CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Microstructure refers to the small-scale structure of materials, as observed using microscopes. In

reinforced concrete beams, microstructural analysis focuses on the internal characteristics of both

concrete and the reinforcing steel, including the interactions between these components.

Understanding the microstructure helps in assessing the material's durability, mechanical

properties, and how it reacts to corrosion. Microstructure is the internal structure of concrete,

encompassing the arrangement and interaction of its components such as the cement paste,

aggregates, and the interfacial transition zone. (A.M Neville 2011).

Corrosion significantly impacts the structural integrity and durability of reinforced concrete

beams. Serviceability of reinforced concrete structures is adversely impacted by corrosion

through visible cracking, spalling, and staining, necessitating repair and maintenance. (Otieno et

al., 2016). When corrosion of reinforcement develops significantly, the corrosive products

expand continuously and generate internal pressure to concrete around the steel bar. The

continuous process of reinforcement corrosion does not only affects in structural serviceability

by cracking, or even spalling the concrete cover, but also give serious impact on the structural

safety by decreasing the load-bearing capacity. Besides, the physical effects of corrosion include

loss of steel area, loss of bond strength between steel reinforcing bars and concrete, and reduce

of concrete strength due to cracking. (Rozlin et al., 2018). Corrosion affects the concrete's

mechanical properties by increasing porosity and microcracking, leading to reduced compressive

strength and elasticity. (Xie et al., 2008). Microstructural properties of reinforced concrete are

crucial for understanding its strength, particularly when the structure is subjected to corrosion.
These properties include the characteristics and interactions of the cement paste, aggregates, and

the steel reinforcement at a microscopic level. The cement paste binds aggregates and provides

the bulk of the concrete's strength. Its microstructure comprises hydrated cement phases like

calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide (CH). The quality of the cement paste

matrix, including its density and degree of hydration, significantly affects the concrete's

compressive strength and resistance to crack propagation. (Mehta et al., 2014). The

microstructural characteristics of reinforced concrete beams play a critical role in determining

their strength properties, especially when affected by corrosion. Factors such as the quality of the

cement paste matrix, the integrity of the interface transmission zone (ITZ), the condition of the

reinforcing steel, and the presence of microcracks and porosity are all integral to the structural

performance.

1.2 Statement of problem

Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete is one of the main issues among construction

stakeholders. The main consequences of steel corrosion include loss of cross section of steel

area, generation of expansive pressure which caused cracking of concrete, spalling and

delaminating of the concrete cover. Thus, it reduces the bond strength between the steel

reinforcing bar and concrete, and deteriorating the strength of the structure. Assessing the

effectiveness of non-destructive testing (NDT) and monitoring techniques in detecting and

assessing corrosion progression within reinforced concrete structures. This aspect draws on

advancements in NDT methods, and their applicability in detecting hidden corrosion and

estimating remaining service life. (A.M Neville 2011). Investigating how corrosion alters the

microstructure of reinforced concrete beams it is known that corrosion can lead to changes in

porosity, pore structure, and the formation of corrosion products such as rust, which can weaken
the concrete matrix. (Mehta et al 2006). Analyzing the strength impact and capacity implications

of corrosion-induced damage to reinforced concrete structures, there is a need for sustainable

solutions that minimize lifecycle costs and environmental footprint, and this can be determined

by knowing the residual load carrying capacity concrete beam. Addressing these research

challenges will contribute to a deeper understanding of how corrosion affects both

microstructural properties and mechanical strength in reinforced concrete beams.

The findings will inform and unveil the initial and final strength of reinforcement development

of more effective maintenance strategies and sustainable infrastructure practices, thereby

enhancing the durability and resilience of reinforced concrete structures against corrosion-

induced deterioration.

1.3 Aim and objectives

1.3.1 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to determine microstructural and strength properties of corroded

reinforced concrete beam.

1.3.2 Objectives of the Study

Objectives are to:

i. Determine pre and post corrosion strength of steel specimen

ii. Evaluate the microstructural properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams using

electro-chemical impedence spectrometer (EIS).

iii. Determine residual load carrying capacity of the beam empherically.

1.4 Significance of study

The study on the determination of microstructural and strength properties of corroded reinforced

concrete beams holds substantial significance for both the academic community and the
construction industry. It addresses critical issues related to the durability, safety, and

maintenance of reinforced concrete structures, this study not only advances the scientific

understanding of corrosion effects on reinforced concrete but also contributes practical solutions

for the construction industry. It emphasizes the need for early detection, effective repair

strategies, and sustainable practices, thereby enhancing the durability and safety of concrete

structures.

1.5 Scope of study

The scope of study involves comprehensive research in determining microstructural and laying

emphasis on the corrosion in reinforced concrete beam, pre and post corrosion strength of steel

with the aid of electro chemical impedance spectrometry (EIS) to determine the residual load

carrying capacity of such beam empherically.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concrete

Concrete is a construction material that is extensively used because of its excellent properties

such as durability, workability, satisfactory strength, and the easy availability of raw materials

(cement, aggregates, and water), which are used to produce it. By definition, concrete is a

composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate. Concrete is the most

important building material worldwide by far (Meyer, 2009) but despite its many advantages is

vulnerable to sulphuric acid attack due to high-calcium compounds in Portland cement. The

components of the cement paste break down during contact with acids, most pronounced being

the dissolution of calcium hydroxide. Acid attack on concrete has not traditionally attracted

much attention, even when cement composites are severely damaged by acids wherein calcium

hydroxide is dissolved and the hydrated silicate and aluminum phases are decomposed, and the

concrete loses its strength and deteriorates quickly (Ariffin et al. 2013). Moreover, worldwide,

more than 10 billion tonnes of concrete is produced each year. It is known that the production of

each tonne of Portland cement releases almost one tonne of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

To move toward sustainable and green concrete the amount of Portland cement should reduce to

the minimum possible by replacing as much Portland cement as possible by supplementary

cementitious materials, especially those that are by-products of industrial processes (Meyer,

2009).

Numerous research works have been carried out to date in order to increase the chemical

resistance of concrete by changing the mix design, aggregate type, use of polymer admixtures,

and mainly replacement of OPC by supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) (Girardi et

al., 2009). Alkali activated and geopolymer concretes have also shown better performance in

aggressive environments (Sataet et al., 2012). It may be considered to consist of three phases: a

cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them Concrete is a

heterogeneous substance. On a macroscopic scale, it is a mixture of cement paste and aggregates,

whereas on a microscopic scale, the cement paste itself consists of unreacted cement grains,

amorphous hydration products (crystals of calcium hydroxide, needles of ettringite, and fibrous

crystals of calcium silicate hydrate), and pores. (Ameer, 2016).

2.2 Microstructure of concrete

The term “microstructure” is used for the microscopically magnified portion of a macrostructure

visible to the human eye. The limit of resolution of the unaided human eye is approximately one-

fifth of a millimetre (200 μm). The type, amount, size, shape, and distribution of phases present

in a solid constitute its “microstructure”. According to Mehta and Monteiro (2005), concrete has

a highly heterogeneous and complex microstructure. Therefore, it is very difficult to constitute

realistic models of its microstructure from which the behaviour of the material can be reliably

predicted. However, knowledge of the microstructure and properties of the individual

components of concrete and their relationship to each other is useful for exercising control on the

properties. The reasons behind the complexity of concrete microstructure are as follows;

Compared to other engineering materials like steel, the microstructure of concrete is not a static

property of the material. This is because the bulk cement paste and the interfacial transition zone

between aggregate and cement paste change with time. On the other hand, the strength of

concrete depends on the volume of the cement hydration products that continue to form for

several years, resulting in a gradual enhancement of strength. Depending on the exposure to

environment, solutions penetrating from the surface into the interior of concrete sometimes
dissolve the cement hydration products causing an increase in porosity which reduces the

strength and durability of concrete. Conversely, when the products of interaction recrystallize in

the voids and microcracks, it may enhance the strength and durability of the material. This

explains why analytical methods of material science that work well in modelling and predicting

the behaviour of microstructurally stable and homogeneous materials do not seem to be

satisfactory in the case of concrete structures. Another important fact regarding the concrete is

that although it is a composite material, many of its characteristics do not follow the laws of

mixtures. For instance, under compressive loading both the aggregate and the hydrated cement

paste, if separately tested, would fail elastically, whereas concrete itself shows inelastic

behaviour before fracture. Also, the strength of concrete is usually much lower than the

individual strength of the two components. Such anomalies in the behaviour of concrete can be

explained on the basis of its microstructure, specially the important role of the interfacial

transition zone between coarse aggregate and cement paste that will be discussed later. At the

macroscopic level, concrete may be considered as a two-phase material, consisting of aggregate

particles dispersed in a matrix of cement paste. However, at the microscopic level, the

complexities of the concrete microstructure are evident because the two phases of the

microstructure are neither homogeneously distributed with respect to each other, nor are they

themselves homogeneous (Mehta & Monteiro, 2005).

Fig. 2.1: Microstructure of concrete (Iveta et al., 2024).

Fig. 2.2 Schematic representation of microstructure of concrete (Guang-ling song, 2000).

2.3 Corrosion in reinforced concrete Beam

Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete beam (RCB) structures remains a primary concern for

infrastructure durability. The process compromises the structural integrity, leading to reduced
service life and increased maintenance costs. Significant advancements between 2010 and 2019

focused on understanding corrosion mechanisms, assessing structural impacts, and developing

prevention strategies. Mechanisms of Corrosion in RC primarily results from Chloride Ion

Penetration Chlorides from deicing salts or seawater infiltrate concrete, initiating corrosion on

steel reinforcements (Zhang et al., 2011). Atmospheric CO2 reacts with concrete, lowering pH

and degrading the protective passivation layer around the steel (Angst et al., 2011). Corrosion

impacts reinforced concrete by Reduction in Cross-Sectional, Corrosion reduces the effective

cross-sectional area of reinforcement, lowering load-carrying capacity (Cairns et al., 2015).

Corrosion-induced expansion produces internal pressures that cause concrete cracking and

spalling (Li et al., 2016) study also shows that the bond between steel and concrete weakens,

affecting the overall structural performance (Coronelli & Gambarova, 2010). Microstructural

Changes Due to Corrosion, microstructural changes such as:

i. Microcracking Formation: Expansion from corrosion generates microcracks in the

concrete matrix (Otieno et al., 2016).

ii. Degradation of Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ): Alters ITZ properties, affecting steel-

concrete interaction (Mehta & Monteiro, 2014).

The effect of corrosion on the residual strength and load capacity of RC structures involves the

dependent on the corrosion level and the structural design (Cairns et al., 2015). Rehabilitation

techniques like cathodic protection, coatings, and concrete overlays are used to mitigate

corrosion and restore structural integrity (Bertolini et al., 2013). Corrosion in reinforced concrete

is a significant concern affecting structural durability and safety. Studies highlights

improvements in understanding corrosion mechanisms, assessing structural impacts, and

developing prevention and rehabilitation strategies.

Fig. 2.3: Damage caused by Corrosion in reinforced concrete (Jacek & marta kaluzia,

2020).

2.4 Pre and post corrosion strength of steel

Pre corrosion strength of steel: Corrosion significantly impacts the structural integrity of steel,

leading to a reduction in strength and durability. Steel's mechanical properties before corrosion

depend on its composition, heat treatment, and microstructure. High-strength steels typically

exhibit superior tensile and yield strengths due to their refined microstructures. Zhang et al.

(2011) emphasized the role of micro-alloying elements and heat treatment in enhancing the pre-

corrosion strength of steel, showing how alloying with elements like vanadium and titanium can

refine grain structures and increase strength. Pre-corrosion strength is often evaluated through
tensile tests and hardness measurements. Zhang et al. (2013) conducted a comprehensive study

on the mechanical properties of various steel grades, finding that high-strength, low-alloy

(HSLA) steels generally show better performance compared to mild steels. Their findings

highlighted the balance between tensile strength and ductility, which is crucial for structural

applications.

Post-Corrosion Strength of Steel: Corrosion affects steel primarily through uniform or

localized pitting, leading to material loss and changes in mechanical properties. Papavinasam et

al. (2014) reviewed the impact of different corrosion mechanisms, noting that pitting corrosion

significantly reduces the cross-sectional area of steel, thus lowering its load-bearing capacity.

Several studies have quantified the reduction in strength due to corrosion. Gonzalez et al. (2015)

evaluated the residual tensile strength of corroded steel, showing that uniform corrosion led to a

linear reduction in tensile strength proportional to the loss in cross-sectional area. In contrast,

localized pitting had a more severe impact, leading to stress concentrations and earlier failure.

Analytical models have been developed to predict the residual strength of corroded steel. Ooka

and Salenikovich (2016) proposed a model considering the pit depth and distribution, which

accurately predicted the residual strength for various corrosion scenarios. Computational models

using finite element analysis (FEA) have further enhanced these predictions, allowing for

detailed simulation of corrosion damage and its effects on mechanical properties. Rescent

research provides a comprehensive understanding of the pre- and post-corrosion strength of steel.

While high-strength steels show superior pre-corrosion mechanical properties, the impact of

corrosion is significant, leading to a notable reduction in strength. Experimental studies and

analytical models have advanced our ability to predict and mitigate the effects of corrosion,

contributing to the development of more resilient and durable steel structures.

Fig. 2.4: Corrosion process (con rehab snorres 2019 cr)

2.5 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy is a powerful technique used to study the

electrochemical properties of materials and interfaces, especially useful in corrosion research.

EIS measures the impedance of an electrochemical system over a range of frequencies by

applying a small sinusoidal voltage perturbation and measuring the resulting current.This

technique is also known as alternating current (AC) impedance spectroscopy, because in this

method, an AC excitation potential with variable frequencies is applied to the specimen (working

electrode) and the induced ACcurrent response is measured. The AC excitation potential should

be very low (usually between 5 and 20 mV) in order to retain in the linear zone and to perform

non-destructive testing. In the linear zone, the AC current (induced) will have the different

amplitude and identical frequency as the applied AC excitation potential, but with a phase

difference. The impedance (that includes real and imaginary parts) is the ratio of AC potential to

AC current, and can be calculated from the following relationships.

E(t) Eocos (wt ) coswt

Z= = =Zo
I (t ) Icos(wt −Ø) cos ⁡(wt−Ø )

Z = Zo[exp(j.Ø)]=Zo(cosØ+j.sinØ)=Z`+jZ``
where, Z = complex impedance, E (t) = potential at time t, I (t) = current at time t, E0 = potential

amplitude, I0 = current amplitude, ω = radial frequency, ɸ = phase difference between potential

and current, Z0 = magnitude of complex impedance, j = √− 1.The real part (Z′) and imaginary

part (Z″) of the impedance (Z) represent resistive and capacitive/inductive terms respectively.

Fig. 2.5: Schematic diagram of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test

setup.(Changzheng li, 2019).

2.6 Review of previous/Recent works

Bautista et al.,(2019) focused on Influence of the microstructure of TMT reinforcing bars on

their corrosion behavior in concrete with chlorides. They concluded that The results obtained in

this study reveal how the microstructure characteristic of TMT affects the development of the

pits in concrete with chlorides or another media simulating it.

Md daniyal et al., (2018), worked on Corrosion assessment and control techniques for reinforced

concrete structures. It was noted from critical review that The corrosion rate can be evaluated

using electrochemical techniques such as potentiodynamic polarization, linear polarization

resistance, galvanostatic pulse, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, Tafel extrapolation.

These techniques can be used in small steel reinforced concrete specimens under laboratory

environments as well as large scale field structures. However each method possesses certain

advantages and limitations. Therefore a combination of evaluating methods is recommended to

use in order to find maximum information about the corrosion condition of steel embedded in

concrete.

Hamidun mohd noh et al., (2018), did their research on “Structural Effects of Reinforced

Concrete Beam Due to Corrosion”. Where the residual strength of RC beam under the corrosion

condition could be predicted using the finite element analysis.

Shamila salek, (2016). Did a research on the topic “mechanical, structural and microstructural

investigations of a novel concrete for special structural applications”. He laid emphasis on

microstructural concluding that In the CC sample, after immersion in acid, almost the entire acid

affected layer has been dissolved in acid due to the reaction and decalcification of hydrated

components of cementitious materials. However, sulphur attack and formation of observed

expansive gypsum is also believed to accelerate the deterioration process by its expansive

reaction mostly around the ITZ that exists around the aggregates, causing microcracks, loosening

and separation of the aggregate from the paste and hence, allowing more sulphuric acid to enter

the intact matrix. Although the main deteriorated layer of the CC sample is not available,
degradation was mainly due to acid attack, formation of gypsum and the dissolution of hydration

products.

Angst et al., (2011). Critical chloride content in reinforced concrete. They said Atmospheric

CO2 reacts with concrete, lowering pH and degrading the protective passivation layer around the

steel.

Ameer A.Hilal(2016). Microstructure of Concrete. The following recommendations which

should be considered in producing high performance concrete. (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio

(ii) fine aggregate (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silicafume, and flyash (iv) high

dosage of superplasticizer, and (v) high-pressure steam curing.

 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the experimental procedures, materials, and equipment used to achieve the

objectives of determining the pre- and post-corrosion strength of steel specimens, evaluating the

microstructural properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams using Electrochemical

Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and determining the residual load-carrying capacity of the

corroded beams.

3.2 Materials

3.2.1 Concrete

Cement: Dangote Cement.

Aggregates: Fine and coarse aggregates.

Water: Potable water free from impurities affecting hydration.

Admixtures: Plasticizers as required to achieve desired workability.

Fig3.1:50kg Dangote cement.

 Fig. 3.2: Fine aggregates

Fig. 3.3: Coarse Aggregates.

3.2.2 Reinforcement

Steel Reinforcement: High-yield strength deformed bars for reinforcing concrete (10mm).

Steel Specimens: Plain steel bars used for individual corrosion tests.

3.3 Experimental Procedure

3.3.1 Specimen Preparation

Concrete Mix Design: Concrete mix designed for a specific strength class, with the mix

proportions calculated based on the desired compressive strength.

Casting and Curing: Concrete beams and steel specimens cast in molds and cured for 28 days in

a water tank to achieve full strength.

Reinforcement Placement: Steel reinforcement placed within concrete molds according to

standard design specifications.

3.3.2 Corrosion Induction

Accelerated Corrosion Technique: A 3% NaCl solution is used to induce corrosion in steel

reinforcement embedded in concrete beams. An electrical current is applied to accelerate the

corrosion process.

Corrosion Monitoring: Weight loss and visual inspection methods used to quantify corrosion

levels periodically.

3.3.3 Pre-Corrosion Testing

Strength Testing of Steel: Tensile strength of uncorroded steel specimens determined using a

universal testing machine (UTM)

Initial Load Testing of Beams: Concrete beams subjected to initial load tests to determine their

initial load-carrying capacity using a hydraulic loading frame.

3.3.4 Post-Corrosion Testing

Strength Testing of Corroded Steel: Tensile tests performed on corroded steel specimens to

assess the reduction in strength.

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS): EIS used to evaluate the microstructural

properties of the corroded reinforced concrete beams. Impedance measurements taken to analyze

the corrosion rate and the condition of the reinforcement.

Residual Load Testing: Corroded beams subjected to load tests to determine their residual load-

carrying capacity. Load-deflection data collected to assess the impact of corrosion on structural

integrity.

3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

Strength Data: Pre- and post-corrosion tensile strength of steel specimens recorded and

compared.

EIS Data: Impedance spectra analyzed to determine corrosion kinetics and microstructural

changes in the concrete.

Load Capacity Data: Initial and residual load-carrying capacities of beams compared to assess

the impact of corrosion.

3.5 Equipment and Instruments

Universal Testing Machine (UTM): For tensile strength testing of steel specimens.

Hydraulic Loading Frame: For load testing of concrete beams.

Electrochemical Workstation: For conducting EIS measurements.

Corrosion Induction Apparatus: For applying electrical current and NaCl solution to induce

corrosion.
Fig. 3.4: Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

Fig. 3.5: Electrochemical Workstation

3.6 Summary

This chapter has outlined the materials, specimen preparation methods, experimental procedures,

and equipment used to achieve the objectives of evaluating the pre- and post-corrosion strength

of steel, analyzing the microstructural properties using EIS, and determining the residual load-

carrying capacity of corroded reinforced concrete beams.

 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Calculation of the concrete Mix

Form dimension: Length = 40mm, Width = 40mm, Depth = 50mm

Mix ratio = 1:3:6
Total ratio = 1+3+6 = 10
Casting for 48 concrete beams
Volume = 50 × 40 × 40 = 0.00008m3 48Beams: 48 × 0.00008m3 = 0.00384m3
10 0.00384
10% wastage × = 0.000384 m3
100 1
Total Volume = 0.00384 + 0.000384 = 0.004224m3
4.1.1 Calculation for cement required
1 0.004224
Volume of cement: × = 0.0004224m3
10 1
Density of cement: 1440kg/m3
Density = mass/volume
Mass = Density × Volume
M = 1440 × 0.0004224
M = 0.608256kg
4.1.2 Calculation for fine aggregate required
3 0.004224
Volume of sand = × = 0.0012672
10 1
Density of sand = 1680kg/m3
Mass = Density x Volume
M = 1680 × 0.0012672
M = 2.13kg
4.1.3 Calculation for coarse aggregate required
6 0.004224
Volume of course aggregate = × = 0.0025344m3
10 1
Density of course aggregate = 1720kg/m3
Mass = Density x Volume
M = 1720 × 0.0025344
M = 4.36kg
4.2 Result for Gravimetric Method (Weight Loss)
The result of the weight loss is shown in Table 4.1 The steel decrease in weight and varies between 0.1 to 0.6.
Table 4.1 Gravimetric for 0 % (Weight Loss)

INITIAL
FINAL
SAMPL WEIGHT CONSTAN DENSIT
WEIGHT
S/ S LOSS ACTUA TK AREA TIME Y CORROSIO
LOSS (kg)
N (kg) L (M2) (H) (kg/m3 N RATE
1 WL1 26.00 25.40 0.60 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00199
WL2 25.60 25.40 0.30 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00099
2 WL3 23.60 23.40 0.20 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00066
WL4 27.00 26.90 0.10 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00033
3 WL5 25.20 25.00 0.20 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00066
WL6 23.40 23.20 0.20 8.76 0.002 168 7850 0.00066
4 WL7 24.80 24.60 0.20 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00033
WL8 24.40 24.30 0.10 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00017
5 WL9 23.80 23.60 0.20 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00033
WL10 24.90 24.60 0.30 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00049
6 WL11 24.20 24.10 0.10 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00017
WL12 23.60 24.40 0.20 8.76 0.002 336 7850 0.00033
7 WL13 25.00 24.60 0.40 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.00033
WL14 21.00 20.90 0.10 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.000083
8 WL15 25.70 25.40 0.30 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.00025
WL16 23.00 22.90 0.10 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.000083
9 WL17 23.00 22.80 0.20 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.00017
WL18 24.00 23.90 0.10 8.76 0.002 672 7850 0.000083
4.3 Electro-chemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
The result for Electro-chemical Impedance Spectroscopy is shown in Table
Table 4.2 Result for EIS 0% and 2%

0 0.2M
.0 M
Value Error Unit Value Error Unit
Rp 76.98 2.251 ohm Rp 440.8 5.246 ohm
7Days Ru 195.4 7.41E-01 ohm Ru 195 7.50E-01 ohm
C5 8.61E-04 4.79E-05 F C5 2.17E-04 3.46E-06 F
Goodness Goodness
of fit 2.16E-03 of fit 5.82E-03
Rp 136.2 2.403 ohm Rp 506 5.489 ohm
Ru 197.2 7.79E-01 ohm Ru 192.2 7.48E-01 ohm
14Days C5 2.47E-04 8.69E-06 F C5 1.74E-04 2.56E-06 F
Goodness Goodness
of fit 4.66E-03 of fit 3.75E-03
Rp 226.9 3.103 ohm Rp 332 332 ohm
Ru 203.9 8.06E-01 ohm Ru 198.5 198.5 ohm
28Days C5 1.74E-04 4.34E-06 F C5 2.35E-04 2.35E-04 F
Goodness Goodness
of fit 7.42E-03 of fit 4.58E-03 4.58E-03

Figure 4.1 Graph for EIS 0% and 2%

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, the determination of microstructural and strength properties of corroded

reinforced concrete beams highlights the significant impact of corrosion on both structural

integrity and material performance. The analysis reveals that corrosion leads to microstructural

changes, such as the formation of cracks, reduced bond strength between the concrete and steel,

and alterations in the concrete matrix. These changes contribute to a marked decline in the

mechanical properties of the beams, including compressive strength, tensile strength, and overall

load-bearing capacity.

The findings emphasize the importance of early detection and assessment of corrosion in

reinforced concrete structures. Preventative measures, such as proper material selection,

protective coatings, and regular maintenance, are essential to prolonging the lifespan of these

structures. Furthermore, the study underscores the need for continuous research into innovative

repair techniques and materials that can restore the mechanical properties and microstructural

integrity of corroded beams. Addressing these issues is crucial for ensuring the safety and

durability of reinforced concrete infrastructure in the face of environmental challenges.

5.2 Recommendations

Considering these findings, following are the recommendations suggested

 Comprehensive Visual Inspection: Start with a detailed visual assessment to identify visible

signs of corrosion, such as cracking, spalling, or rust stains.

 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Employ NDT techniques, such as ultrasonic testing,

rebound hammer tests, or ground-penetrating radar, to evaluate the condition of the concrete and

locate reinforcing bars without damaging the structure.

 Microstructural Analysis: Utilize scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or X-ray diffraction

(XRD) to investigate the microstructural changes in the concrete matrix and the effects of

corrosion on the bond between concrete and steel.

 Chemical Analysis: Perform chemical tests to measure chloride ion concentration and pH

levels in the concrete, which are critical for understanding the corrosion environment.

 Strength Testing: Conduct standard mechanical tests, such as compressive strength tests and

tensile tests, to quantify the mechanical properties of both the concrete and the corroded

reinforcement.

 Load Testing: Implement load tests on corroded beams to assess their actual load-bearing

capacity and structural performance under realistic conditions.

 Corrosion Assessment Techniques: Use techniques like half-cell potential measurements

and linear polarization resistance to evaluate the extent of corrosion in the reinforcement.

 Finite Element Modeling: Develop numerical models to simulate the behavior of corroded

beams under various loading conditions, which can help predict future performance.
 Regular Monitoring: Establish a routine monitoring program to assess the condition of

reinforced concrete structures over time, allowing for timely interventions.

 Repair and Rehabilitation Studies: Investigate and evaluate different repair techniques and

materials, such as epoxy injections, cathodic protection, or the use of corrosion inhibitors, to

restore the integrity of corroded beams.

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 APPENDIX A

Table 4.3 RESULT FOR EIS 0%

Distilled Water 7DAYS Distilled Water 14DAYS Distilled Water 28DAYS

Zre Zimg Zre Zimg Zre Zimg
1.87E+02 8.21E+00 1.88E+02 7.01E+00 1.91E+02 9.30E+00
1.88E+02 7.14E+00 1.89E+02 5.72E+00 1.92E+02 7.78E+00
1.89E+02 5.50E+00 1.89E+02 5.01E+00 1.92E+02 6.74E+00
1.89E+02 4.88E+00 1.89E+02 4.32E+00 1.93E+02 5.57E+00
1.90E+02 4.13E+00 1.90E+02 3.59E+00 1.93E+02 4.84E+00
1.90E+02 3.28E+00 1.90E+02 2.87E+00 1.94E+02 4.03E+00
1.90E+02 2.51E+00 1.90E+02 2.70E+00 1.94E+02 3.84E+00
1.91E+02 2.32E+00 1.90E+02 2.47E+00 1.94E+02 3.48E+00
1.90E+02 1.90E+00 1.90E+02 2.27E+00 1.95E+02 3.32E+00
1.90E+02 1.76E+00 1.90E+02 2.30E+00 1.95E+02 2.99E+00
1.90E+02 1.68E+00 1.91E+02 1.86E+00 1.95E+02 2.82E+00
1.91E+02 1.37E+00 1.91E+02 1.83E+00 1.95E+02 2.98E+00
1.91E+02 1.48E+00 1.91E+02 1.90E+00 1.95E+02 3.05E+00
1.90E+02 1.30E+00 1.91E+02 1.94E+00 1.96E+02 3.29E+00
1.91E+02 1.45E+00 1.91E+02 2.09E+00 1.96E+02 3.15E+00
1.91E+02 1.55E+00 1.91E+02 2.30E+00 1.96E+02 3.60E+00
1.91E+02 1.45E+00 1.91E+02 2.80E+00 1.97E+02 4.51E+00
1.91E+02 1.56E+00 1.92E+02 2.90E+00 1.97E+02 4.71E+00
1.91E+02 2.14E+00 1.92E+02 3.57E+00 1.98E+02 5.26E+00
1.92E+02 2.75E+00 1.92E+02 4.13E+00 1.98E+02 6.06E+00
1.92E+02 3.04E+00 1.93E+02 4.52E+00 1.98E+02 7.30E+00
1.92E+02 3.00E+00 1.93E+02 5.45E+00 2.00E+02 8.23E+00
1.93E+02 4.00E+00 1.94E+02 6.49E+00 2.00E+02 9.63E+00
1.93E+02 3.92E+00 1.95E+02 6.90E+00 2.02E+02 1.02E+01
1.94E+02 4.34E+00 1.96E+02 7.84E+00 2.03E+02 1.15E+01
1.94E+02 4.78E+00 1.97E+02 8.87E+00 2.04E+02 1.29E+01
1.95E+02 5.03E+00 1.98E+02 1.00E+01 2.06E+02 1.45E+01
1.96E+02 5.55E+00 2.00E+02 1.12E+01 2.08E+02 1.64E+01
1.97E+02 6.31E+00 2.01E+02 1.28E+01 2.10E+02 1.80E+01
1.97E+02 6.70E+00 2.03E+02 1.38E+01 2.12E+02 2.06E+01
1.99E+02 7.05E+00 2.05E+02 1.56E+01 2.15E+02 2.28E+01
2.00E+02 7.71E+00 2.07E+02 1.76E+01 2.18E+02 2.57E+01
2.01E+02 8.21E+00 2.09E+02 1.95E+01 2.21E+02 2.85E+01
2.00E+02 8.01E+00 2.11E+02 2.37E+01 2.23E+02 3.13E+01
2.03E+02 1.00E+01 2.15E+02 2.42E+01 2.29E+02 3.55E+01
2.04E+02 1.09E+01 2.18E+02 2.61E+01 2.34E+02 4.02E+01
2.06E+02 1.19E+01 2.22E+02 2.87E+01 2.39E+02 4.39E+01
2.07E+02 1.28E+01 2.26E+02 3.28E+01 2.46E+02 4.89E+01
2.09E+02 1.35E+01 2.32E+02 3.38E+01 2.55E+02 5.41E+01
2.12E+02 1.53E+01 2.39E+02 3.64E+01 2.61E+02 6.08E+01
2.15E+02 1.73E+01 2.43E+02 3.84E+01 2.70E+02 6.62E+01
2.16E+02 1.98E+01 2.50E+02 4.22E+01 2.79E+02 7.01E+01
2.20E+02 2.03E+01 2.56E+02 4.27E+01 2.90E+02 7.65E+01
2.23E+02 2.11E+01 2.64E+02 4.60E+01 3.02E+02 8.20E+01
2.27E+02 2.31E+01 2.72E+02 4.71E+01 3.15E+02 8.55E+01
2.30E+02 2.48E+01 2.79E+02 4.92E+01 3.30E+02 9.17E+01
2.33E+02 2.57E+01 2.88E+02 5.06E+01 3.46E+02 9.33E+01
2.40E+02 2.67E+01 2.96E+02 5.08E+01 3.60E+02 9.55E+01
2.43E+02 2.74E+01 3.03E+02 5.13E+01 3.75E+02 9.87E+01
2.48E+02 2.85E+01 3.12E+02 5.03E+01 3.93E+02 9.84E+01
2.53E+02 2.94E+01 3.20E+02 5.10E+01 4.06E+02 9.80E+01
2.59E+02 3.21E+01 3.28E+02 5.17E+01 4.20E+02 9.49E+01
2.64E+02 3.19E+01 3.35E+02 4.95E+01 4.32E+02 9.01E+01
2.67E+02 3.19E+01 3.42E+02 4.76E+01 4.40E+02 8.94E+01
2.72E+02 2.98E+01 3.49E+02 4.56E+01 4.50E+02 8.09E+01
2.80E+02 3.28E+01 3.56E+02 4.61E+01 4.51E+02 7.41E+01
 2.83E+02 3.26E+01 3.60E+02 4.62E+01 4.48E+02 6.33E+01
2.86E+02 3.26E+01 3.61E+02 4.26E+01 4.44E+02 5.19E+01

Figure 4.2 Graph for EIS 0% Zre/Zimg

Table 4.4 RESULT FOR EIS 2%

0.2M H2SO4 7days 0.2M H2SO4 14days 0.2M H2SO4 28days

Zre Zimg Zre Zimg Zre Zimg
1.87E+02 7.21E+00 1.88E+02 7.85E+00 1.90E+02 9.12E+00
1.88E+02 6.36E+00 1.89E+02 6.67E+00 1.91E+02 7.43E+00
1.89E+02 5.04E+00 1.89E+02 5.10E+00 1.91E+02 6.27E+00
1.89E+02 4.07E+00 1.89E+02 4.08E+00 1.92E+02 5.51E+00
1.89E+02 3.33E+00 1.90E+02 3.27E+00 1.92E+02 4.56E+00
1.89E+02 3.00E+00 1.90E+02 2.66E+00 1.93E+02 3.68E+00
1.90E+02 2.40E+00 1.91E+02 2.64E+00 1.93E+02 3.24E+00
1.90E+02 1.85E+00 1.90E+02 1.85E+00 1.93E+02 2.64E+00
1.90E+02 1.40E+00 1.90E+02 1.34E+00 1.93E+02 2.34E+00
1.90E+02 9.62E-01 1.90E+02 9.88E-01 1.93E+02 1.95E+00
1.90E+02 8.99E-01 1.90E+02 1.03E+00 1.93E+02 1.90E+00
1.90E+02 7.10E-01 1.90E+02 6.08E-01 1.94E+02 2.01E+00
1.90E+02 6.93E-01 1.90E+02 5.54E-01 1.94E+02 1.49E+00
1.90E+02 8.59E-01 1.91E+02 4.02E-01 1.94E+02 1.67E+00
1.90E+02 7.97E-01 1.90E+02 7.51E-01 1.94E+02 1.24E+00
1.89E+02 7.94E-01 1.90E+02 5.86E-01 1.94E+02 1.86E+00
1.89E+02 7.74E-01 1.90E+02 7.36E-01 1.94E+02 1.73E+00
1.89E+02 1.29E+00 1.90E+02 6.98E-01 1.94E+02 1.94E+00
1.89E+02 1.67E+00 1.90E+02 1.23E+00 1.94E+02 2.29E+00
1.89E+02 2.20E+00 1.90E+02 1.62E+00 1.94E+02 3.08E+00
1.89E+02 2.81E+00 1.90E+02 1.95E+00 1.94E+02 2.80E+00
1.90E+02 3.36E+00 1.89E+02 2.99E+00 1.95E+02 3.31E+00
1.90E+02 4.05E+00 1.89E+02 3.40E+00 1.96E+02 4.36E+00
1.90E+02 4.72E+00 1.90E+02 3.78E+00 1.96E+02 4.77E+00
1.91E+02 5.80E+00 1.90E+02 4.65E+00 1.96E+02 5.49E+00
1.91E+02 6.95E+00 1.91E+02 5.65E+00 1.97E+02 6.46E+00
1.92E+02 8.00E+00 1.91E+02 6.81E+00 1.98E+02 7.44E+00
1.92E+02 1.00E+01 1.91E+02 8.36E+00 1.98E+02 8.65E+00
1.93E+02 1.20E+01 1.92E+02 1.03E+01 1.99E+02 1.02E+01
1.95E+02 1.41E+01 1.92E+02 1.25E+01 2.00E+02 1.20E+01
1.95E+02 1.63E+01 1.93E+02 1.53E+01 2.01E+02 1.40E+01
1.97E+02 1.97E+01 1.94E+02 1.83E+01 2.02E+02 1.65E+01
1.99E+02 2.36E+01 1.95E+02 2.22E+01 2.03E+02 1.92E+01
1.99E+02 3.16E+01 1.96E+02 2.76E+01 2.03E+02 2.16E+01
2.04E+02 3.27E+01 1.98E+02 3.39E+01 2.07E+02 2.69E+01
2.07E+02 3.81E+01 2.01E+02 4.00E+01 2.10E+02 3.27E+01
2.12E+02 4.56E+01 2.03E+02 4.83E+01 2.12E+02 3.79E+01
2.17E+02 5.18E+01 2.08E+02 5.76E+01 2.17E+02 4.44E+01
2.23E+02 6.23E+01 2.13E+02 6.98E+01 2.23E+02 5.15E+01
2.30E+02 7.20E+01 2.19E+02 8.41E+01 2.30E+02 6.35E+01
2.39E+02 8.34E+01 2.27E+02 1.02E+02 2.37E+02 7.31E+01
2.50E+02 9.37E+01 2.38E+02 1.21E+02 2.46E+02 8.18E+01
2.63E+02 1.09E+02 2.52E+02 1.40E+02 2.58E+02 9.47E+01
2.78E+02 1.23E+02 2.69E+02 1.64E+02 2.75E+02 1.07E+02
2.97E+02 1.39E+02 2.91E+02 1.91E+02 2.93E+02 1.17E+02
3.18E+02 1.54E+02 3.23E+02 2.15E+02 3.14E+02 1.26E+02
3.44E+02 1.70E+02 3.58E+02 2.42E+02 3.35E+02 1.36E+02
 3.72E+02 1.86E+02 4.00E+02 2.66E+02 3.60E+02 1.43E+02
4.04E+02 1.97E+02 4.48E+02 2.83E+02 3.86E+02 1.47E+02
4.40E+02 2.08E+02 5.00E+02 2.89E+02 4.11E+02 1.50E+02
4.81E+02 2.15E+02 5.57E+02 2.91E+02 4.38E+02 1.45E+02
5.15E+02 2.13E+02 6.08E+02 2.68E+02 4.65E+02 1.47E+02
5.51E+02 2.09E+02 6.51E+02 2.44E+02 4.84E+02 1.41E+02
5.89E+02 1.98E+02 6.75E+02 2.02E+02 5.02E+02 1.35E+02
6.13E+02 1.81E+02 6.77E+02 1.57E+02 5.18E+02 1.32E+02
6.34E+02 1.59E+02 6.51E+02 1.08E+02 5.32E+02 1.22E+02
6.46E+02 1.33E+02 6.18E+02 7.42E+01 5.41E+02 1.14E+02
6.42E+02 1.02E+02 5.78E+02 4.89E+01 5.55E+02 1.08E+02

Figure 4.3 Graph for EIS 2% Zre/Zimg

Table 4.4 Result for EIS 0% Log(Frequency and log/Z/)

Distilled Water 7DAYS Distilled Water 14DAYS Distilled Water 28DAYS

Log (Frequency) log /Z/ Log (Frequency) log /Z/ Log (Frequency) log /Z/

5.000434 2.272538 5.000434 2.273464 5.000434 2.281715

4.900094 2.27462 4.900094 2.275311 4.900094 2.283753

4.800305 2.276002 4.800305 2.276002 4.800305 2.284205

4.700704 2.277151 4.700704 2.276692 4.700704 2.285557

4.600864 2.278067 4.600864 2.277838 4.600864 2.286681

4.500236 2.278296 4.500236 2.278982 4.500236 2.288026

4.400883 2.279211 4.400883 2.278296 4.400883 2.288249

4.301464 2.279895 4.301464 2.279895 4.301464 2.287578

4.201124 2.279667 4.201124 2.279211 4.201124 2.28892

4.100715 2.278982 4.100715 2.279667 4.100715 2.290257

4.003461 2.279667 4.003461 2.280351 4.003461 2.289143

3.903958 2.280123 3.903958 2.280123 3.903958 2.290035

3.801266 2.280123 3.801266 2.281033 3.801266 2.290702

3.700358 2.279667 3.700358 2.281033 3.700358 2.291591

3.600319 2.280806 3.600319 2.281715 3.600319 2.292256

3.501196 2.280351 3.501196 2.281715 3.501196 2.292034

3.402777 2.280578 3.402777 2.282169 3.402777 2.293584

3.295787 2.280351 3.295787 2.282396 3.295787 2.294246

3.198107 2.281033 3.198107 2.283979 3.198107 2.295787

3.102434 2.282396 3.102434 2.284431 3.102434 2.297104

2.999261 2.282396 2.999261 2.285107 2.999261 2.297979

2.901404 2.283301 2.901404 2.286681 2.901404 2.300378

2.797821 2.285107 2.797821 2.288249 2.797821 2.302331

2.703721 2.286007 2.703721 2.290702 2.703721 2.305136

2.599883 2.287354 2.599883 2.29292 2.599883 2.308137

2.498999 2.28892 2.498999 2.295127 2.498999 2.31133

2.402089 2.29048 2.402089 2.297323 2.402089 2.31492

2.297979 2.292478 2.297979 2.300595 2.297979 2.319106

2.199755 2.293584 2.199755 2.304491 2.199755 2.323665

2.09899 2.295567 2.09899 2.307282 2.09899 2.328583

2.001734 2.297979 2.001734 2.311966 2.001734 2.334253

1.897627 2.300161 1.897627 2.317018 1.897627 2.340841

1.801678 2.302547 1.801678 2.321598 1.801678 2.347135

1.697839 2.30103 1.697839 2.327767 1.697839 2.352375

1.599009 2.308564 1.599009 2.335057 1.599009 2.364551

1.500648 2.310906 1.500648 2.342028 1.500648 2.375298

1.396722 2.314078 1.396722 2.350636 1.396722 2.385785

1.297979 2.31597 1.297979 2.357935 1.297979 2.399154

1.199755 2.319938 1.199755 2.369216 1.199755 2.415474

1.093422 2.326745 1.093422 2.382917 1.093422 2.427811

0.996993 2.333246 0.996993 2.390935 0.996993 2.443419

0.900094 2.335658 0.900094 2.403807 0.900094 2.45894

0.800511 2.343409 0.800511 2.413635 0.800511 2.477555

0.699664 2.349278 0.699664 2.427324 0.699664 2.496099

0.596157 2.357744 0.596157 2.440279 0.596157 2.513484

0.49955 2.364363 0.49955 2.452553 0.49955 2.534787

0.398634 2.370698 0.398634 2.465829 0.398634 2.553762

0.300595 2.382017 0.300595 2.478133 0.300595 2.570543

0.200029 2.388279 0.200029 2.487845 0.200029 2.58816

0.102777 2.398114 0.102777 2.500236 0.102777 2.607026

-0.00043 2.40637 -0.00043 2.510143 -0.00043 2.620448

-0.10111 2.415808 -0.10111 2.5214 -0.10111 2.633973

-0.19832 2.424718 -0.19832 2.52943 -0.19832 2.644242

-0.29757 2.429106 -0.29757 2.537693 -0.29757 2.652633

-0.39729 2.436799 -0.39729 2.546419 -0.39729 2.659726

-0.49935 2.450249 -0.49935 2.555336 -0.49935 2.660106

-0.5986 2.45454 -0.5986 2.560146 -0.5986 2.655523

-0.69832 2.459091 -0.69832 2.560624 -0.69832 2.650113

 Table

Table 4.5 Result for EIS 2% Log(Frequency and log/Z/)

0.2M H2SO4 7days 0.2M H2SO4 14days 0.2M H2SO4 28days

Log Log
(Frequency) log /Z/ Log (Frequency) log /Z/ (Frequency) log /Z/
5.000434 2.27277 5.000434 2.27485 5.000434 2.278525
4.900094 2.274389 4.900094 2.276692 4.900094 2.280578
4.800305 2.275542 4.800305 2.276692 4.800305 2.281942
4.700704 2.276462 4.700704 2.27738 4.700704 2.283527
4.600864 2.27738 4.600864 2.278982 4.600864 2.283753
4.500236 2.276462 4.500236 2.278754 4.500236 2.284656
4.400883 2.277609 4.400883 2.280578 4.400883 2.284882
4.301464 2.277609 4.301464 2.278982 4.301464 2.285332
4.201124 2.278067 4.201124 2.279667 4.201124 2.286007
4.100715 2.278067 4.100715 2.279439 4.100715 2.285782
4.003461 2.277609 4.003461 2.279667 4.003461 2.286007
3.903958 2.277838 3.903958 2.279211 3.903958 2.286681
3.801266 2.278296 3.801266 2.279667 3.801266 2.28713
3.700358 2.277838 3.700358 2.280351 3.700358 2.287354
3.600319 2.278067 3.600319 2.278067 3.600319 2.286905
3.501196 2.27738 3.501196 2.278525 3.501196 2.287354
3.402777 2.276921 3.402777 2.278296 3.402777 2.287802
3.295787 2.277151 3.295787 2.278296 3.295787 2.28713
3.198107 2.276921 3.198107 2.277609 3.198107 2.288026
3.102434 2.277151 3.102434 2.278067 3.102434 2.288249
2.999261 2.277151 2.999261 2.278982 2.999261 2.287802
2.901404 2.278525 2.901404 2.276921 2.901404 2.289812
2.797821 2.278982 2.797821 2.277609 2.797821 2.291591
2.703721 2.279439 2.703721 2.279439 2.703721 2.292034
2.599883 2.280578 2.599883 2.279667 2.599883 2.293141
2.498999 2.281942 2.498999 2.280351 2.498999 2.294246
2.402089 2.283075 2.402089 2.281261 2.402089 2.296226
2.297979 2.284882 2.297979 2.282169 2.297979 2.297323
2.199755 2.28713 2.199755 2.282849 2.199755 2.298635
2.09899 2.290257 2.09899 2.285107 2.09899 2.300595
2.001734 2.292256 2.001734 2.28713 2.001734 2.303196
1.897627 2.296884 1.897627 2.289366 1.897627 2.306639
1.801678 2.301464 1.801678 2.292478 1.801678 2.309843
1.697839 2.303196 1.697839 2.296226 1.697839 2.310268
1.599009 2.31492 1.599009 2.302764 1.599009 2.320354
1.500648 2.323252 1.500648 2.311118 1.500648 2.326541
1.396722 2.335458 1.396722 2.319938 1.396722 2.334051
1.297979 2.34811 1.297979 2.333246 1.297979 2.344392
1.199755 2.364363 1.199755 2.351216 1.199755 2.358696
1.093422 2.382557 1.093422 2.370698 1.093422 2.376759
0.996993 2.403292 0.996993 2.396374 0.996993 2.394977
0.900094 2.426023 0.900094 2.426999 0.900094 2.41397
0.800511 2.454235 0.800511 2.459543 0.800511 2.439175
0.699664 2.482302 0.699664 2.498311 0.699664 2.469969
0.596157 2.515874 0.596157 2.541704 0.596157 2.49955
0.49955 2.548144 0.49955 2.588496 0.49955 2.529302
0.398634 2.584444 0.398634 2.635584 0.398634 2.557748
0.300595 2.619406 0.300595 2.681241 0.300595 2.588047
0.200029 2.65273 0.200029 2.724358 0.200029 2.61616
0.102777 2.686815 0.102777 2.761552 0.102777 2.640879
-0.00043 2.721316 -0.00043 2.798374 -0.00043 2.663795
-0.10111 2.746089 -0.10111 2.822626 -0.10111 2.68842
-0.19832 2.770189 -0.19832 2.84186 -0.19832 2.702517
-0.29757 2.793511 -0.29757 2.847881 -0.29757 2.715669
-0.39729 2.805841 -0.39729 2.841922 -0.39729 2.728191
-0.49935 2.815246 -0.49935 2.81961 -0.49935 2.737431
-0.5986 2.819478 -0.5986 2.79407 -0.5986 2.742647
-0.69832 2.813114 -0.69832 2.763802
Table 4.6 Result for EIS 0% Log(Frequency and phase)

Distilled Water 7DAYS Distilled Water 14DAYS Distilled Water 28DAYS

Log Phase angle Log Phase angle Log Phase angle
(Frequency) (Frequency) (Frequency)
5.000434 -2.513 5.000434 -2.14 5.000434 -2.786
4.900094 -2.175 4.900094 -1.738 4.900094 -2.321
4.800305 -1.671 4.800305 -1.519 4.800305 -2.007
4.700704 -1.477 4.700704 -1.309 4.700704 -1.653
4.600864 -1.246 4.600864 -1.083 4.600864 -1.434
4.500236 -0.9908 4.500236 -0.8639 4.500236 -1.191
4.400883 -0.7555 4.400883 -0.8134 4.400883 -1.134
4.301464 -0.6976 4.301464 -0.7419 4.301464 -1.028
4.201124 -0.573 4.201124 -0.6846 4.201124 -0.9784
4.100715 -0.5306 4.100715 -0.6905 4.100715 -0.8776
4.003461 -0.5064 4.003461 -0.5587 4.003461 -0.8296
3.903958 -0.4111 3.903958 -0.5498 3.903958 -0.8763
3.801266 -0.4439 3.801266 -0.5709 3.801266 -0.8953
3.700358 -0.3922 3.700358 -0.582 3.700358 -0.9636
3.600319 -0.4359 3.600319 -0.6265 3.600319 -0.9202
3.501196 -0.4645 3.501196 -0.6896 3.501196 -1.051
3.402777 -0.434 3.402777 -0.8364 3.402777 -1.313
3.295787 -0.4696 3.295787 -0.8668 3.295787 -1.371
3.198107 -0.6411 3.198107 -1.065 3.198107 -1.526
3.102434 -0.8219 3.102434 -1.229 3.102434 -1.751
2.999261 -0.9104 2.999261 -1.343 2.999261 -2.108
2.901404 -0.8935 2.901404 -1.613 2.901404 -2.363
2.797821 -1.189 2.797821 -1.916 2.797821 -2.752
2.703721 -1.163 2.703721 -2.026 2.703721 -2.885
2.599883 -1.283 2.599883 -2.288 2.599883 -3.236
2.498999 -1.407 2.498999 -2.577 2.498999 -3.61
2.402089 -1.478 2.402089 -2.899 2.402089 -4.013
2.297979 -1.622 2.297979 -3.203 2.297979 -4.497
2.199755 -1.841 2.199755 -3.64 2.199755 -4.911
2.09899 -1.945 2.09899 -3.905 2.09899 -5.537
2.001734 -2.033 2.001734 -4.364 2.001734 -6.052
1.897627 -2.212 1.897627 -4.861 1.897627 -6.735
1.801678 -2.346 1.801678 -5.335 1.801678 -7.349
1.697839 -2.294 1.697839 -6.4 1.697839 -7.995
1.599009 -2.826 1.599009 -6.425 1.599009 -8.824
1.500648 -3.062 1.500648 -6.806 1.500648 -9.742
1.396722 -3.302 1.396722 -7.354 1.396722 -10.41
1.297979 -3.544 1.297979 -8.282 1.297979 -11.25
1.199755 -3.707 1.199755 -8.312 1.199755 -12
1.093422 -4.138 1.093422 -8.667 1.093422 -13.12
0.996993 -4.617 0.996993 -8.974 0.996993 -13.8
0.900094 -5.243 0.900094 -9.582 0.900094 -14.1
0.800511 -5.273 0.800511 -9.486 0.800511 -14.77
0.699664 -5.404 0.699664 -9.896 0.699664 -15.17
0.596157 -5.82 0.596157 -9.844 0.596157 -15.19
0.49955 -6.161 0.49955 -9.987 0.49955 -15.53
0.398634 -6.276 0.398634 -9.96 0.398634 -15.11
0.300595 -6.366 0.300595 -9.722 0.300595 -14.87
0.200029 -6.444 0.200029 -9.603 0.200029 -14.76
0.102777 -6.546 0.102777 -9.142 0.102777 -14.07
-0.00043 -6.615 -0.00043 -9.073 -0.00043 -13.58
-0.10111 -7.086 -0.10111 -8.947 -0.10111 -12.73
-0.19832 -6.882 -0.19832 -8.411 -0.19832 -11.8
-0.29757 -6.824 -0.29757 -7.935 -0.29757 -11.47
-0.39729 -6.253 -0.39729 -7.437 -0.39729 -10.2
-0.49935 -6.686 -0.49935 -7.365 -0.49935 -9.329
-0.5986 -6.571 -0.5986 -7.309 -0.5986 -8.041
-0.69832 -6.493 -0.69832 -6.723 -0.69832 -6.667
Table 4.7 Result for EIS 0.2% Log(Frequency and phase)

0.2M H2SO4 7days 0.2M H2SO4 14days 0.2M H2SO4 28days

Log Log
(Frequency) Phase angle Log (Frequency) Phase angle (Frequency) Phase angle
5.000434 -2.206 5.000434 -2.39 5.000434 -2.755
4.900094 -1.938 4.900094 -2.023 4.900094 -2.23
4.800305 -1.532 4.800305 -1.546 4.800305 -1.877
4.700704 -1.232 4.700704 -1.233 4.700704 -1.642
4.600864 -1.006 4.600864 -0.9864 4.600864 -1.359
4.500236 -0.9086 4.500236 -0.8021 4.500236 -1.096
4.400883 -0.7259 4.400883 -0.7925 4.400883 -0.9626
4.301464 -0.5591 4.301464 -0.5563 4.301464 -0.7839
4.201124 -0.4212 4.201124 -0.4029 4.201124 -0.6924
4.100715 -0.2906 4.100715 -0.2973 4.100715 -0.5775
4.003461 -0.2719 4.003461 -0.3105 4.003461 -0.5622
3.903958 -0.2146 3.903958 -0.1831 3.903958 -0.5966
3.801266 -0.2092 3.801266 -0.1668 3.801266 -0.4409
3.700358 -0.2597 3.700358 -0.1207 3.700358 -0.4937
3.600319 -0.2408 3.600319 -0.2267 3.600319 -0.3679
3.501196 -0.2402 3.501196 -0.1768 3.501196 -0.5503
3.402777 -0.2343 3.402777 -0.2223 3.402777 -0.5098
3.295787 -0.391 3.295787 -0.2106 3.295787 -0.5742
3.198107 -0.506 3.198107 -0.3704 3.198107 -0.6767
3.102434 -0.667 3.102434 -0.4879 3.102434 -0.9089
2.999261 -0.8501 2.999261 -0.5873 2.999261 -0.8268
2.901404 -1.014 2.901404 -0.9059 2.901404 -0.9738
2.797821 -1.221 2.797821 -1.029 2.797821 -1.278
2.703721 -1.421 2.703721 -1.137 2.703721 -1.395
2.599883 -1.742 2.599883 -1.398 2.599883 -1.601
2.498999 -2.081 2.498999 -1.698 2.498999 -1.881
2.402089 -2.39 2.402089 -2.041 2.402089 -2.155
2.297979 -2.975 2.297979 -2.503 2.297979 -2.501
2.199755 -3.55 2.199755 -3.086 2.199755 -2.927
2.09899 -4.132 2.09899 -3.725 2.09899 -3.434
2.001734 -4.77 2.001734 -4.514 2.001734 -4.003
1.897627 -5.692 1.897627 -5.389 1.897627 -4.661
1.801678 -6.757 1.801678 -6.498 1.801678 -5.401
1.697839 -9.043 1.697839 -8.014 1.697839 -6.07
1.599009 -9.106 1.599009 -9.717 1.599009 -7.398
1.500648 -10.41 1.500648 -11.27 1.500648 -8.854
1.396722 -12.16 1.396722 -13.36 1.396722 -10.12
1.297979 -13.45 1.297979 -15.5 1.297979 -11.59
1.199755 -15.61 1.199755 -18.11 1.199755 -13.02
1.093422 -17.36 1.093422 -20.98 1.093422 -15.47
0.996993 -19.25 0.996993 -24.18 0.996993 -17.13
0.900094 -20.57 0.900094 -26.91 0.900094 -18.39
0.800511 -22.54 0.800511 -29.08 0.800511 -20.15
0.699664 -23.82 0.699664 -31.33 0.699664 -21.33
0.596157 -25 0.596157 -33.2 0.596157 -21.82
0.49955 -25.9 0.49955 -33.69 0.49955 -21.88
0.398634 -26.31 0.398634 -34.07 0.398634 -22.13
0.300595 -26.58 0.300595 -33.68 0.300595 -21.66
0.200029 -26.01 0.200029 -32.3 0.200029 -20.8
0.102777 -25.3 0.102777 -30.03 0.102777 -20.09
-0.00043 -24.07 -0.00043 -27.56 -0.00043 -18.35
-0.10111 -22.46 -0.10111 -23.77 -0.10111 -17.53
-0.19832 -20.76 -0.19832 -20.58 -0.19832 -16.26
-0.29757 -18.6 -0.29757 -16.65 -0.29757 -15.1
-0.39729 -16.42 -0.39729 -13.02 -0.39729 -14.28
-0.49935 -14.09 -0.49935 -9.445 -0.49935 -12.94
-0.5986 -11.63 -0.5986 -6.845 -0.5986 -11.91
-0.69832 -9.007 -0.69832 -4.832 -11