
ences, and vicarious experiences (Zhu et al., 2022). Teacher self-efficacy has positive effects on both
teachers and students (McFarland & Hamilton, 2006). Self-efficacy also affects emotional experiences,
with high self-efficacy leading to happiness and optimism, while low self-efficacy increases negative
emotions (Burić & Moè, 2020). Exercise self-efficacy is positively correlated with motivation for phys­
ical activity (Huang & Ren, 2020). In the context of metaverse travel and hospitality, pre-experience
and vicarious experiences play a role in shaping beliefs (El-Abd & Chaaban, 2021; Rather, 2023). Social
factors and feedback also impact the acceptability of the metaverse (Lee & Kim, 2022). Social factors
(Lee & Kim, 2022) and feedback, which are based on the cognitive difficulty of the task, process, self-
regulation, or individual involved, significantly impact the acceptability of the metaverse (Wisniewski
et al., 2020). Thus, the following set of sub-hypotheses are also postulated:
H4 Self-efficacy factors positively influence adoption intention for metaverse tourism.

H4a: Self-efficacy factors of “experience” influence the intention to adopt metaverse tourism to reduce carbon
footprint.

H4b Self-Efficacy factors of “vicarious experience” influence the intention to adopt metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H4c: Self-efficacy factors of “social influence” influence the intention to adopt metaverse tourism to reduce
carbon footprint.

H4d: Self-efficacy factors of “feedback” influence the adoption intention for metaverse tourism to reduce carbon
footprint.

Mediating role of metaverse tourism intentions towards implementing SDG’s

Nations, including those in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia, are now acknowledging the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) as a comprehensive global developmental agenda. Encompassing econ­
omic, social, and environmental dimensions, the SDGs succeeded the Millennium Development
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 9

Goals in 2015. Ensuring inclusivity and contextual specificity, these goals are applicable to both devel­
oped and less affluent nations. The significance of the environment in sustainable development is
pivotal, as affirmed in the foundational 2015 statement for the SDGs. Recognising that sustainable
management of natural resources is integral to social and economic advancement, the 2030
Agenda emphasizes the essential role of sustainable environmental practices (Boluk et al., 2019).
Addressing critical issues such as climate change, poverty, food and agriculture, health, water and sani­
tation, human settlements, renewable energy, sustainable Consumption and production, oceans, and
terrestrial ecosystems, the 17 SDGs directly contribute to environmental stewardship (Omisore, 2018).
The SDGs have increased public awareness of environmental sustainability while challenging national
statistical systems and the global statistical community to develop the protocols and frameworks
necessary for gathering and disseminating environmental indicator data (Campbell et al., 2020).
Accordingly, enhancing environmental sustainability performance is currently one of the primary
goals of manufacturing companies to guarantee their adherence to the SDGs (Jan et al., 2019). Our
conceptualisation argues that metaverse tourism is intended to achieve three sustainable develop­
ment goals: sustainable cities and communities, climate action, and responsible Consumption to
create sustainable and intelligent cities, smart cities must integrate participatory governance, which
balances economic, social, and environmental development through Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) infrastructure. This framework is essential to achieving social and urban progress
while fostering economic growth, citizen participation, and governmental efficiency (Beck et al.,
2023). These elements support the broader objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), contributing to the development of innovative ecosystems.
A critical issue of our time is climate change, requiring immediate and collaborative action from a
wide range of stakeholders, including citizens, businesses, and governments (Bouman et al., 2021).
Individuals who are concerned about climate change are more likely to engage in both problem-
focused coping to address the issue directly and emotion-focused coping to manage the negative
emotions stemming from climate change’s impacts on personally valued elements, such as the bio­
sphere (Bouman et al., 2020). These coping strategies often translate into actions that contribute to
environmental sustainability.
Concurrently, responsible Consumption is on the rise, characterised by social and ecological con­
sciousness, influencing business practices and encouraging corporate responsibility. This shift has
led businesses to engage in more socially and environmentally responsible behaviours, aligning
with consumers’ expectations for ethical treatment of employees, community involvement, and
environmental stewardship (Webb et al., 2008). As Industry 4.0 evolves, companies are increasingly
adopting green supply chain practices, reinforcing sustainability within their operations (Cousins
et al., 2019). Smart cities that utilise ICT infrastructure to promote participatory governance can
support the SDGs by balancing economic, social, and environmental development. Climate
change awareness and responsible Consumption drive both individual and corporate actions
toward sustainability. Metaverse tourism is the most pertinent alternative to consumers’ traditional
tourism needs. Leading the communities to green integration involves cutting back on waste,
cutting CO2 emissions, recycling materials, protecting the environment, and conserving water
(Özdemir Uçgun & Şahin, 2023; Saberi et al., 2019). Thus, we hypothesised the following. Figure 1
also shows conceptual framework for the current study.
H5: Technology, self-efficacy, environment, and sociopsychological factors influence metaverse tourism adop­
tion, which further contributes to achieving environmentally Sustainable Development Goals. (SDGs). (SDG
11, 12, 13)

Methodology and analysis

Meta-analyses refer to the statistical analysis of a collection of results from individual studies to inte­
grate findings. This method offers a rigorous alternative to narrative discussions of the literature
10 N. ADNAN ET AL.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

(Glass, 1976). The benefit of meta-analyses lies in making conclusions more intuitive and convincing,
minimising the biases and errors of individual empirical studies. This method has been applied in
tourism research, including studies on tourism demand (Peng et al., 2015) and the economic
impact of tourism (Castro-Nuño et al., 2013). In this study, meta-analytic structural equation model­
ling (meta-SEM) is used to identify individual causal links among variables and synthesise them into a
single, combined model (Jak & Cheung, 2020). A recent application of this method in tourism is the
meta-analysis of emotional labour variables (Xu et al., 2020). This study presents a meta-analysis of
previous empirical research on the link between sport tourists’ decision-making variables. It is con­
ducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) statement (Knobloch et al., 2011). First, a literature search was performed using online data­
bases with explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria. The individual correlation matrices regarding
sport tourists’ decision-making and each study’s sample size were collected. The correlations of
the same concept pair were then combined to test each hypothesis. Whereas, Table 3 illustrated
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, a structural equation model was fitted on the pooled corre­
lation matrix. This meta-analysis examines the following hypotheses:H1: Socio-psychological factors,
H2: Technological factors, H3: Environmental factors, H4: Self-efficacy factors,H5: Technology, self-

Table 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Research Object Research Object
(a) Tourists participating in metaverse sustainable tourism (a) Non-virtual tourists
(b) Tourists watching metaverse sport games (b) Local residents
(c) Tourists visiting metaverse sport attractions (c) Non-virtual tourism tourists
Research Design Research Design
Original quantitative research Non-original quantitative research
Outcome Indicators Outcome Indicators
Pearson correlation coefficient and sample size among variables Other statistical outcome indicators
Other Other
Published peer-reviewed journals in English Others
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 11

efficacy, environment, and socio-psychological factors Since the variables tested are correlations, the
measurement methods and scales in individual studies do not affect the results. Additionally, the
software used for meta-analysis can handle different data formats. Table 4 explains the objective.

Assessment of publication bias

Publication bias refers to the phenomenon where published research results differ systematically
from all results that have been conducted and obtained on a particular topic (Sutton, 2009). In
our meta-analysis, we utilised JASP software, a free and open-source statistical tool that simplifies
complex data analysis tasks and promotes transparency in research (see Figure 2). JASP offers a
user-friendly interface and supports a wide range of statistical techniques and models.

Funnel plot and Egger’s test

To evaluate publication bias, we employed both a funnel plot and Egger’s regression test. The funnel
plot visually inspected the symmetry of effect sizes plotted against sample sizes, indicating that the
analysed studies were symmetrically distributed around the average effect size. Egger’s regression
test yielded a p-value greater than 0.05, suggesting no evidence of publication bias among the
studies included in our analysis.

Sensitivity analysis
Stability of results
We conducted a sensitivity analysis using JASP software to assess the stability of our findings. This
analysis involved systematically removing each study to evaluate its impact on the overall results.
Results indicated minimal changes, indicating low sensitivity and stable findings.

Cumulative analysis by publication time order

Furthermore, a cumulative analysis by publication time order did not reveal any significant trends
over time among the analysed studies.

Classical meta-Analysis based on standard deviation (SD)

Classical meta-analysis based on standard deviation (SD) synthesises findings across studies to quan­
tify the pooled effect size, offering insights into overall trends and variability within a research field.
Table 5 shows significant association between model coefficients and observed effects, with a sig­
nificant residual heterogeneity. The omnibus test of model coefficients indicates a strong

Table 4. Explains the objectives.

Objective Solution
Explore the Potential of the Metaverse Investigate how the metaverse can foster sustainable tourism growth on a global
scale.
Integrate Empirical Research Findings Combine results from previous studies to identify key factors influencing metaverse
sustainable tourists’ decision-making.
Leverage Influential Factors Understand how socio-psychological, technological, environmental, and self-
efficacy factors can be utilised within the metaverse to promote sustainable
tourism practices.
Utilise Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Synthesise individual causal links among identified factors into a comprehensive
Modelling (meta-SEM) model.
Highlight Variable Interplay The interactions between socio-psychological, technological, environmental, and
self-efficacy factors in the context of sustainable tourism within the metaverse.
Provide Actionable Insights Offer practical recommendations for stakeholders in the tourism industry to
enhance the sustainability and appeal of tourism experiences within the
metaverse.
12 N. ADNAN ET AL.

Figure 2. Forest plot.

relationship between predictors and outcome variables, while the residual heterogeneity test indi­
cates significant variability in the model’s residuals. The results suggest a fixed and random
effects analysis, with approximate p-values and Restricted Maximum Likelihood (ML) method
estimation.
Table 6 displays coefficients and 95% confidence intervals for variables in your model. The Esti­
mate column represents the estimated value of each variable, with the intercept coefficient esti­
mated at 86.241. The SE column shows the standard error associated with each coefficient
estimate, representing the average amount of variation or uncertainty in the estimated coefficient.
The intercept has a standard error of 19.183. The z-score, calculated by dividing the coefficient esti­
mate by its standard error, assesses the statistical significance of the coefficient. In this case, the inter­
cept’s z-score is 4. 496. The p-value, associated with each coefficient, indicates the probability of
observing a coefficient as extreme as the estimated value, assuming the null hypothesis is zero.
The intercept’s p-value is less than 0.001, indicating statistical significance. The Lower and Upper

Table 5. Omnibus test of model coefficients and test of residual heterogeneity (fixed and random effects).
Test Q df p
Omnibus test of Model Coefficients 20.211 1 <.001
Test of Residual Heterogeneity 1438.009 19 <.001
Note. p -values are approximate.
Note. The model was estimated using Restricted ML method.
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 13

Table 6. Coefficients and 95% confidence interval.

Test 95% Confidence Interval
Estimate Standard Error z P Lower Upper
Intercept 86.241 19.183 4.496 < .001 48.643 123.838
Note. Wald test.

columns provide the 95% confidence intervals for each coefficient, ranging from 48.643 to 123.838,
providing a range of plausible values for the true population coefficient.
The fit measures provided in Table 7 offer insights into the quality of the model’s fit. The log-like­
lihood represents how well the model fits the data, with lower values indicating a better fit. The
deviance measures the difference between observed and predicted values, with lower values indi­
cating a better fit. The AIC balances model fit and Complexity, with lower values indicating a
better fit. The BIC penalises for model complexity, with lower values indicating a better fit. The
AIC is a corrected version of AIC. Comparing these measures helps evaluate the model’s performance
and select the best-fitting model.
Table 8 presents estimate of residual heterogeneity along with their 95% confidence intervals.
The estimate for t2 (tau-squared) is 7111.793, indicating unexplained variability. The estimate for
t (tau) is 84.331, representing the standard deviation of random effects. The I2 (%) value is 99.966,
indicating that 99.966% of the total variability is due to heterogeneity. The H2 value is 2972.252,
representing the proportion of total variability due to heterogeneity. These estimates provide
insights into the level of residual heterogeneity in the model.
Table 9 displays the parameter covariances, specifically focusing on the intercept. The covariance
of 367.982 provides insights into the relationship between intercepts in the model. This information
is valuable for understanding how changes in one parameter may be associated with changes in
another, contributing to the overall covariance structure.
Table 10 presents the results of Kendall’s τ rank correlation test, assessing the asymmetry of the
funnel plot. With a test statistic of 0.174 and a p-value of 0.284, the findings suggest no significant
asymmetry in the funnel plot. This indicates that publication bias or other asymmetrical influences
may not be strongly influencing the results.
Table 11 reports the results of Egger’s regression test for funnel plot asymmetry. The z-value of
11.921 and a p-value less than 0.001 suggest a significant asymmetry in the funnel plot. This
finding implies that there may be systematic biases affecting the results, warranting further investi­
gation into potential sources of asymmetry in the data. Figures 1 and 2 visually depict the forest or
funnel plot, offering a graphical representation of the meta-analysis results based on SD and provid­
ing insights into the distribution of effect sizes and potential asymmetry in the dataset.

Forest plot representation

The meta-analysis results are graphically represented by the forest plot (Lewis & Clarke, 2001) in
Figure 2. This plot reports individual effect sizes, the mean effect size, and confidence intervals,
along with various heterogeneity statistics. The chart also includes a vertical ‘no effect’ line starting
from 0 and a red vertical dashed line representing the ‘mean effect size’.

Table 7. Fit measures.

Measures REML
Log-Likelihood −112.125
Deviance 224.250
AIC 228.250
BIC 230.139
AICc 229.000
14 N. ADNAN ET AL.

Table 8. Residual heterogeneity estimates.

Test 95% Confidence Interval
Estimate Lower Upper
τ² 7111.793 4094.099 16942.522
τ 84.331 63.985 130.163
I² (%) 99.966 99.942 99.986
H² 2972.252 1711.483 7079.453

Effect size calculation and data analysis

A meta-analysis, which involves the statistical analysis of multiple related research results (Hedges &
Olkin, 1984), was conducted. Pearson’s R was used as the effect size measure to evaluate the
influence of the variables within the research scope. Both random and fixed effects models were gen­
erated for analysis. This paper reports the 95% confidence interval and effect size under the random-
effects model. Only relationships between variables that were more than twice as strong as those in
previous studies were selected for inclusion. Cohen’s (1988) guidelines were adopted to assess the
magnitude of the effect sizes (Figure 3).
The meta-analysis findings offer valuable insights into the interplay among the scrutinised vari­
ables. Employing both fixed and random-effects models, the significant omnibus test of model
coefficients underscores the statistical significance of the overall model, indicating a collective
impact on the focal outcome. In both models, the observed effect sizes, represented by intercepts,
prove statistically significant, implying a consistent influence of the examined variables. The meta-
analysis aimed to dissect the effects of specific variables on the target outcome, utilising fixed
and random effects models. A substantial omnibus test of model coefficients (Q = 20.211, df = 1,
p < .001) highlights the statistical meaningfulness of the overall model. The test of residual hetero­
geneity reveals significant variability across studies (Q = 1438.009, df = 19, p < .001), emphasizing the
importance of accounting for both fixed and random effects.
In the fixed-effects model, the intercept, estimated at 86.241 (SE = 19.183), indicates a significant
positive effect (z = 4.496, p < .001), with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 48.643 to 123.838. Fit
measures, including log-likelihood, deviance, AIC, BIC, and AICc, comprehensively assess the model’s
goodness of fit. Residual heterogeneity estimates point to a τ2 of 7111.793, with a 95% confidence
interval from 4094.099 to 16942.522. The I2 statistic indicates exceptionally high heterogeneity
(99.966%), and the H2 value is 2972.252, signifying substantial variability. Kendall’s τ for funnel
plot asymmetry yields a non-significant result (τ = 0.174, p = 0.284), suggesting an absence of pub­
lication bias. Yet, Egger’s test for funnel plot asymmetry reveals a significant regression (z = 11.921, p
< .001), shedding light on potential asymmetry.
In the random-effects model, the intercept, estimated at 84.167 (SE = 18.770), shows a significant
positive effect (z = 4.484, p < .001), and a 95% confidence interval ranging from 47.378 to 120.955. Fit
measures align with those of the fixed-effects model. Residual heterogeneity estimates indicate a τ2
of 6731.544, with a 95% confidence interval from 3887.787 to 16653.477. The I2 statistic suggests
highly significant heterogeneity (99.998%), and the H2 value is 45327.883, indicating substantial
variability. Kendall’s τ for funnel plot asymmetry yields a non-significant result (τ = −0.005, p =
0.974), indicating no evidence of publication bias. However, Egger’s test for funnel plot asymmetry
exhibits a significant regression (z = 5.177, p < .001), prompting potential funnel plot asymmetry con­
sideration. Additionally, fit measures, including log-likelihood, deviance, AIC, BIC, and AICc, contrib­
ute further insights into the models’ goodness of fit.

Table 9. Parameter covariances.

Test Intercept
Intercept 367.982
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 15

Table 10. Rank correlation test for Funnel plot asymmetry.

Test Kendall’s τ p
Rank test 0.174 0.284

Table 11. Regression test for Funnel plot asymmetry (‘Egger’s test’).
Test Z P
Sei 11.921 < .001

Discussion and conclusions

The literature review underscores a growing body of research on factors influencing decision-making
in metaverse sustainable tourism, culminating in this meta-analysis of 40 academic articles. Utilising a
robust theoretical framework based on the correlation matrix of travel decision-making variables, 71
significant linkages were identified and analysed through JASP software. Testing 5 main hypotheses
revealed unanimous support, affirming the positive influence of various factors on metaverse
tourism behaviours. Specifically, motivations and destination image enhance tourist satisfaction,
while event quality significantly impacts destination image, tourist satisfaction, and perceived value.
These factors collectively bolster future intentions and destination loyalty, underscoring the complex­
ity of metaverse tourism decision-making. Drawing from the psychological continuum model for sport
fans (Funk & James, 2001), this study illuminates interconnected levels shaping metaverse tourism
decisions. This model provides a nuanced understanding of how psychological factors intertwine in
virtual tourism contexts. This research note catalyzes scholarly dialogue on metaverse tourism’s evol­
ving landscape within the broader tourism sector, aligning with Sustainable Development Goals

Figure 3. Effect size.

16 N. ADNAN ET AL.

(SDGs). The integration of multiuser virtual worlds into digital spaces necessitates robust infrastructure,
enhancing user experiences and supporting SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure). As meta­
verse tourism remains a nascent field, deeper exploration is urged across pre-, during, and post-travel
stages, promoting SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) through inclusive economic opportu­
nities. This study introduces pivotal propositions that illuminate metaverse tourism dimensions, con­
tributing to SDG 4 (Quality Education) by advancing awareness of transformative technologies. By
integrating behavioural theories like the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM), and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this interdisciplinary approach supports SDG 17
(Partnerships for the Goals) through collaborative research efforts. As the tourism industry navigates
technological advancements and sustainability imperatives, metaverse tourism emerges as a pivotal
area shaping future travel trajectories. This research underscores its potential to align with SDG 13
(Climate Action) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), urging scholars to explore
its transformative power and implications for sustainable tourism futures.

Theoretical contribution
Metaverse tourism must integrate sustainability to mitigate environmental impacts, ensure destina­
tion profitability, and promote responsible travel. Emerging technologies, particularly the metaverse,
have the potential to revolutionise environmental, economic, and social sustainability. This paper
addresses the limited studies on the metaverse’s application within tourism by exploring its potential
to advance sustainable practices in alignment with sustainable development goals (SDGs). By inte­
grating the Theory of Planned Behavior, Technology Acceptance Model, and Self-Determination
Theory, this research provides a comprehensive framework to assess the impact of metaverse
tourism on sustainability. This interdisciplinary approach offers insights into the transformative
potential of metaverse tourism, bridging technology, tourism, and behavioural psychology.

Practical implications
The practical implications of integrating the metaverse into tourism are profound. Firstly, it offers an
eco-friendly alternative to traditional travel, significantly reducing carbon footprints and environ­
mental impact. Secondly, it democratises access to travel experiences, allowing individuals with
physical, financial, or geographical limitations to explore diverse destinations virtually. Additionally,
tourism businesses can leverage the metaverse to create innovative and immersive marketing strat­
egies, enhancing customer engagement and satisfaction. By adopting metaverse technologies, the
tourism industry can align with sustainable development goals, promoting responsible travel while
maintaining profitability. This shift could transform how we perceive and experience travel, fostering
a more sustainable and inclusive tourism sector.

Limitations and directions for future research

This study acknowledges several limitations. The novelty of metaverse tourism means limited empiri­
cal data is available, potentially affecting the robustness of findings. Technological accessibility and
digital literacy disparities may also impact the generalizability of results. Future research should focus
on longitudinal studies to assess long-term impacts and effectiveness of metaverse tourism on sus­
tainability. Additionally, exploring the socio-economic effects on different demographic groups and
regions will provide a more comprehensive understanding. Investigating the integration of emer­
ging technologies like AI and blockchain within metaverse tourism could further enhance its sustain­
ability and operational efficiency.

Acknowledgement
The researcher would like to thank PMU and COBA for assisting this project and thank to collaborators.
 CURRENT ISSUES IN TOURISM 17

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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