LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT

A. COURSE OUTLINE
 The course is designed to enable the students understand the principles of
health management and carry out managerial and administrative duties in
health institutions.
OBJECTIVES

 Apply concepts and principles of management

 Apply appropriate problem-solving skills
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

Objectives
1. Define terms used in management
2. Explain the classical and contemporary theories of management
3. Explain functions of management
4. Apply principles of management

Unit 1 Overview of Management

Content

▫ Definition of terms
▫ Foundations of Management
▫ classical and contemporary theories
▫ Major functions of management: - planning. Implementation and evaluation
▫ Sub functions of management: - organizing, directing, supervising,
delegating, co-ordinating, monitoring and controlling

Unit 2 Principles of Management, Problem solving and Decision Making

Content

▫ Fayol’s 14 principles of management

▫ Other principles of management
▫ Learning from experience, convergence of work
▫ Management by exception

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▫ Shortest decision path
▫ Delegation
▫ Management strategies: - ; Managerial skills – technical skill, human skill,
planning related skill and flexibility: Function determined structure; economic
use of resources – substitutions of resource, division of labour and team work;
Decision making – programmed and non-programmed; Decision making
process; Factors affecting rational decision making; Problem solving –
situation analysis, prioritisation, options, implementation of decision and
evaluation of outcome
MODULE 2 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Objectives

1. Demonstrate appropriate leadership skills

2. Apply appropriate staffing principles in recruitment, deployment, supervision
and appraisal of personnel
3. Apply concepts of group dynamics in human resource management
4. Describe principles of office management
5. Apply the concepts of motivation to improve staff performance
Unit 1 Leadership, Motivation and Group Dynamic

Content

▫ Leadership: - Qualities of a leader; Leadership theories; Leadership styles.

▫ Motivation: - Theories; Motivators and Demotivators.
▫ Organizational behaviour/Group Dynamics: - Formation of groups; Types of
groups; Characteristics of individuals in a group. Functional and dysfunctional
behaviour in a group;
Unit 2 Staffing, Communication and Office Management

Content

▫ Organizational concepts and theories

▫ Human resources needs assessment
▫ Recruitment
▫ Job description and specification
▫ Deployment and supervision
▫ Staff discipline

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▫ Performance appraisal
▫ Civil service code of regulations
▫ Filling systems
▫ Referencing official correspondence
▫ Memos, circulars, posting orders, letters, staff returns and handling
confidential information.
▫ Conducting meetings

B. INTRODUCTION
 Health managers are under pressure to achieve sustainable results. therefore
managers must develop high performing workgroups (group of people who work
together on a regular basis to produce results e.g. a department, clinic, faculty etc)
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 A good work atmosphere or work climate encourages and sustains staff motivation.
While a poor work climate can result in absenteeism, unmet performance
objectives, lack of initiative, reduced interest in work or the organization.
 The study of management outlines the connections between work climate,
employee motivation and performance. It describes how managers can assess the
climate in their workgroup and shows how they can use the results to make
changes in leadership and management practices that will motivate workers to do
the best work possible and improve results.
 Therefore, a manager is someone who is controlling and administering an
organization or a part of an organization. Managers decide what should be done
and then get one to do it. They must satisfy the needs of each employee while also
meeting the goals of the business or the organization.
 Being capable of doing this involves leadership.

C. DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT
Has been defined in different ways by different writers:

1. Management is the act of getting things done through and with other people in
formally organized groups.
 Act of creating an environment in which people can perform as individuals and yet
operate towards attainment of group goals.
 Act of removing blocks to performance as a way of optimizing efficiency
(productive with minimum waste or effort) in reaching goals. H.KNOONTZ
2. Management involves design or creation or maintenance of an internal
environment in an enterprise where individuals working together in groups can
perform efficiently and effectively towards attainment of group goals. KNOONTZ $
O. DONELL
3. Management is a process of achieving an organizational goal through the
coordinated performance of 5 specific functions:
i. Planning
ii. Organizing
iii. Staffing
iv. Directing
v. Controlling

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4. Management is the process of getting things done through the efforts of other
people. ( MONDY et al)
5. Management is the process of working with and through others to achieve
organizational objectives in a changing environment, central to this is the effective
and efficient use of limited resources.

D. HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT
 Management has been there since the beginning of mankind. People had their way
of doing things or carrying out their daily activities such as planning, organizing,
coordinating and controlling, but the methods were crude. They had no standards
of measuring work, and there was no formal training of workers. Work was not
studied to determine the most desirable way to complete a task.
 The development of management as a discipline of study came as a result of
important developments in both Europe and America from the 16 th century.
 In the 16th century there was development of administrative technology in Austria
and Germany aimed at improving particular functions and activities of the
government system.
 In the 19th century there was the need to establish a reputable civil service in
Europe especially Britain. These developments helped to portray management as
an area that could be studied and taught. In preparing civil servants in managerial
skills it was found out that they could interpret and implement governmental
policies more effectively and efficiently.

READ MORE ON:

 PRESCIENTIFIC
 CLASSICAL
 NEOCLASSICAL AND
 MODERN MANAGEMENT ERAS

E. MAJOR PERSONALITIES IN MANAGEMENT

1. Fredrick Winslow Taylor

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He came up when there was a shortage of labor in industries. He contributed his
ideas to show how important it was to utilize the few people available to do the work.
He did the following:

 Time study- how long it took a person to do a certain piece of work.

 Motion study
 Piece rate- pay according to work done
 Time rate
 Fair days job
 Selection
 Reward system
 Efficiency and productivity
2. Elton George Mayo
 He is called the pioneer in human relationship
 He looked at what should be done at a place of work for the organization to
achieve its goals and objectives.
 He looked at the employee as a human, what the employee expects and how he
expects to be treated, hence motivated.
 He concluded that an employee:
 Should be recognized
 Be promoted
 Must participate
 Have self esteem
 Self actualization
 Informal groups
 Have his interests looked into
4. Henry Fayol
According to him, a manager is involved in 5 roles/aspects/functions of management:

I. planning- devise a course of action

II. organizing- mobilizing human resources and materials to put plans in effect
III.commanding- motivate employees and target them to work
IV. control- monitoring the plan to ensure that it is being carried out properly
V. coordination- work harmoniously
Other personalities include:

Parker Follet
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Chester Bernard

Hugo Munsteberg

Abraham Maslow

Douglas McGregor

Fredrick Hens burg

David McClelland

F. PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
The search for universally acceptable principles of management began in the
industrial areas of Europe and America in the last years of the 19th century. Henry
Fayol put the general principles of management forward; he stated the key activities
of any industrial undertaking as;

o Technical activities e.g. Production

o Commercial activities e.g. Buying and selling
o Financial activities e.g. Securing capital
o Security activities e.g. Safeguarding property
o Accounting activities e.g. Providing financial information
o Managerial activities e.g. Planning and organizing
The first five were well known, but the last was unknown as an entity. Fayol stated
that to manage was “to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate
and to control”

He saw:

 Forecasting and planning as looking to the future and drawing a plan of action.
 Organizing in structural terms
 Commanding as maintaining activity among personnel
 Coordinating as a unifying activity
 Controlling as ensuring that things happen in accordance with established
policies and practice.

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Fayol concluded that managerial activities were not exclusively for management but
were part of the total activities of any undertaking.

He listed 14 principles but emphasized that they were not absolute but capable of
adaptation, according to need.

1. Division of work/labor- reduces the span of attention or effort for any one
person or group. Develops practice and familiarity.
2. Authority- The right to give orders. Should not be considered without reference to
responsibility
3. Discipline- Outward mark of respect in accordance with formal or informal
agreement between the organization and the employee.
4. Unity of command- One man one superior
5. Unity of direction- One head one plan for a group of activities
6. Subordination of individual interests- The interest of one individual or group
should not prevail over the general good.
7. Remuneration- Pay should be fair to employee and the organization.
8. Centralization- Depends on the size of the company and quality of management.
9. Hierarchy or scalar chain- Line of authority from top to bottom.
10. Order- A place for everything and everything in its place.
11. Equity- Combination of kindness and justice towards employees.
12. Stability of staff- Employees need to be given time to settle into their jobs.
13. Initiative- Encourage employees to show initiative within the limits of
authority and discipline.
14. Espirit de corps- Harmony/teamwork should be encouraged.

1. DIVISION OF LABOUR
 Work is allocated to various employees since one person can not do all the work.
 Work is divided into specialized tasks or elements. Responsibilities are assigned to
specific individuals.
o MERITS:
-Increases productivity

-Increases efficiency

-Leads to specialization

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 -Time saving

o DEMERITS
-Fatigue

-Boredom

-Powerlessness

-Isolation

-Unemployment

-Self-estrangement

2. ORDER
 A place for everything and everything in its place
 People are required to be in specific places of work
 goals and objectives cannot be achieved if there is no order
 there must be schedules or timetables to be followed
3. EQUITY
 Fair discipline and order enhance employee commitment. Managers should be fair
and friendly to subordinates and exercise impartiality.
 there should be fairness with no favoritism
 ensures there is no discrimination
 one is paid according to the work done regardless of gender, language, color or
race
4. CENTRALIZATION
 All major policy decisions should be made at the top of the management level or
central point
 Delegation of duties from top-down
 Top most person is always answerable for the running of the organization
5. HIERACHY OR SCALAR CHAIN
 Refers to Junior-senior relationship
 it is the chain of command
 major decisions are made at the top
 Communication should follow the right channel in the hierarchy. it should be kept
within the chain of command

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 remuneration should be given according to the position held by the concerned
person
6. AUTHORITY
 Delegate responsibility along with authority (the right to command and get work
done) assignment: define authority
 All employees should have power (delegated authority) assignment
 All employees should have power and authority in their sections
 they should be able to delegate duties
 They should self initiative and judgment and therefore power and authority have a
limit. If misused it can cause chaos leading to demotivation which will affect
efficiency and productivity in the work place
7. INITIATIVE
 Encourage employees to act on their own in support of the organization’s direction
despite the mistakes made.
 This boosts the staff morale.
8. REMUNERATION

 All workers should be fairly paid with appropriate additional incentives for
additional work/efforts.
 Includes salary, allowances, free benefits etc
9.ESPIRIT DE CORPS

 Refers to teamwork.
 Promotes unity of interests between employees working in different sections and
between employees working and management.
 There is co-operation, togetherness and cohesion.
 This gives an organization a corporate image.

10. DISCIPLINE

 Should be maintained in the workplace.

 Rules and regulations should be enforced fairly and judiciously, there should be
well defined procedure of dealing with disciplinary matters
 Effective communication is necessary concerning expectation of the management
from employees e.g. no smoking, drinking etc
11. SURBODINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTEREST

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 Interests of the organization must take priority over the interests of the individual
or a group whenever there is a conflict between the two.
 An employee’s personal needs should not be met using time and material from the
organization.
 One should not misuse funds, vehicles etc for individual needs
12. UNITY OF COMMAND

 An employee is assigned one supervisor. This avoids conflict and confusion in

instructions and authority
 The senior person delegates responsibilities and he is the one who should
understand who is senior or junior employee
13. STABILITY OF STAFF

 Or tenure of employees
 Employment turnover should be minimized. High labor turnover is no desirable, it
shows an organization is not doing well.
 Tenure and long term commitment of employees should be encouraged
 This results in a sense of belonging to the organization giving rise to dedication
and better outcome or output
 This can be enhanced by better remuneration, job security, employee benefits etc
14. UNITY OF DIRECTION

 The principle of Fayol states that ‘there should be one head and one plan’ for a
group of activities or tasks having the same objectives.
 This ensures that all related activities are controlled from one source e.g. there
should be one personnel officer for the personnel department with specified plan
for personnel policies, feeding personnel in all departments of the organization.

G. APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT
There are 3 basic approaches to management:

 The classical approach

 Behavioral approach
 Management science approach

1. THE CLASSICAL APPROACH

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 Started in the early 20th century to increase efficiency and productivity at the work
place.
 It marked the beginning of the study of modern management. It is looked at in two
perspectives:
i. Problem of lower level managers- the scientific management
ii. Problem of top level management- classical organizational theory- to develop
principles and basic
functions of managing organizations.
 From the classical approach Henri Fayol came with the principles of management
 Scientific management was pioneered by Fredrick Winslow Taylor. He was
interested in efficiency of working methods. He concluded that workers tended to
put minimal effort into their daily work.
 The scientific approach required the following steps:
 Develop a science for each operation to replace opinion and rule of thumb
 Determine accurately from science the correct time and method for each job
 Set up a suitable organization to take up all responsibility from the workers
except for actual job performance
 Accept that management be governed by science developed for each
operation
 Other theorists in scientific management include- Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henry
Gantt.

2. BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

 This approach developed because it was found that the classical approach did not
achieve total efficiency and harmony at the workplace
 It has two branches:
I. Human relations approach
 This refers to the manner in which managers interact with subordinates
 Managers must know why their subordinates behave the way they do and what
psychological and social factors are important
 This approach concentrated on the social environment
II. Behavioural science approach

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 Believed that man is much more complex than the ‘economic man’ description of
the classical management and ‘social man’ description of human relations
approach
 It mainly looked at the nature of work and the degree to which it can fulfil human
needs to use skills and abilities
 An individual is motivated by more than money and forming social relations
[-Rational economic man- theories of Adam smith in the 1770s suggested that self
-interest and maximization of gain are the prime motivators.

-Social man- people mainly motivated by social needs i.e. need for personal
relationships.

-Self-actualizing man- need for self fulfillment as a prime motivator.

-complex man- understanding man’s motivation is complex with several

interrelated factors]

 The human relations approach lead to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological needs e.g. food, sleep, sex etc

2. Safety needs i.e. stable environment with no threats
3. Love needs- related to affectionate relations with others and status within the
group
4. Esteem needs- self respect, self esteem and the esteem of others
5. Self actualization- self fulfillment
3. MANAGEMENT SCIENCE APPROACH

The ideas of scientific management were pioneered by F.W Taylor, Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth, and H. Gantt.

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Taylor was convinced that few workers put in more than minimal effort into their daily
work. He described this as “soldiering”- man’s tendency to take things easy and the
organized restriction of the rate of work by the employer.

His approach used mathematics and statistics to aid in resolving production and
operations problems. It required a series of steps;

 Develop a science for each operation to replace opinion and rule of thumb
 Determine scientifically the correct time and method for each job
 Set up a suitable organization to take all responsibility from workers except
that of actual job performance
 Select and train workers
 Accept that management itself be governed by science
His approach came to be known as the Work Study- facts are substituted by
opinions by studying wwork and timing how long each operation would take in order
to produce the best method of doing a job.

After Taylor, came the Gilbreths with the theory of Motion Study- the study of task
movements. They said that measurement be applied to management in order to find
the best way of doing a job.

Assignment;

1. Outline the theories of Gantt and his charts

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of scientific management
3. Write a short essay on the principles of management by Lyndall F. Urwick
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the ideal type of bureaucracy, as
described by Max Weber.
5. Does the work of F. W. Taylor have any relevance to modern management
All these theories led to a summary into two scientific approaches;

a) The systems approach

Organizations viewed as systems, while a system is a collection of interrelated parts
which form some whole. Typical systems include- the solar system, human body etc

b) The contingency approach

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Its basic concept is that there is no one best way to manage. It has developed from
the systems approach. It determines the most appropriate organizational design and
management style for a given set of circumstances.

H. MANAGERIAL SKILLS
1. Technical skills. This is the ability to use specific knowledge, techniques and
resources in performing work.
2. Analytical skill. Using scientific approaches of techniques to solve management
problems.
3. Decision making skill.
4. Human skill. Ability to work with and understand others.
5. Communication skill. Effective communication.
Conceptual skill. Ability to know how each part of the organization interrelates and
contributes to the overall objectives of the organization

I. FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
1. Planning
2. Staffing
3. Organizing
4. Delegating
5. Coordinating/controlling/directing
6. Motivating
7. Leadership
8. Evaluation
9. Communication
10. Budgeting
11. Decision making
12. Implementation
13. Problem solving/preventing

PLANNING

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  Planning is concerned with the future impact of today's decisions. It is the
fundamental function of management from which the other four stem. The
need for planning is often apparent after the fact.
 The organizing, staffing, leading and controlling functions stem from the
planning function.
 The manager is ready to organize and staff only after goals and plans to reach
the goals are in place.
 The leading function, influencing the behavior of people in the organization,
depends on the goals to be achieved.
 Finally, in the controlling function, the determination of whether or not goals
are being accomplished and standards met is based on the planning function.
 The planning function provides the goals and standards that drive the
controlling function.
 Planning is important at all levels of management. However, its characteristics
vary by level of management.
Planning Terminology

 Vision Nonspecific directional and motivational guidance for the entire

organization. Top managers normally provide a vision for the business. It is the
most emotional of the four levels in the hierarchy of purposes.
 Mission An organization's reason for being. It is concerned with scope of the
business and what distinguishes this business from similar businesses. Mission
reflects the culture and values of top management.
 Objectives Objectives refine the mission and address key issues within the
organization such as market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and
financial resources, profitability, management and worker performance and
efficiency. They are expected to be general, observable, challenging, and
untimed.
 Goals Goals are specific statements of anticipated results that further define
the organization's objectives. They are expected to be SMART: Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Rewarding, and Timed.
 Development of tactics is a fifth level of planning. Tactics, the most specific
and narrow plans, describe who, what, when, where and how activities will take
place to accomplish a goal.

Strategic Planning
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  Strategic planning is one specific type of planning. Strategies are the outcome
of strategic planning.
 An organization's strategies define the business the organization is in, the
criteria for entering the business, and the basic actions the organization will
follow in conducting its business
 Strategies are major plans that commit large amounts of the organization's
resources to proposed actions, designed to achieve its major objectives and
goals. Strategic planning is the process by which the organization's strategies
are determined. In the process, three questions are answered:
1. Where are we now?

2. Where do we want to be?

3. How do we get there?

 The "where are we now?" question is answered through the first three steps of the
strategy formulation process: (1)perform internal and external environmental
analyses, (2)review vision, mission and objectives, and (3)determine SWOT:
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. SWOT analysis requires
managers to be honest, self-disciplined and thorough
 Strengths and weaknesses come from the internal environment of the firm.
Strengths can be exploited, built upon and made key to accomplishment of mission
and objectives. Strengths reflect past accomplishments in production, financial,
marketing and human resource management.
 Weaknesses are internal characteristics that have the potential to limit
accomplishment of mission and objectives. Weaknesses may be so important that
they need to be addressed before any further strategic planning steps are taken.
 Opportunities and threats are uncontrollable by management because they are
external to the firm. Opportunities provide the firm the possibility of a major
improvement. Threats may stand in the way of a firm reaching its mission and
objectives.

Directing

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 Directing is influencing people's behavior through motivation, communication,
group dynamics, leadership and discipline.
 The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all personnel to accomplish
the organization's mission and objectives while simultaneously helping them
accomplish their own career objectives.
 It has a variety of names, ie leading, influencing, coaching, motivating,
interpersonal relations, and human relations.
 The directing function gives the manager an active role in employee performance,
conduct and accomplishments. Managers accomplish their objectives through
people. In blaming others for her or his human resource problems, a manager is
denying the management responsibilities in the directing function.
 Helping people in the organization with career planning and professional
development is an integral part of the directing function.

Organizing

 Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the business.

 The focus is on division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of
information within the organization.
 Managers distribute responsibility and authority to job holders in this function of
management.
Organizational Structure

 Each organization has an organizational structure. By action and/or inaction,

managers structure businesses.
 Managers' decisions should reflect the mission, objectives, goals and tactics that
grew out of the planning function. Specifically, they decide:
1. Division of labor

2. Delegation of authority

3. Departmentation

4. Span of control

5. Coordination

Division of Labor

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Division of labor is captured in an organization chart, a pictorial representation of an
organization's formal structure. An organization chart is concerned with relationships
among tasks and the authority to do the tasks. Eight kinds of relationships can be
captured in an organization chart:

1. The division/specialization of labor

2. Relative authority
3. Departmentation
4. Span of control
5. The levels of management
6. Coordination centers
7. Formal communication channels
8. Decision responsibility

Delegation of Authority

 Authority is legitimized power.

 Power is the ability to influence others.
 Delegation is distribution of authority.
 Delegation frees the manager to use his or her time on high priority activities.
 Delegation of authority does not free the manager from accountability for the
actions and decisions of subordinates.
Delegation of authority is guided by several key principles and concepts:

Exception principle - Someone must be in charge. A person higher in the

organization handles exceptions to the usual. The most exceptional, rare, or unusual
decisions end up at the top management level because no one lower in the
organization has the authority to handle them.

Scalar chain of command - The exception principle functions in concert with the
concept of scalar chain of command - formal distribution of organizational authority is
in a hierarchial fashion. The higher one is in an organization, the more authority one
has.

Decentralization - Decisions are to be pushed down to the lowest feasible level in

the organization. The organizational structure goal is to have working managers
rather than managed workers.

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Parity principle - Delegated authority must equal responsibility. With responsibility
for a job must go the authority to accomplish the job.

Span of control - The span of control is the number of people a manager supervises.
The organizational structure decision to be made is the number of subordinates a
manager can effectively lead. The typical guideline is a span of control of no more
than 5-6 people. However, a larger span of control is possible depending on the
complexity, variety and proximity of jobs.

Unity principle - Ideally, no one in an organization reports to more than one

supervisor. Employees should not have to decide which of their supervisors to make
unhappy because of the impossibility of following all the instructions given them.

Line and staff authority - Line authority is authority within an organization's or

unit's chain of command. Staff authority is advisory to line authority. Assume a crew
leader reports to the garden store manager who in turn reports to the president.
Further assume that the crew leader and store manager can hire and fire, and give
raises to the people they supervise. Both the crew leader and store manager have
line authority. To contrast, assume that the president has an accountant who
prepares monthly financial summaries with recommendations for corrective action.
The accountant has staff authority but not line authority.

Departmentation

 Departmentation is the grouping of jobs under the authority of a single manager,

according to some rational basis, for the purposes of planning, coordination and
control. The number of departments in an organization depends on the number of
different jobs, i.e., the size and complexity of the business.
Informal Structure

The formal structure in each organization that has been put in place by management
has an accompanying informal structure. Management does not and cannot control
the informal structure.

The informal structure has no written rules, is fluid in form and scope, is not easy to
identify, and has vague or unknown membership guidelines.

For management, the informal structure may be positive or negative. Positive

qualities include the ability to quickly spread information and provide feedback to the

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information. The informal structure gives people a sense of being in the know.
Management can feed information into the informal structure at very low cost. The
informal structure can also help satisfy employees' social needs.

The negative qualities of the informal structure mirror the positive qualities in several
ways. The more juicy a rumor, the more likely is the informal structure to repeat it,
expand it and make it into the "truth." Management may not know what information
is flowing through the informal structure. Employees can waste a great deal of time
nurturing and participating in the informal structure. Finally, the informal structure
can fence out new employees, "rate breakers," and change agents no matter the
extent to which the formal structure makes them a part of the organization.

Controlling

 Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on

the firm's objectives, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the
two, and taking corrective or preventive action as necessary.
 Performance standards come from the planning function.
 Standards should be established for every important task.
 Corrective action is necessary when performance is below standards. If
performance is anticipated to be below standards, preventive action must be taken
to ensure that the problem does not recur. If performance is greater than or equal
to standards, it is useful to reinforce behaviors that led to the acceptable
performance.

Characteristics of the Control Process

 The control process is cyclical which means it is never finished. Controlling leads to
identification of new problems that in turn need to be addressed through
establishment of performance standards, measuring performance etc.
 Employees often view controlling negatively.
 The process anticipates problems and takes preventive action. With corrective
action, the process also follows up on problems.
 The organizational culture should prevent a person walking away from a small,
easily solvable problem because "that isn't my responsibility."
 Controlling builds on planning, organizing and leading.

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Disadvantages of Control

 Managers expect people in an organization to change their behavior in response to

control. Employee resistance can easily make control efforts dysfunctional. The
following behaviors demonstrate means by which the manager's control efforts can
be frustrated:
1. Game playing--> control is something to be beaten, a game between the "boss and
me and I want to win."

2. Resisting control

3. Providing inaccurate information

4. Following rules to the letter

5. Sabotaging --> stealing, discrediting other workers, chasing customers away,

gossiping about the firm to people in the community

6. Playing one manager off against another

LEADERSHIP
It is a dynamic process in a group whereby one individual influences the others to
contribute voluntarily to the achievement of group tasks in a given situation.

The activities of managers cover many areas but the most important function as a
leader is to encourage employees to produce the best work in order to improve the
performance.

A leader:

o Plans
o Makes policies
o Organizes
o Controls
o Coordinates

TYPES OF LEADERS.

1. Charismatic leader
Has influence due to the strength of personality e.g. Napoleon, Hitler, Churchill etc
22
2. Traditional leader
By birth or inheritance
3. Situational leader
Provides temporary leadership- being at the right place at the right time.
4. Appointed leader
Influence arises from his position in the hierarchy e.g. managers, supervisors etc
5. Functional leader
Acquires leadership by what he does. Determined by the expertise or skills.

Types of leaders can also be divided into the formal and informal:

 Informal- chosen by the group i.e. social group, church, political party etc
 Formal- appointed or chosen

LEADERSHIP APPROACHES

1. The quality approach

Qualities suggested are:

 Good personality.
 Intelligent.
 Self confident.
 Courage.
 Initiative.
 Imaginative.

2. The situational approach

This suggests that authority flows from one who knows. A person with appropriate
ability for group’s task is likely to make a better leader.

3. The functional approach.

The leadership process is a function of the leader, the followers and the situations.
Therefore the basic elements of leadership are:

i. the leader- skills, knowledge, personality

23
ii. Tasks or goals of the organization.
iii. Group members i.e. subordinate- skills and motivation.
iv. The environment or situation.

QUALITIES OF A LEADER (By Stodgill).

1. Self confidence with a sense of identity.

2. Strong drive for responsibility.
3. Ability to complete a task.
4. Energy.
5. Willingness to accept consequences of decisions and actions.
6. Acceptance of interpersonal stress.
7. Tolerance of frustration and delay.
8. Ability to influence behavior.
9. Ability to structure social interactions to accomplish purpose.
10. Venturesomeness and originality.
11. Excessive initiative in social situations.

By Louis Lundberg:

People will follow the leader who they feel:

1. Knows where they are going and how to get there.

2. Exercises courage and persistence even in the face of danger, opposition or
discouragement.
3. Are believable.
4. Do not exploit others for personal advantage.
5. Makes goals seem important, attainable and exciting.
6. Instills confidence in workers.
7. Is articulate.
8. Maintains morale.

AUTHORITY AND POWER.

Leadership in an organization requires authority and power to influence the thoughts

and actions of other people.
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 Authority is the legitimate right to give commands, to act in the interest of an
organization, it can be delegated.
 Power is the ability to impose the will of one person or group to bring about certain
behaviors in other persons or groups.
 In organizations power is the capacity to influence another through the control
over needed resources.
 Power can originate from a variety of sources.
 Responsibility- is an obligation to perform certain functions on behalf of the
organization. Commonly called accountability, it can be delegated.

There are five kinds of power bases, which generally make an effective
leader;

1. Legitimate power
Power given to the manager by the organization because of the manager’s position in
the hierarchy e.g. director.

2. Expert power

Most professionals rely on this power. It is derived from, special ability, skill or
knowledge demonstrated by an individual. It makes the leader to be believed
because of superior knowledge and skills.

3. Reward power

A leader gives rewards such as money, praise, promotion to subordinates.

4. Referent power

It is based on:

i. A certain attractiveness or appeal of one person to another e.g. one who is able to
influence others easily to agree with his or her views.
ii. Also based on a person’s connection or relationship with another powerful
individual.

5. Coercive power

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Gives the leader ability to discipline or reprimand subordinate or punish for non-
compliance with management.

COMPARISON BETWEEN LEADERS AND MANAGERS

LEADERS MANAGERS

1. May or may not be appointed 1. Appointed officially

2. Have power to enforce decisions 2.

as Have power and authority to enforce
Long as followers are willing to be Decisions.
led.

3. Influence others toward goal 3. Carry out predetermined policies,

setting rules,
Either formally or informally. and regulations.

4. Interested in risk taking and 4. Maintain an orderly control, rational

exploring new ideas. and equitable structure.

5. Relate to people personally in an 5. Relate to people according to their

empathic manner. role

6. Feel rewarded from personal 6. Feel rewarded when fulfilling

achievement organizations mission or goal.

7. May or may not be successful 7. Are managers as long as the

as managers. appointment holds.

LEADERSHIP STYLES.

26
 A style is a way in which something is said or done.
 It is a particular forma of behavior directly associated with an individual.
 There are three types:
I. Authoritarian/ autocratic

II. Democratic or consultative

III. Laissez-Faire or Free reign

1. AUTHORITARIAN OR AUTOCRATIC
He is a boss and others are there to follow his instructions. He can have any of the
following:

i. Coercive autocracy. He orders of threatens.

ii. Benevolent autocracy. Tell and explains utilizing positive reinforcement if
behavior is forthcoming.
iii. Manipulative autocracy. Cons subordinates into that they are significantly
participating as he pulls strings behind the scenes.

o The autocratic leader has no trust in subordinate’s ability. Everything is

centralized, there is no delegation.

2. DEMOCRATIC OR CONSULTATIVE.

 Employees feel and believe that their inputs are desired and can influence a
decision.
 The subordinates are encouraged to participate in decision making. But the leader
knows he is accountable for whatever is going to be produced.

3. LAISSEZ FAIRE OR FREE REIGN.

 The leader joins as a fellow participant.

 He delegates work to subordinates and all that he wants at the end are results.
 He only assists where there are major problems.

STAFFING
27
 In an organization the people who work, there is the most valuable resource.
 Staffing is the process of identifying, recruiting, training and developing personnel,
in order to utilize resources appropriately to achieve objectives and goals of the
organization.
 Technology and physical resources are not enough, managers should be interested
in employees’ needs. Personnel department recruits and looks after employees.
Apart from these, the personnel department has other functions :

 Health and safety

 Equal opportunities
 Bargaining
 Appraisals
 Discipline
The staffing process

1. Identification of roles of the organization and minimal requirements necessary to

perform the job.
2. Place advertisement, or announcement through national and international media
indicating the geographical position of the organization.
Note:

Job advertisements form an important part of the recruitment process. A good

advert should contain:
- Job title
- Job description
- Organization activities and marketplace
- Location
- Salary expectation
- Address and contact
- Qualification and experience
- Free benefits if any
- Organization’s identity
- Title of immediate supervisor
3. The job analysis should provide the precise job contents, duties, activities, to be
performed, responsibilities, qualifications and the results expected from the
various roles of the organization.

28
4. Perform selection through the preliminary interviews to eliminate the obviously
unqualified applicants based on excessive demands, inadequate training or
education.
5. Testing is applied to screen the applicants in terms of skills, abilities, aptitudes,
interest, personality, and attitudes. The test should be reliable, valued,
standardized, and objective.
6. After the management approval of engaging the employee, a medical examination
will be performed to determine the presence of any existing medical conditions
and to ascertain if the applicant is physically capable of performing the job and to
provide a record to protect the company against claims for previously existing
medical conditions.
7. An offer is then made to the successful applicant, subject to a favorable response
from the referees and the medical report.
8. Employee then undergoes an orientation programme i.e. introduction to the job,
the organization and other employees.

Advantages of internal recruitment

i. One knows what he or she is getting.

ii. It saves on recruitment costs.
iii. Promotion is seen as an incentive to other employees.

Disadvantages

i. There no new ideas.

ii. There will be no “buzz”- an efficiency that follows a new recruitment.
iii. There is need to replace the person recruited.
iv. Promotion of one may upset others.
v. An insider already knows the organization and his qualities are already familiar to
the managers.
vi. An insider will not introduce new ideas picked from outside the way an outsider
could.
ORIENTATION OR INDUCTION

New members of an organization need to have a period of induction. This involves:

29
 Short familiarization course
 following an experienced employee around
 part-time working
 any other means of gentle induction

Purposes of induction

1. To create a favorable impression about the organization in the new employee.

2. To help the new employee adjust to the job quickly.
3. To provide specific information concerning the task and performance expectations
of the job.

CAREER MANAGEMENT

It is a formalized approach to ensure that employees have the opportunity to

maximize their potential effectively and efficiently in an organization setup.

When employee’s career needs are not in line with the needs of the organization, he
will probably decide to leave.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL.

It is an integral part of the staffing function which provides the periodic feedback
needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the individuals who are trainable and who
possess the essential skills needed to meet the current and future job requirements.

It is also the development of a work environment in which employees and managers

set objectives, monitor results and formally evaluate success against predetermined
performance goals.

It is a formal mechanism by which an organization can evaluate or assess their

human assets.

Objectives of appraisal.

 To identify an individual’s current level of job performance.

 To identify employee strengths and weaknesses.

30
 To enable employees improve performance.
 Provide a basis for rewarding employees in relation to their contribution to the
organizational goals.
 To motivate individuals.
 To identify training and development needs.
 To identify potential performance
 To identify information for succession planning.
 The end result is to assess present performance in order to;
- reward people fairly

- identify those for promotion and transfer and training needs.

Annual staff appraisal report.

 It is a system designed to assess the officer’s performance in the job as

comprehensively and objectively as possible wit h the help of full knowledge and
understanding.
 It should reflect the incidents covering achievements and failures over the review
period.
 It should be submitted at least once in a calendar year.
It contains:

1. Personal particulars e.g. name, age, sex etc

2. Employment record i.e. date of employment, job group, any acting appointment,
special duty allowance, permanent or temporary or contract, duty station.
3. Qualifications- academic, professional, experience.
4. Self assessment- -summary of duties and responsibilities
- have courses or work benefited you?
- have you gained any experience?

5. Assessment by the reporting officer.

 Job requirement, skills, experience,.

 Performance
 Knowledge of work
 Initiative and ability to learn
 Cooperation
 Judgment

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 Diligence
 Discipline and conduct
 Communication
 Promotion potential
 Proposal for performance improval

DECISION MAKING

Decision making is an everyday activity that may be on the spur of the moment or
may involve much thought and consultation. It may be emotional or reasoned.

Definition

It is the process through which a course of action is selected as a solution to a

specific problem.

Or

A choice of option or alternatives.

Steps in decision making

i. Define the problem.

ii. Collect relevant data.
iii. Develop alternative solutions.
iv. Assess the consequences.
v. Select the best solution.
vi. Implement solution.
vii. Measure results.

Problem finding.

 This refers to a process of identifying problems and making decisions and

attempts to solve them.
 It also involves activities with existing problems.
 A problem exists when there is a gap between a given situation and objective.
Why make decisions.

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We make decisions in order to solve problems and initiate action which will hopefully
solve the problem.

When is it required.

1. When choosing a particular remedy for solving the problem e.g. outbreak of
cholera, serious accidents etc.
2. When sorting out objectives e.g. the policies of the ministry of health.
3. When there is an obstacle to overcome e.g. constitutional review.
Stages or requirements in decision making.

1. Facts - All facts that have an influence on the decision should be known.
2. Analysis- Analyze the facts to weigh the pros and cons.
3. Authority - formal authority permitting decisions at that level .
4. Action - takes the decision and implements it.
5. Follow-up - ensure the decisions are carried out.
Types of decisions.

1. Emergency decisions
In a crisis such as accidents, or an issue that calls for immediate action.

2. Routine decisions
Everyday decisions e.g. reporting time for duty, budget speech, etc.

3. Debatable decisions
These are tough decisions that involve more thought and discussion. They usually
bring changes e.g. constitutional review, salary review etc.

(Decisions can also be categorized into- strategic, operating and administrative

decisions)

Kinds of action when making decision.

1. Interim action
When one buys time on finding the cause of the problem.

2. Adaptive action
You adapt to the problem so that you live with it, e.g. a disabled man using a wooden
leg.

3. Corrective action
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When one gets rid of the known cause of the problem, e.g. repairing a leaking,
performing an operation etc.

4. Preventive action
When the action taken makes the problem less likely to occur e.g. putting up a strong
roof.

5. Contingency action
Provides standby arrangements to minimize the effects of a serious problem e.g.
generator to cater for power failures or gas.

 Monitor the results of your decision.

 Your decision may be wrong, it is better to admit the fact and change the
decision. You will be respected more if you change than to persist in carrying out
something that is wrong.
SUPERVISION

DEF:

It is the art of working with people through the management functions (i.e. planning,
directing, coordinating, controlling, and communicating.) effectively to achieve the
objectives of the organization.

Objectives of supervision.

 Build and maintain an efficient organization

 Create and maintain an effective workforce.
 Control and add value toward performance and communicating this value to
subordinates.
Responsibilities of a supervisor.

a) Handle grievances.
b) Handle indiscipline cases.
c) Responsible for giving instructions.
d) Coordinates activities.
e) Training and development of the people he supervisor.
f) Effectiveness and efficiency.
Principles of effective supervision.

1. An effective supervisor makes sure the people under him understand:

34
 What is expected of them and how is the organization expected to operate.
 How his job relates to others and other departments.
 Know where to get resources.
 Know where to communicate information.
 Know how the work he is doing will be measured.
2. The workers should have guidance in doing their work by providing them with
information in terms of content, techniques, e.g. how to live, organize, schedule,
and conduct meetings, personality improvement etc.
3. Show appreciation for good work by giving certificate of merit, writing to tell the
worker the good work he or she has done.
4. Correct poor work through constructive criticism:
 tell the individual on the spot
 tell the individual why it is poor work
 Tell the individual what he can do to improve the work.
5. Give workers the opportunity to show that they can accept greater responsibilities.
6. Encourage people to improve themselves and progress ( avoid sitting on your
workers improvement).
7. Ensure people work in a safe and enabling environment.
Qualifications of a supervisor.

 Knowledge of the job - know the operation aspect of the job.

 Knowledge of the people - knows and understands the people in order to achieve
your goals through them.
 Knowledge of leadership.
 Knowledge of self.
Tools to apply for supervision.

1. Planning
 what is to be done
 why is it to be done
 where should it be done
 who should do it
2. Directing
 Direct others to ensure plans are executed and achieved according to the set
objectives.
3. Coordination

35
 Coordinate individual activities so that job is done in a proper manner.
4. Controlling
 Inspect to see plans are being carried out.
5. Have the “skills of personnel”
 communicate and relate well
 select people to perform specific tasks
 appraisal
 discipline - self discipline
 personnel development
 custodian of morale - increase morale and motivate
 interviewing and counseling skills
 orientation skills
 skills in teamwork
 Encourage self development.
TIME MANAGEMENT.

Definitions.

1. It is an enabling technique which is fundamental to job performance as an

important need for managerial effectiveness and efficiency based on time,
allocation and utilization of resources by scheduling and prioritizing the factors to
accomplish better results, goals and objectives of the individual and the
organization.
2. It is about making time and using it productively.
3. Taking time to think more clearly about the job, analyze it and set priorities.
4. It is a unique resource that you cannot hire, rent, buy or otherwise obtain.
Factors affecting time management.

1. Organization culture — the way workers are used to doing their jobs.
2. Nature of the job.
3. Demands made by own staff.
4. Management style of the superior.
5. Influence of colleagues.
6. Personality and skills of the job holder.
Concepts of time management.

36
 The purpose is to improve the quality of your life while improving your
productivity.
 The principle of time management relies on the concept of efficiency and
effectiveness which requires knowing your personal goals and work goals, setting
the priorities needed to reach them and having the discipline to reach them and
having the discipline to stick to the priorities.
 Time utilization and reduction of time wasted are the key aspects of time
management.

 The principle issues are:

— Related to the nature of the job.

— Related to the personality and attributes of the job holder.

— Related to the people who make up the job holders role set.

1. Nature of the job.

 This is fundamental to the amount of control over time.
 Should identify priorities in the job:
a) The task they above are responsible for.

b) Task that requires greatest effort or produces greatest return.

2. Personal attributes.
Good time management depends on personality and inclinations e.g.:

 Some people work well early in the day while others work best later in the day.
Some spread out their work while others prefer short intensive periods of work.

 Some only deal with one issue at a time , while others juggle several issues .
 Some like to delegate while others keep tasks to themselves.
 Some are tidy and methodical, others are untidy and disorganized.
 Some are more skilled and experienced than others.

3. Job context.
It is related to:

 Role set i.e. boss, own staff, colleagues, etc.

37
 Physical surroundings — office, location of others.
 Culture of the organization.
How can managers improve use of time.

Personal planning

 Personal priority and action planning- develop personal priorities and means for
achieving them.
 Identify time wasting activities.
 Set targets for self and staff in order to focus on parts of the job that matter, what
needs to be delegate etc.
Delegation.

 Manager transfers legitimate authority to subordinates or team members without

giving up ultimate responsibility.
Assertiveness.

 The capacity to express ideas, opinions or feelings openly and directly without
putting down ourselves or others.
Personal communication skills.

 Faster reading skills.

 Report writing.
 Handling meetings.
Personal effectiveness.

 Be proactive.
 Begin with the end in mind.
 Put first things first.
 Think of win-win situation i.e. all can benefit.
 Understand first before being understood.
 Personal renewal and reflection.
 Synergize.

TIME WASTERS.

1. Prolonged or unnecessary meetings.

2. Interruptions from own staff, colleagues, or the boss.

38
 3. Idle conversations and over socializing.
4. Unnecessary memos and other paperwork.
5. Misplaced materials
6. Procrastination(delay)
7. Management by crisis.
8. Poor filing systems.
9. Conflicting policies.
10. Unselective reading .
11.Over concern with details.
12. Poor information and communication.
13.Inability to say “no”
14.Poor delegation.
15.Traveling between jobs and departments.

TIME PROGRESS.

STICK TO
KNOW SET ORGANISE
PRIORITIES
GOALS PRIORITIES ACTIVITIES

Principles of time management.

Efficiency.

Operating in such a way that resources are not being wasted.

Effectiveness.

Doing the right thing in the right way.

Achieving the desired results, while efficiency is achieving the targets with the least
possible use of resources.

Guidelines on time management.

39
1. Know how you spend your time.
2. Learn why your time goes where it goes.
3. Delegate.
4. Sort out what needs to be done now from what can wait until later.
5. Cut down on time wasting activities.
6. Be ruthless about distractions or interruptions.
7. Locate information fast.
8. Build a time control plan that fits your job and your unique personality.
9. Beat the procrastination habit.
10.Use other people’s time to your advantage.
11.Be creative with use of your time.
12. Work smarter not harder.
SKILLS FOR MANAGING MEETINGS

1. Plan well by deciding the purpose of the meeting.

2. Conduct them well with a set of ground rules understood by all.
3. Follow to ensure that assignments are completed.
When to hold meetings.

 When conveying the same message to everyone at once and getting a feedback.
 When seeking new ideas.
 When identifying and solving other problems.
 When gaining support or commitment.
 Bringing a variety of specialized perspectives to bear on a problem.
Meeting arrangements.

The arrangements should be made in advance.

1. Decide who is to attend the meeting according to the purpose of the meeting i.e.
individuals with decision-making authority may be important for the meeting.
2. Arrange for physical comfort e.g. room, seating arrangements, writing materials,
food, parking space, security etc.
3. Develop and distribute the agenda.
Planning an agenda

The agenda should:

a) Itemize the points of business.

40
b) Arrange them in order according to priorities and time needed.
c) Notify those who will be responsible for presenting information.
Importance of Agenda.

1. Allows members to know what to expect.

2. Enables members to prepare.
3. Provides order for dealing with issues.
4. Facilitates responsibility for members to attend.
5. Allows responsibilities to be delegated.
Agenda format

1. Formal or standing agenda. It remains the same from meeting to meeting.

2. Informal flexible agenda. Subject to change and permits shifts in the order of
business.
3. Timed agenda. Apportions the amount of time and establishes the sequence of
topics to be covered.
4. Discipline agenda. Explains something about a topic or decision to be made.
Writing a successful to do list.

1. Write it daily.
2. Be realistic and aware of limits of time available.
3. Do not over schedule.
4. Allow time cushion in between.
5. Review the list every morning.
6. Before doing each item, ask why me(delegate when possible.
7. Group related activities together.
8. Do.

DELEGATION
DEF:
 Passing down of authority from a superior to a subordinate.
 Process of entrusting authority and responsibility from a manager or a supervisor
to a subordinate.
 The one to whom authority is delegated becomes responsible to the superior for
doing the job, but the superior remains responsible for getting the job done.
 The best way for a manager to effectively concentrate on their responsibilities is by
unloading as much of their work as possible.
 Delegation can take place at the individual or organizational level.
41
1. Organizational level.
 The structure of the organization as depicted in the organization chart is itself a
reserve of delegation.
 It relates to the position of decision making in the organization.
It involves passing down of authority and responsibility to various levels through out
the organization with consideration of centralization, decentralization, provincial
levels, district levels etc to be established on the basis of tasks or elements of
function.

2. Individual level
 It will involve the various activities that have to be undertaken.
 Must be distributed among individual members of the workforce by entrusting
authority and responsibility to others.
 Delegation is founded on the concept of:

. Authority.
. Responsibility.
. Accountability.
Authority.

 The right to take action or make decisions that the manager would otherwise have
done.
 Legitimizes the exercise of power within the structures and rules of the
organization.
 Enables the subordinate to issue valued instructions for others to follow.

Responsibility.

 Work assigned to a position.

 Involves an obligation by the subordinate to perform certain duties or make certain
decisions and having to accept the possible reprimand from the manager or the
superior for unsatisfactory performance.
Accountability.

 Any means of ensuring that the person who is supposed to do a task actually
performs it and does so correctly.

42
 It requires certain conditions to be established. i.e.
- must be thoroughly and clearly understood.

-The person must be qualified and capable of fulfilling the obligation.

-Sufficient authority to accomplish the task must be delegated.

 You cannot delegate authority without responsibility and vice versa.

EFFECTIVE DELEGATION PROCESS.

1. Grant appropriate authority

 Responsibility should not be less than the authority delegated.
 Enough authority should always be delegated to achieve desired results.
2. Consider the capabilities of the subordinate.
 Authority should be delegated to those who are competent and willing to accept
delegation.
 Consider the job to be done, knowledge, experience, intelligence and limitations of
the person(s).
3. Make sure the authority is clearly stated.
 Should be clearly defined not only to the subordinate but to all the others.
 Everyone should know who is in charge and where authority resides.
4. Modify the authority whenever necessary.
 Maintain a flexible attitude about what kind of and how much authority to
delegate.
 Because the environment of business is dynamic, authority relationship may need
to be altered from time to time.
 Authority is revocable- it can be modified by increasing it, decreasing or
withdrawing it altogether.
5. Follow unity of command and chain of command.
 There should be clear reporting arrangements.
 Each individual reports to one supervisor.
 Follow chain of command.
6. Develop willingness to delegate.

 No organization can function without delegation.

 Some obstacles are psychological e.g. lack of confidence on the staff, fear to lose
control. Etc.
 The manager should be willing to let go.
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7. Create supportive climate.

 Moral and material support should be available i.e., adequate resources (staff,
equipment ,expenses, time).
 Advice and encouragement.
8. Develop effective communication system

 Flow of information between superiors and subordinates.

 Enables superior to give clear instructions and subordinates to seek clarification
and guidance.
9. Establish an effective control system.

 To ensure authority delegated is properly used.

 Set the standards of performance.
 Evaluate performance.
10. Give incentives

 Financial and non-financial incentives- reward for successful assumption of

authority.
11. Define the results expected.

 Avoid ambiguous instructions.

 Clearly define expectations.
RULES OF THUMB OF DELEGATING

Rules for the manager

1. Know the employees strength and weakness.

2. State tasks clearly- what is to be done, but not how to do it.
3. Delegate a little at a time- break up large projects.
4. Ask for feedback- to ensure employee understands.
5. Grant enough authority to do the job.
6. Let go and trust the employee to do the job.
7. Provide support only after employee has had a chance to work out problems.
8. Do not 4expect the job to be done as you would do it.
9. Evaluate- is it acceptable or perfect.
10. Provide rewards consistent with result and level of responsibility.
Rules for the subordinate.

44
1. Recognize assignment and opportunities.
2. Be realistic about what you are able to do.
3. Ask for clarification.
4. Determine the resources available before accepting the assignment.
5. Report progress periodically.
6. Request support or advice if needed.
7. Be creative in solving problems.
8. Use feedback.
Advantages of delegation.

1. Extra time for supervisors or managers.

2. Improves morale and productivity.
3. A means of training to assess a person’s likely performance at a higher level of
authority and responsibility.
4. Recognition for supervisor and subordinate.
5. Decrease in stress.
6. Planning the future, rather organizing the present.
Barriers to effective delegation.

 Managers’ perception of subordinate and vice versa.

 Manger may fear that the subordinate is not capable or may do too good a job and
show the manager in bad light.
Supervisors’ reasons for avoiding delegation.

a) Lack of trust.
b) Loss of control.
c) Shared recognition i.e. “someone else may get the credit I deserve”.
d) Fear for his or her position.
e) Lack of time.
f) Lack of incentives.

Subordinates reasons for avoiding delegation.

a) They find it easier to ask the boss to make decisions.

b) Fear of criticism.
c) Believe they lack the necessary information and resources to do the job.
d) Subordinate may already have too much to do.
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e) Lack of confidence.
f) Lack of incentives.
Factors affecting delegation

1. Nature of the task:

 Is it appropriate for the employee.
2. Organizational culture:
 Does employee know organizational goals and policies.
 Do they encourage delegation.
3. Experience of the employee:
 How familiar is the employee to the job.
4.Supervisors’ ability.

 Capability of selecting and motivating employee.

5. Employees knowledge of the job.

6. Willingness of the employee.

Stages in systematic approach to delegation.

1. Clarification of policy and procedures.

 Establish and define policies and procedures in order to provide a framework for
the exercise of authority and the acceptance of responsibility.
 Managers must be clear.
 Chain of command with effective communication and coordination between various
levels of authority within the organizational structure.
2. Agreement on terms of reference

 Identify and discuss areas of work subordinate is to be responsible for.

 Subordinate should understand reasons for delegation, the nature of work, and
limitations imposed.
 This involves the acceptance theory:
“Although the authority gives people power to act officially within the scope of their
delegation, this power becomes somewhat meaningless unless those affected accept
it respond to it.

In most cases, when delegation is made, a subordinate is left free to choose a

response within a certain range of behavior. But even then an employee still has the
choice of doing it or not doing it and taking the consequences.
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 Therefore, the subordinates control the response to authority. Managers can
not afford to overlook the human pert when they use authority”

3. Briefing, guidance and training.

 Once delegation is accepted, give guidanc3e, briefing and training.

 Advice on where and to whom to seek help or advice.
4.Review and monitoring.

 Set time limits for delegation.

 Give target dates for completion of task.
 Set the performance standards.
5. Freedom of action.

 Leave subordinate alone to get on with the job.

PROBLEM SOLVING

 A scientific process provides theoretical framework utilized in attaining solutions to

simple or complex problems.
 It is a systematic procedure with a moderate systematic progression.
 You need to gather information about the problem and then identify and state the
problem.
 Then start discussing the possible solutions to implement.
 The problem solving process can be used by anybody to solve day to day
problems. It requires experience in application.
 The process has 8 phases:
1. define the problem
2. gather the information
3. analyze the information
4. develop the solutions
5. consider the consequences
6. make the decisions
7. implement decisions
8. evaluate the solutions

JOB DESCRIPTION

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 It lists the tasks and responsibilities of a job, its title, job specifications,
qualifications needed to perform the job, and the compensation level.
 It is an attempt to get a full picture of a job as it is performed and the sort of
motivation needed to carry it out.
Purposes.

a) To integrate the job into the structure of the organization.

b) Provide criteria for recruiting and screening.
c) Tell the employee what is expected in performing the job.
d) Serve as a basis for performance appraisal.
e) Used for induction.
The data for job analysis is obtained from:

 Observing member of staff at work.

 Studying his work diary.
 A mixture of both the above.
Job title.

The name of the position should define it and make it easier for an employee to find it
in an organization chart and other assignment lists.

COMMUNICATION.

DEF.

It is the process of creating, transmitting and interpreting ideas, facts, opinions, and
feelings.

It can also be described as the process by which information is transmitted and

received.

The communication process.

 It is a sequence of steps needed to transmit a message from a source to a

receiver.
 The aim of communication is to bring about increased understanding to influence
action or behavior.
 It begins from a source with an idea, information etc to transmit.
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 The source chooses a way or a channel through which to transmit the message.
This can be
« Oral methods e.g. meetings, telephone, presentations

« Written reports

« Memos, manuals

« Interviews

 The source of the message should send it in a way that is understandable and
through an appropriate channel.
 The source should get a feedback from the receiver to evaluate if the message
has been interpreted correctly.
Purposes.

∆ convey knowledge, information or understanding

∆ obtain information.

∆ Change attitudes, behavior etc.

∆ Changing another’s personality.

∆ Working at a corporate task.

∆ Supervising the activities of another.

∆ Supervision and coordination of a group.

Types of communication.

I. Can be grouped into formal and informal.

1. Formal - arranged and approved by the management.

2. Informal- unofficial and unplanned.

II. A) one way - has no provision for feedback from the receiver.
a) Two way - a response is provided for and encouraged.

III. Can be classified according to the direction i.e. flow of communication.

 Vertical

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This is the commonest. The management communicates policies, plans, information,
and instructions downwards.

Employees communicate ideas, suggestions, comments and complaints upwards.

 Lateral.
It is minimal. The flow of information is between peers.

It may be achieved through interdepartmental meetings and committees. It tends to

be faster because their no status barriers.

Barriers to communication.

i} Age difference.
ii} Poor timing
iii} Inappropriate channels-- lack of fluency in the sender, use of jargon, long
windedness.
iv} Differences in perception
v} cultural and language differences
vi} Information overload.
vii} Fear and other emotional overtones e.g. jealousy, anger, love.
viii} Poor listening skills e.g. busy, preoccupied
ix} Lack of trust.
Overcoming barriers.

1. Be brief and simple.

2. Accuracy and completeness.
3. Choose the right channel.
4. Right timing.
5. Be aware of cultural differences.
6. Effective feedback is essential in order to evaluate understanding .
7. Improve listening skills.
8. Be observant.
9. Body language.
10.Use a combination of communication methods.
11.Be flexible.
12.Strategic use of the grapevine.
Skills of communication.

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 Telling
 Asking.
 Listening.
 Observing.
 Understanding.
 Convincing.

MOTIVATION

▫ At a simple level, it seems obvious that people do things, such as go to work,

in order to get what they want and to avoid what they do not want.
▫ People seem to have different wants and needs; therefore part of what a theory of
motivation tries to do is explain and predict who has which wants.
▫ Many theories posit a hierarchy of needs, in which the needs at the bottom
are the most urgent and need to be satisfied before attention can be paid to the
others.

▫ Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the most famous example.

Definition

There are many definitions of motivation;

1. The internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it

direction.
2. Desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior.
3. Influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.
4. The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.
5. All the drives, forces, and influences that cause an employee to want to
achieve certain aims.
6. It is what causes people to act or to do something in a certain way.
7. The process, both instinctive and rational, by which people seek to satisfy the
basic drives, perceived needs and personal goals which trigger personal
behavior.
 Motivation encompasses drives, desires, needs, wishes, and forces towards
personal and organization goals.
 All human needs have a cause.
 At the root of human behavior are needs, wants or motives. (Motive- a need or
driving force within a person.)

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 Human behavior is goal seeking. People try to achieve objectives or goals which
when reached will satisfy their needs.
 A person’s desire is determined by:
o Attitude
o Satisfaction
o Morale
o Systems of communication
o Incentives
o Fair treatment by management
 Schein classified people as follows:
i. Rational- economic man.
In this, one self-interest and maximization of personal gains are the prime
motivators.

ii. Social man

Predominantly motivated by social needs.

iii. Self-actualizing man.

Individuals need self-fulfillment as a prime motivator.

iv. Complex man.

Here several interrelated factors are at work.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Early theories
 Hawthorne studies – by Elton Mayo
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
 Theory X and theory Y – D. McGregor
 Motivation – Hygiene Theory – by Herzberg
 Achievement Motivation – by D. C. McClelland
 Others – Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert
2. Later theories
 Expectancy theory – V. H. Vroom
 Equity theory
 Goal theory
 Attribution theory

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  Reinforcement theory
 Theory Z – The Japanese approach

HAWTHORNE STUDIES

 These were studies carried out in five stages from 1924-1936 in the Hawthorne
plant owned by western electric in the USA.
 The studies concluded that:
a) Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation. They must be seen as
members of a group.
b) The need to belong to a group and have status within it is more important than
monetary incentives or good physical conditions. Informal groups at work exercise a
strong influence over behavior of workers. Supervisors and managers need to be
aware of social needs and cater for them.
 Hence social relationships and values of workers significantly affected
productivity.
Participative management motivates workers.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

3
2
1

KEY:

1. Physiological needs
These are basic needs e.g. food, water, sleep, sex, heat, air

2. Safety needs
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 The need for self-protection e.g. shelter, self-defense, freedom from war, poison,
violence

work safety, job security, health insurance.

3. Love needs
Affection, belongingness - family, friends, teams, depts., coworkers, clients,
supervisors, subordinates. To give and receive friendship.

4. Esteem needs- or ego needs

Approval of family, friends, and community, self-respect, dominate, acquire
possessions e.g. a car, an office, carpet, recognition, high status, responsibilities
have authority, etc.

5. Self-actualization
Education, religion, hobbies, personal growth or development, training,
advancement, growth, creativity, self-fulfillment.

 According to Maslow, lower needs take priority. They must be fulfilled before
the others are activated. It makes some basic common sense -- it is pointless
to worry about whether a color looks good on you when you are dying of
starvation, or being threatened with your life.
 There are some basic things that take precedence over all else. (Or at least
logically should, if people were rational. However, is that a safe assumption?)
 According to the theory, if you are hungry and have inadequate shelter, you
will not go to church.
 Cannot do the higher things until you have the lower things.
 However, the poor tend to be more religious than the rich, Both within a
given culture, and across nations.
 Therefore, the theory makes the wrong prediction here.
 Alternatively, take education: how often do you hear; I cannot go to class
today, because I have not had sex in three days.
 Do all physiological needs including sex have to be satisfied before other
needs?
 (Besides, wouldn’t the authors of the Kama Sutra argue that sex was a kind
of self-expression more like art than a physiological need? that would put it in

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 the self-actualization category); Again, the theory does not seem to predict
correctly.
 Cultural critique: Does Maslow's classification really reflect the order in which
needs are satisfied, or is it more about classifying needs from a kind of
perspective, with lofty goals like personal growth and creativity at the top,
and instincts like sex and hunger at the bottom?
 Is self-actualization actually a fundamental or just something that
can be done if you have the leisure time?

ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY

 Existence needs -- physical well-being

 Relatedness needs -- satisfactory relations with others
 Growth needs -- development of competence and realization of potential
 It is similar to Maslow -- But maybe a bit more rational. For example, in Alderfer's
model, sex does not need to be in the bottom category as it is in Maslow's model,
since it is not crucial to (the individual's) existence.
 Therefore, by moving sex, this theory does not predict that people have to have
sex before they can think about going to school, like Maslow's theory does.
 Alderfer believed that as you start satisfying higher needs, they become more
intense (e.g., the power you get the more you want power), like an addiction.
 Not everyone is motivated by the same things. It depends where you are in the
hierarchy.
ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY (MCCLELLAN)

Some needs are acquired because of life experiences;

▫ Need for achievement, accomplish something difficult. as kids encouraged

to do things for themselves.

▫ Need for affiliation, form close personal relationships. as kids rewarded

for making friends.

▫ Need for power, control others. as kids, able to get what they want
through controlling others.

EQUITY THEORY

▫ Suppose employee A gets a 20% raise and employee B gets a 10% raise. Will both

55
be motivated as a result? Will A be twice as motivated? Will be B be negatively
motivated?

▫ Equity theory says that it is not the actual reward that motivates, but the
perception, and the perception is based not on the reward in isolation, but in

comparison with the efforts that went into getting it, and the rewards and

efforts of others.

▫ If everyone got a 5% raise, B is likely to feel quite pleased

with her raise, even if she worked harder than everyone else.

▫ However, if A got an even higher raise, B perceives that she worked just as hard
as A, she will be unhappy.
▫ In other words, people's motivation results from a ratio; a person compares the
ratio of reward to effort with the comparable ratio of reward to effort that they
think others are getting.
▫ Predicting how a person will react to a given motivator, is complicated. People do
not have complete information about how others are rewarded, so they rely on
perceptions, rumors, and inferences.
▫ Some people are more sensitive to equity issues than others. Some people are
willing to ignore short-term inequities as long as they expect things to work out in
the long-term.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY by B.F. Skinner

▫ All behavior is determined to some extent by the rewards or punishments

obtained from previous behavior i.e. it has effect of reinforcing the current actions.
▫ It describes the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future
occurrence of that behavior. There are four types of conditioning:
1. Positive Reinforcement:
Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of getting rewards as a consequence
of a behavior. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job, you get
a bonus

2. Negative Reinforcement:
Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of having a stressor taken away as a
consequence of a behavior. Long-term sanctions are removed from countries
when their human rights records improve.
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3. Punishment:
Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a
consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay deducted for lateness.

4. Extinction:
Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting no rewards when do a
behavior. Therefore, if person does extra effort, but gets no thanks for it, they stop
doing it.

Guidelines to using it:

 Positively reinforce desired behavior.

 Ignore undesirable behavior as far as possible.
 Avoid using punishment as a principle means of achieving desired performance.
 Apply positive reinforcement regularly.
 Assess positive and negative factors in the individuals’ environment.
 Specify the desired behavior or performance in quantifiable terms.

EXPECTANCY THEORY (VICTOR VROOM)

 This theory is meant to bring together many of the elements of previous

theories. It combines the perceptual aspects of equity theory with the

behavioral aspects of the other theories.

 Behavior is formed by subjective perception of a reality i.e. effort to satisfy needs

will depend on person’s perception of that he or she will expect the effort to be
followed by a certain outcome which will bring desirable rewards.
Expectancy;

The person's perception that effort will result in performance.

In other words, the person's assessment of the degree to which effort actually

correlates with performance. What the person wants to happen.

Instrumentality;

The person's perception that performance will be rewarded/punished.

I.e., the person's assessment of how well the amount of reward correlates with
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the quality of performance. Perception that effective performance will lead to desired
rewards.

Valence;

The perceived strength of the reward or punishment that will

result from the performance. If the reward is small, the motivation will be

small, even if expectancy and instrumentality are both perfect (high).

MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND Y.

These are sets of assumptions about behavior made by managers about their
employees.

I. Theory X.
 It assumes that the employee dislikes work and is inherently lazy.
 It resembles scientific management and is similar to Schein’s rational economic
man.
 Managers assume that:
• People dislike work and avoid it.

• People require coercion and bribery to work.

• People are inherently lazy

• People avoid responsibility

• People prefer being told what to do.

• People only want to be secured.

II. Theory Y.
 Assumes that people like work.
 It is similar to Maslow’s higher level needs and Schein’s self actualizing man.
 Assumptions:
• Employees like work as naturally as rest or play.

• They do not have to be controlled

• They do not need coercion

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 • They seek responsibility

• They exercise imagination and ingenuity

HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY

It is centered on satisfaction at work. It concluded that some factors lead to

dissatisfaction at work (hygiene factors), while others lead to satisfaction
(motivation).

Motivators:

i. Achievement
ii. Recognition
iii. Work itself
iv. Responsibility
v. Advancement
vi. Growth
vii. Good salary
viii. Good relationships
Hygiene factors.

 Company policies and administration

 Supervision
 Work conditions
 Poor salary
 Personal life
 Status
 Security

D.C. MCCLELLAND (ACHIEVEMENT-MOTIVATION)

It consists of:
Need for achievement.
A person tends to have these characteristics:
• The need for achievement is consistent.
• Seek tasks in which they can exercise personal responsibility.
• Prefer challenges within their own mastery.

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• Want feedback.
• Less concerned with social or affiliation needs.
Need for power.
• Concerned with acquiring, exercising, or retaining power or influence over others
• Likes to compete with others in a situation that allows him to dominate
• Enjoys confrontation with others
Need for affiliation.
This is a desire for affection and friendship. Its characteristics are:
• It seeks friendship and close emotional relationships with others.
• Wants to be liked
• Enjoys parties and social activities
• Seeks a sense of belonging by forming groups or organizations

Motivators

1. Challenging work
2. Participation in planning
3. Recognition and status
4. More responsibility and power
5. Security
6. Opportunity for personal growth
7. Opportunity for personal advancement
8. Good working conditions
9. Independence of action
Factors that hinder motivation

 People’s wants differ.

 People’s wants change over time.
 Social conditions are dynamic.
 Lack of management control
 Policy and administration of the organization
 Salary
TEAMWORK.

 Teamwork and development of a team spirit can go a long way towards

increasing the sense of satisfaction people obtain from their working environment
and providing them with a sense of purpose.
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 Lack of teamwork leads to incomplete job or poor performance . Group values,
pride and purpose cannot be found.
DEF.

A team is a group of people who are interdependent and who recognize that success
of each one of them depends on the success of the group.
It is a group in which contributions of individuals are seen as complimentary.
There should be cohesion, much interaction, mutual support and shared perception
on issues within a team.
Before forming a team the following issues should be addressed-
- Size of team
- Nature of project
- Requirements of group
-Roles of members of the team
- Abilities of group members
-Norms of the group .

- A strong team has a sense has a sense of purpose, clear objectives and goals within
the group there should be norms, attitudes, behavior and discipline.

- Individual team members should be open about their views, be prepared to

confront where necessary but cooperate with the decisions made by the group.

TEAM ROLES

1. Chairman / Leader
- Individual who can control and coordinate
- Recognizes talent - not threatened by them.
- Concerned with the feasible rather than the exciting and imaginative
2. Shaper / Thinker / coach
- Shapes decisions and thinking of the team
3. Supporter / Coordinator
- Communicates issues, Plans and obtains adequate resources for the team.
- Reviews teams goals and performance, to make sure that they realistic and
challenging.
4. Worker / Doer

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 -Is more practical - gets things done and wants to get on with the job once
decisions have been taken.
5. Competer
- Energy directed to completion of task on time and to a high standard.

How to start an effective team

1. Set ground rules for the team

2. Clarify and agree to the teams objectives.
3. Decide how much time and energy must be committed to achieve goals.
4. Share expectations about working together.
5. Determine a process for conflict resolution,
STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TEAMS.

1. Be fair and consistent.

2. Keep members informed and ensure communication lines are open.
3. Be aware of individual needs.
4. Maintain respect and trust
5. Analyze problems objectively and rationally.
6. Make decisions by consensus
7. Remain flexible
8. Promote responsibility
9. Obtain resources and remove obstacles.
10. Provide rewards
11. Set achievable goals for the team.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

1. Clear objectives and agreed goals

2. Openness and confrontation
3. Support and trust
4. Cooperation and conflict
5. Sound procedures
6. Appropriate leadership
7. Regular review
8. Individual development
9. Sound inter-group relations.
ADVANTAGES OF TEAMWORK

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-Saves time.
-More work is done
-Facilitates sharing of ideas
-Facilitates equitable distribution of resources.
-Enhances unity.
-Encourages transparency, accountability, and responsibility.
-Reduces interdepartmental conflict
-hastens decision making
-leads to sustainability
Disadvantages

-Laxity
-Conflicts
-Time wasting
-Group pressure - some dominate
-Delays due to long discussions
-Talking much and doing little work
Barriers hindering teamwork.

1. Personal differences in ideas and personalities.

2. Lack of awareness of importance in collaboration.
3. Poor leadership.
4. High staff turnover
5. Poor communication skills.
6. Cultural or religious differences.
7. Lack of funds.
8. Bureaucracy or red tape.
9. Corruption/
10.Conflicting priorities.
11.Political differences.
12.Lack of time
13.negative attitude
14.Personalization of the activity.
15.Hidden objectives
16.Partiality/tribalism/ nepotism

ORGANIZATIONAL CHARTS AND STRUCTURES

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An organization chart is a graphic illustration showing the formal structure or
relationships and authorities thro which a business aims to achieve its objectives.

It is considered as a circuit diagram of a business structure.

Purposes

 the whole structure can be seen at a glance

 it is easy to analyze
 Management relationships are visible.
 The span of control for each supervisor or manager can be seen.
 Spheres of responsibility and authority are defined.
 Lines of communication are visible.
 Weakness in an organization can easily be diagnosed e.g. weak lines of
communication, unattached staff etc.
 It shows how an organization is divided. This can be by function, geography,
product, customer, or a combination.
 To be effective, it should have:
-names of personnel and their titles.

-Brief job descriptions.

-Be reviewed and updated regularly.

 Organization charts can be vertical, horizontal, or circular.

Organizational structure

Def:

It is the sum total of the ways in which it divides its labor into distinct tasks in order to
achieve coordination between them.

It defines the tasks, responsibilities, work roles, relationships and channels of

communication.

Common forms of organizational structure

1. Functional structure.
Its based on groupings of all major business functions e.g. production, marketing,
finance, personnel etc

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 Example:

Managing director

Chief
Production Marketing Personnel
Accountant
Manager Manager Manager

Production Sales Financial Employee

Control Accountant Services

Purchasing Cost Industrial

Marketing

Accounting Relations

Advantages

 It is logical, similar activities are grouped together.

 Coordination within functions is improved.
 Efficient use of resources, members share common facilities or machinery.
 Better opportunities for promotion and career development.
Disadvantages.

 Slow decision making- the chain of command is too long.

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 Limited management training.
 Less innovative.
2. Product based structure.
It is based on product ranges or services e.g. in health, we can have medical, nursing,
surgical services etc

3. Geographical structure.
It is based on geographical features e.g. provinces, nations, subcontinents.

4. Defictionalized structure.
Based on products, geography or both, with key functions such as planning and
finance at the HQ.

5. Matrix structures.
Is a combination of functional and product based

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