Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Social Sciences & Humanities Open

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/social-sciences-and-humanities-open

Regular Article

Challenges facing traditional ecological knowledge in the Vhembe District

Municipality in Limpopo Province, South Africa
Ndidzulafhi Innocent Sinthumule *
University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Although TEK has been marginalised during colonial and apartheid era, over the past four decades, there has
Sacred natural sites been a proliferation of research on TEK at local, regional and international levels. This is because, among other
Religion reasons, TEK provides multiple benefits to the bearers of such knowledge and contributes to the protection of the
Indigenous knowledge
environment and ecosystem services. Despite this knowledge being important both for human and non-human
Biodiversity conservation
environments, it faces several challenges among contemporary indigenous societies. Using the concept of
Christianity
power as a lens, this study aimed to investigate the challenges facing TEK using the Vhembe district in Limpopo
Province (South Africa) as a case study. The study relied on semi-structured face-to-face interviews with local
people. This method was found to be appropriate since it is flexible and allow for wide range of opinions that
exceed the limits imposed by interview schedule. Key selected respondents included custodians of sacred sites,
traditional leaders, bearers of TEK, educators, scholars dealing with TEK, curriculum experts, local pastors, and
Christians. These respondents were selected using stratified purposeful sampling approach. A thematic content
analysis was used to analyse the data obtained from the interviews. The study found that the cause of TEK system
degradation is a complicated and multidisciplinary problem, including the compounding influences of dominant
religions, formal education, new political dispensation, modernisation and advances in science and technology,
as well as commercialisation. Recommendations for improving TEK management practices are drawn up based
on these results.

1. Introduction 1999). Although the practice of TEK is as old as the ancient

hunter-gatherer cultures (Berkes, 1993), the concept only gained inter­
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is “a cumulative body of national recognition in the 1980s (Jackson & Warren, 2005). Since then,
observations, oral and written knowledge, practices, and beliefs, handed there has been a proliferation of research on TEK at local, regional, and
down through generations by cultural transmission, about the rela­ international levels.
tionship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with Over the last four decades, appreciation of TEK has grown partly
their environment” (Berkes, 1993, p. 3). As Kelbessa (2013) has noted, because of recognition that this knowledge could contribute to biodi­
such knowledge is dynamic and localized, adapting to changes in the versity conservation and resource management. Literature on the role of
environment, society, economy or politics. The literature suggests that TEK in conserving or preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services has
TEK originates and expresses itself in the native languages, folklore, increased globally (e.g. Kosoe et al., 2020; Sinthumule, 2023; Sinthu­
rituals, land use practices, culture values, and decision-making processes mule & Mashau, 2020). The prominence of TEK in conserving biological
at community level (Trosper & Parrotta, 2012). In addition, it is also diversity is also highlighted in international conventions. For instance,
entrenched in four broad interconnected knowledge categories based on Article 8 (j) of the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity recognises
some knowledge–practice–belief framework introduced by Berkes in the significance of TEK in conserving biological diversity (United Na­
1999. This includes local knowledge of animals, plants, soils and land­ tions, 1992). In addition, the World Bank (World Bank, 1998), the
scapes, land and resource management systems, social institutions (ta­ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report (Millennium Ecosystem
boos, customary rules, totems and proverbs), and worldviews or Assessment, 2005) and Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and
cosmology (spirituality, beliefs system, sacred natural sites) (see Berkes, Ecosystem Services (Ruiz-Mallén et al., 2013) have all embraced the

* Corresponding author. P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101027
Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 3 July 2024; Accepted 5 July 2024
Available online 10 July 2024
2590-2911/© 2024 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

importance of TEK in relation to biodiversity conservation. Other mutually complementary. These include structural, discursive,
research that has been done on TEK has focused mainly on health ser­ actor-centered and institutional power. Of interest to the discussion of
vices (Caballero-Serrano et al., 2019); weather or climate services this paper is structural and discursive power. First, in structural
(Hosen et al., 2020), floods and disaster risk management (Islam et al., approach, “power is imprinted in political and economic structures and
2018), and farming practices (Harisha & Nagaraja, 2016). Thus, TEK is class relations that are socially produced but not vested in individual
vital in several research fields and have multiple ecological, social, and actors or institutions; this manifests in uneven distribution and access to
economic values (Berkes, 1999; Reyes-García et al., 2014). Despite TEK (material and symbolic) resources” (Shackleton et al., 2023, p. 5). For
being dynamic and adaptive to changes in the environment, society, instance, Europe’s colonization did not only create a lasting structure of
economy or politics (see Charnley et al., 2007; Kelbessa, 2013), in the class relations and political economic structures in the accumulation of
face of urbanisation, industrialization, and globalization, there is a capital, and entrenched gendered roles, but also promoted Christianity
growing consensus among scientists and policy makers regarding its and Western values (Rubenstein, 2018). As a result, by replacing TEK
rapid erosion (Narchi & Cristiani, 2015; Reyes-García et al., 2013, 2014; with Western educational and cultural values, colonial legacy has
Shukla et al., 2017). Thus, TEK practices are facing increasing challenges damaged and destroyed many TEK values.
and are slowly dwindling away. For instance, McCarter and Gavin In the context of South Africa, experiences of colonialism were
(2011) have explored the opportunities and challenges of TEK to formal masked by the oppressive and racist operations of apartheid (Keane
school curricula in Malekula Island, Vanuatu, whereas Casimirri (2003) et al., 2023). However, other scholars argue that colonialism did not
investigated the problems associated with attempting to integrate end, rather, its form changed (de Souna de Sousa Santos, 2018). This is
indigenous peoples’ knowledge into dominant State management sys­ because entrenched inequalities and injustices continue to be repro­
tems within the context of Canadian resource management. In addition, duced in many areas. Second, related to structural power is discursive
Gruberg et al. (2022) have looked at the main socioecological factors approach where institutions, actors, or social classes do not have power,
that impact the transmission of TEK within and across generations in but certain discourses exercise power through actors and institutions
Bolivia whereas Tang and Gavin (2016) developed a classification of (Shackleton et al., 2023). This approach highlights how today’s con­
threats to TEK. Cetinkaya (2009) has also studied the challenges of servation research and practice is influenced by dominant historic de­
maintaining traditional knowledge in the Satoyama and Satoumi eco­ bates. For example, historically, the imposed Western knowledge
systems, Noto Peninsula, Japan. Problems or challenges affecting TEK system, languages and cultural practices have been valued, acknowl­
differs from one country, region or continent to another. Using structural edged and seen as superior to other knowledge systems, languages and
and discursive power in conservation as the conceptual framework, this cultural practices (de Sousa Santos, 2014). All these practices have
study contributes to this developing body of knowledge by investigating contributed to the marginalization of indigenous knowledge, languages,
the challenges facing TEK using the Vhembe district in Limpopo Prov­ and cultural practices particularly in the Global South (Shizha, 2014).
ince (South Africa) as a case study. This study is important in showing Thus, languages, indigenous knowledge, and cultural practices were the
that despite the attainment of democracy following decades of colo­ biggest losers whereas the Western discourse was the main winner
nialism and apartheid, TEK continue to be eroded in the democratic because of discursive and structural power.
South Africa. Thus, the idea of TEK as a source for pride, dignity and
possible solutions to some difficult problems has not been renewed with 3. Methodology
the introduction of democracy. This is because entrenched inequalities
and injustices regarding TEK continue to be reproduced in many areas. 3.1. Study area
This study is a wakeup call for government and policy makers not only to
recognize TEK, but also to put measures in place that can ensure that this The study area is the Vhembe District Municipality, established in
knowledge is protected or preserved. 2000 pursuant to Municipal Structures Act No 117 of 1998. As a Cate­
gory C (that is, district) municipality, it has municipal executive and
2. Theoretical background legislative authority over more than one municipality. Vhembe is the
northernmost district of Limpopo Province (and indeed South Africa)
The study relies on theoretical insights from several research bodies bordered by Zimbabwe in the north, Botswana in the northwest, and
dedicated to power to identify aspects of power that support the erosion Mozambique through Kruger National Park in the east (Fig. 1). The
of TEK in the study area. There are conceptual variations in the defini­ border of the district and its international neighbours is formed by the
tions of power. For instance, Max Weber define power as the “proba­ Limpopo River valley. The district covers a geographical area that is
bility that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to primarily rural. The main towns that are found in Vhembe include
carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which Thohoyandou, Makhado, Malamulele and Musina. Thohoyandou hosts
that probability rests” (Weber, 1978: 53). In this sense, power is the head office of the Vhembe District Municipality. The main
considered as possession, as something retained or held by those people geographic feature of the district is the Soutpansberg which is the
who are in a position of power and can dominate others (Dahl, 1957). northernmost mountain range in South Africa forming part of the
However, for Michel Foucault, power is not something that can be UNESCO Vhembe Biosphere Reserve which was officially declared in
owned or held by people or groups by way of episodic or sovereign acts 2011. The mountainous landscape is the hotspot of biodiversity (home
of dominion or coercion. Rather, it is co-produced in social interactions to various rare and threatened plant species) including abundance of
through the way people negotiate meaning. Foucault see power as endemic species which occur nowhere else on Earth (Hahn, 2006).
dispersed and pervasive, meaning that it “exists everywhere and comes Vhembe covers an area of 25 597.42 km2 with a population of 1 402
from everywhere” (Foucault, 1998: 63). In this sense, power is neither a 779 million, with 416 728 residing in Makhado, 497 237 in Thulamela,
structure nor an agency. Central to Foucault’s work is the relationship 347 974 in Collins Chabane and 32 009 in Musina. Thus, Musina is the
between power and knowledge that are seen as conjoined or inextricably least populated municipality in the district, while Makhado is the most.
linked to the same social process and often wrote them as power/­ According to Vhembe District Municipality Profile of 2020, 54% of
knowledge (Foucault, 1991). This means that they work together to people were female whereas the remaining 46% were males. There were
create a system of control. “Knowledge is power” has become so widely approximately 7470 child headed households, 194 980 female headed
accepted and used in high school graduation speeches and bumper households, and 187 378 male headed households in the district. In
stickers as it has become a cliché (Heizmann & Olsson, 2015). 2018, the number of formally employed people was 202 000 (67.20% of
To conceptualise power in conservation, Shackleton et al. (2023) total employment) whereas the number of people employed in the
have put forward four basic approaches which are broadly divergent and informal sector was 98 800 (32.80% of the total employment) (Vhembe

2
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

Fig. 1. Location of Vhembe district municipality in Limpopo province of South Africa.

District Municipality Profile, 2020). About 15.2% were unemployed analysis which is a qualitative analytic method of “identifying, analysing
relying mainly on government grants (mainly pensions and child grants) and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006: 6).
and remittances from relatives. Vhembe is characterised by high levels All responses that were similar from interviewees were grouped into
of poverty with agriculture and mining as the main primary economic themes or patterns, and the bilingual researcher translated them into
sector contributing 3% and 10% of the total gross value added in the English. In some cases, to communicate to the reader, the richness of the
district (Vhembe District Municipality Profile, 2020). situation examined without changing the material recorded, episodes
were pronounced, and cases described, often in the exact words used by
the respondents.
3.2. Data collection and analysis Holmes (2020) advised researcher to disclose race, gender, social
class, status, nationality, and political allegiance they bring to the study,
The study relied on data collected between December 2022 and to explain their experiences with phenomenon under study and
February 2024 in Vhembe District Municipality. Before data was reflecting how these experiences may have shaped their understanding
collected, the research project was registered and approved by re­ of the topic. To this end, I was born in Thohoyandou, Vhembe District
searcher’s university (Ethics Reference Number: 2022-11-18/Sinthu­ Municipality in the province of Limpopo in South Africa. I am fluent in
mule). After gaining approval, the primary data were collected my native Tshivenda and English. I am a Black, middle class, South
through interviews. Recruitment of participants was done using a African academic men who has more than 15 years of working as a
mixture of stratified and purposeful sampling which Miles and Huber­ lecturer at a South African university. I expected my research to be
man (1998) call stratified purposeful sampling. Stratified sampling was relatively uncomplicated as I was an insider researching respondents
used to subdivide the important stakeholders who are knowledgeable who speak the same language, but it was not so. I did not anticipate
about TEK into uniform categories and within each category; purposive experiencing difficulties in recruiting participants, but it was not
sampling approach was used to choose respondents to be interviewed. straightforward. I also realised that I needed to be mindful not to impose
As Guest et al. (2006) have noted, in purposive sampling, there is no my assumptions or expectations on my interviewee response when
overall sampling design that provides the number of respondents analysing and interpreting the data. This was important to ensure that
needed. Consequently, informants were interviewed in each stratum or my results are trustworthy and reliable.
sub-population until the point of data ‘saturation’ when no new infor­
mation was emerging. Key nominated respondents included custodians
of sacred sites (n = 8), traditional leaders (n = 6), elders or bearers of 3.3. Strengths and limitations of the methods used
TEK in communities (n = 14), traditional healers (n = 4), educators (n =
8), curriculum experts (n = 2), local pastors (n = 6), Christians (n = 12) The main strength of using semi-structured interviews was to
and scholars dealing with TEK (n = 6) in the region. Collectively, 66 compare the previous and future data of candidates in a similar set of
respondents were interviewed in this study. questions. In addition, it allowed for open-ended responses from par­
To identify the main challenges faced by TEK in Vhembe, semi- ticipants for more in-depth information, encouraged two-way commu­
structured interviews were carried out with participants. An average nication, and allowed researchers to make follow up on answers that
duration of 1 h and 30 min (90 min) was spent in each interview. The were not clear. The main limitation of this method was that it was time
researcher interviewed the selected key informants alone, either in or consuming to sit down and listen to 66 respondents. In some cases, more
near their homes, and the interviews were conducted using Tshivenda than 2 h were spent during interviews, particularly bearers of TEK who
language. The collected data was analysed through thematic content had a lot of information to say. Some key informants were too busy to

3
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

participate. As a result, only those informants who were accessible were sacred sites or who believe in traditional belief systems have chosen
interviewed. In addition, other key informants were not willing to be Christianity over traditional religion (#Interview, community elder,
interviewed, and as a result, we had to look for substitutes within the November 22, 2022). Similarly, many of the traditional leaders who are
community until the point of data saturation was reached. These limi­ supposed to enforce taboos, customs, rules and regulations in villages
tations nevertheless did not compromise the findings of the study. are now Christians as well. As one respondent explained, “the chiefs and
headmen who are supposed to protect TEK are Christians. How do you
4. Results think that they can protect something that is not close to their heart?” (#
Interview, TEK bearer, November 24, 2022). Local people are taught
4.1. Respondent characteristics about the Bible and prayer not only in churches but also in schools,
community meetings and taxi ranks, on streets and at funerals. Thus, the
Of the 66 respondents who were interviewed, 53% were men and gospel is taught seemingly everywhere (# Interview, community elder,
47% were woman. Majority of the respondents (71%) were above the November 26, 2022).
age of 50 (n = 47) while the remaining 29 were between the ages of 21 Since TEK is rooted in cultural values that include customs, rituals,
and 50 years (Table 1). myth, taboos, and customary rules and regulations, the conversion to
The oldest participant was 87 years old whereas the youngest was 28. Christianity is making people neglect these values in support of Western
In terms of education, majority of respondents (38%; n = 25) had ter­ values and ideas that are the basis for Christian beliefs. Therefore, a lot
tiary education, 32% had completed at least secondary education, 14% of people have stopped or terminated traditional customs, taboos, and
had attended primary school, and the remaining 17% had never atten­ rituals that form the core of TEK in favour of Christianity because they
ded school. The majority of respondents (42%; n = 28) who were are seen as irrelevant and unimportant. Those who are still engaged in a
interviewed were employed while 32% were unemployed. The traditional belief system are seen as outcasts – as made clear by one
remaining 26% were pensioners. bearer of TEK:
“When we are seen performing rituals, we are labelled as demonic
4.2. Dominant religion and satanic. We are seen to be stupid and useless and are called all
the names,but we are not worried because when we perform rituals
TEK is rooted in worldviews or cosmology. TEK of the indigenous and connect with our ancestors, it is for the benefit of all people and
people is commonly associated with spiritualism in Africa. Analysis of not only us” (#Interview, TEK bearer, 23/11/2022).
interview materials revealed that indigenous or traditional belief sys­
tems involving connecting with ancestors or spirits in sacred sites is no Traditional religion is seen as inferior, backward and insignificant. It
longer common because of other regions, particularly Christianity is further viewed as something that should be undermined and neglec­
(Western value) that was introduced during colonial era. Although there ted. Thus, historical discourses continue to shape religion in the
are small pockets that still follow the traditional belief system, the study contemporary Vhembe. Even sacred natural sites that are critical in
found that most of the people believe in Christianity, a legacy of colo­ conserving biological diversity are seen and labelled as ‘satanic’ and
nialism. In the Vhembe district, the history of Christianity dates to 1863 ‘demonic’ (#Interview, church pastor, November 29, 2022). Similarly,
(colonial era) when the missionaries from the Dutch Reformed Church this study also found that some Christians who were interviewed see
first arrived. The second group of missionaries were Lutherans who indigenous medicines that people get from traditional healers or that
arrived in Vhembe District in 1872, followed by the Reformed Church in they can harvest by themselves as satanic and demonic (#Interviews,
1928 (Kgatla, 2016). The missionaries-imposed Christianity over local various Christians, November 27, 2022). This is despite the Bible’s
people because they had structural power and resources. That has been explanation of the importance of plants in healing. For instance, 2 Kings
of great importance for spreading the gospel across communities. As a 20 verse 7 and Revelation 22 verse 2 both describe the importance of
result, the traditional taboos and customs began to be neglected by local natural plants in healing. Perhaps it should be noted that Christians
people in favour of Christianity. As Kgatla (2016) has noted, the mem­ might overlook the fact that medicines found in pharmacies across the
bership of these churches began to grow up significantly. In addition, globe are made from plants and animal species.
many other ‘gospel’ churches such as Faith Mission Church, Roman
Catholic Church, Zion Christian Church, Apostolic Church, Christian 4.3. Formal education
Worship Centre, Rhema Kingdom Church, and Church of Christ etc. have
since been established in the region. Related to Christianity is formal education which was identified as
The study thus found that most people have embraced Christianity another factor undermining TEK in the study area. The teachers and
and as a result, it is the dominant religion in the Vhembe district. It is curriculum experts interviewed were of the view that despite the de­
ironic to note that even the children of those who are custodians of mocracy attained in 1994, the education system in South Africa has done
very little to transform and incorporate TEK into the school curriculum.
Table 1 This information was corroborated by checking the annual teaching plan
The socioeconomic profile of the respondents in the study area. for 2023 for life sciences, agricultural sciences and geography – and
Categories Class N = 66 % there was nothing on the topic of TEK. This is not surprising because the
formal education in South Africa is rooted in Western values (human
Age 21–30 years 03 4
31–40 years 07 11 rights, individualism, Christianity, modern technology and scientific
41–50 years 09 14 thinking) that are frequently in divergence with the local culture of ta­
51–60 years 26 39 boos, customs and rituals. These Western values are a legacy of colo­
>61 years 21 32
nialism (structural power) and continue to be reproduced in the current
Gender Male 35 53
Female 31 47
democratic state. As one secondary school principal narrated:
Education None 11 17
“Our curriculum is largely entrenched in Western values. There has
Primary 09 14
Secondary 21 32 been very little change, and our curriculum is silent about TEK. Why
Tertiary 25 38 should our kids know about conservation in the Kruger National Park
Occupation Unemployed 21 32 and not know about TEK and how it contributes to the conservation
Employed 28 42 of natural resources? Why can’t we teach our children about taboos,
Pensioner 17 26
totems, customs and rituals and how they contribute to biodiversity

4
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

conservation? It is a shame that we are in a democratic government, their land peacefully or were dispossessed of their land by the govern­
but we are failing to transform our own education system” (#Inter­ ment to these Bantustans (Kgatla, 2016). The idea was to separate Black
view, school principal, 03/12/2022). from White people and give the former the responsibility of running
independent governments far away from cities. The Bantustans were
Since TEK is not part of the school curriculum, school children grow
abolished in 1994 and were re-integrated into the nine new provinces of
up without the knowledge of traditional taboos, customs and rituals. As
the democratic South Africa. After decades of colonialism and apartheid
emphasised by a teacher who was interviewed in Thohoyandou:
in South Africa, democracy was welcomed and celebrated. Democratic
“We teach learners about their rights and that they can change from rule ensures fundamental freedoms and human rights for all citizens of
being a girl to being a boy if they want. Instead of teaching them this country, as guaranteed by the 1996 Constitution of the Republic of
about cultural values and TEK practices, we teach them about South Africa (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996).
Western values. It is a sad reality” (#Interview, schoolteacher, 03/ Although there are traditional leaders who are responsible for over­
12/2022). seeing traditional affairs (particularly in villages), politicians who are
mostly elite have the power to govern. As one traditional leader
When asked about the appropriate subjects in which TEK can be
explained:
taught in schools, respondents (mostly teachers, TEK experts and cur­
riculum advisors) identified four separate domains of knowledge (sub­ “We are toothless, and communities no longer respect us. We can no
jects) that present suitable opportunities for inclusion of TEK in the longer punish or banish offenders from our communities who violate
formal school system. These cover geography, life sciences, agriculture traditional rules and customs. We are in a democratic state where
and vernacular language. Participants also noted that formal education every person has a right and can do as they please and this has eroded
is eroding TEK through promoting the use of the colonial language of our power. In most cases, the decisions that we take against offenders
English. As expressed by another teacher in Thohoyandou: are overruled by courts” (#Interview, traditional leader, 23/11/
2022).
“If you look at what is happening today, our kids start learning in
English from creche and in schools all subjects are taught in English Thus, traditional leaders have lost the authority to enforce compli­
except Tshivenda. We interact with school children in English, and ance with traditional rules, regulations and taboos within their
they interact among themselves and with their parents in English. jurisdiction.
The parents expect us to speak with their children in English. If you
cannot speak in English, you are like an idiot” (#Interview, school­ 4.5. Modernisation and advances in science and technology
teacher, 03/12/2022)
Although modernity is a contested word, it is defined by a Concise
This quotation shows that English has become the main mode of
Oxford English Dictionary as meaning, ’of the present or recent times
instruction in schools in preference to vernacular languages. Since TEK
and current fashion.’ Modernity can be defined as “a condition of social
is rooted and expressed in indigenous languages, the use of English as
existence that is radically different to all past forms of human experi­
the main mode of communication has made the new generation also
ence”, whereas modernisation refers “to the transitional process of
adopt Western culture and values. As one chief explained, “Our kids see
moving from ‘traditional’ or ‘primitive’ communities to modern soci­
English culture on television and the internet and they view this as more
eties” (Shilliam, 2010, p. 1). In the study area, both the younger and
civilised than their own culture” (#Interview, traditional leader,
older generations were interviewed. The analysis of this study has
November 23, 2023). Thus, they see their own languages, culture and
shown that generation of young people is more interested in the present
values as insignificant and outdated. This is contributing towards
or recent past, as opposed to the remote past. Thus, they are interested in
eroding of TEK.
recent technology such as cell phones, televisions, software, computers,
While formal education is rooted in Western values, this study found
internet, artificial intelligent and robotics. Since TEK is always passed by
that informal education which used to be carried out by parents at home
word of mouth from one generation to another, the older generation
has done very little to resolve the problem. The analysis of results
who were interviewed indicated that they now find it hard to transfer
showed that informal education used to be done through word of mouth
their beliefs and practices to most of the younger generation whose in­
from the older to the younger generation. However, the older generation
terest is on modern science and technology. As one respondent narrated:
is finding it difficult to communicate their views and practices to the
younger generations, with the latter being more interested in speaking “The younger generation views TEK as outdated, backward, old
English than their local languages (Interview, TEK bearer, December 07, fashion and irrelevant because it does not advance technology. They
2022). As the older generation passes away, the TEK disappears with also do not see this kind of knowledge practice on television, which
them. The parents who were interviewed confessed that they no longer makes it difficult for them to understand and accept it” (Interview,
teach their children about cultural values and TEK at home. They no TEK bearer, 05/12/2023).
longer share folklore about culture and TEK with young ones. Analysis of
Despite TEK eroding and some younger generation not interested in
interview material revealed that instead of teaching their kids about
TEK, efforts have been made to protect TEK by an organisation called
culture, TEK and associated stories, they help their kids to complete their
‘Dzomo la mupo’ meaning ‘voice of nature’ which was founded in 2007.
homework. Some indicated that the children tend to be busy on their
This organisation aims to protect the natural environment in all its forms
laptops and cell phones, and some spend their evenings watching tele­
and work with teachers and students on restoring cultural biodiversity
vision. Thus, the younger generation are growing up without proper
through networking, celebrations and facilitating intergenerational
knowledge about their cultural values.
knowledge transfer between people of different ages.

4.4. New political dispensation 4.6. Commercialisation

South Africa’s apartheid system of government from 1948 to the Over the years, the harvesting of medicine has always been done by
early 1990s systematically separated groups of people based on racial traditional healers. The traditional healers who were interviewed indi­
classification. Under this system, the Black majority were required to cated that they promote sustainable harvesting practices. Thus, there are
live in Bantustans or so-called homelands that were created by the indigenous or traditional ways of harvesting plant species. For instance,
government to prevent Black people from living in the urban areas of regarding the traditional methods of harvesting of plants, harvesters
South Africa. Black people were either persuaded to give up or vacate were not allowed to return to the same area in a year and this practice

5
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

allowed the plants to recover. In the same way, it was believed that the colonization (Tang & Gavin, 2016). For example, several people in
bark of a tree should be harvested from its eastern side due to its high Nigeria (Sambe et al., 2021), Ghana (Kosoe et al., 2020), Guatemala
nutritional content. To help recover the tree, a mixture of soil and water (Cook & Offit, 2008) and Taiwan (Tang & Tang 2010) have accepted
was applied to the wound. Concerning the harvesting of roots, only Christianity, hence avoiding traditional religions and taboos. Similarly,
lateral roots (not tap roots) of plants were harvested and the soil was in Botswana, Phuthego and Chanda (2004) reported that the Catholic
returned after harvesting to ensure that the roots could recover. These and Lutheran churches have trained rural communities to ignore or
practices were performed to ensure that the trees or plants remain sus­ neglect TEK as being insignificant and unimportant. As in the study area,
tainable (Interview, traditional healer, December 15, 2022). However, in Ghana and Nigeria, taboos, customs and traditions associated with
over the past two decades, the harvesting of plants has been commer­ TEK practices have been downgraded and are viewed by Christians as
cialised. In most cases, it is therefore no longer the traditional healers ‘useless’, ‘fetishes’, ‘satanic’ and ‘demonic’ (Kosoe et al., 2020; Sambe
who harvest plants; rather, middlemen harvest and sell the products to et al., 2021). The Bible is seen as the most important book and should
traditional healers. For instance, this study found that female healers therefore be taught to people by church priests (Diawuo & Issifu, 2017).
prefer relying on middlemen rather than carrying out harvesting As Reyes-García et al. (2007) have noted, the influence of dominant
themselves. religions has in many cases reduced the interest of indigenous youth in
The use of middlemen has created a lot of problems because they are learning traditional practices because they are seen as inferior. This
not sufficiently cautious about the protection of the environment; rather, originates from the belief that Westerners should be positioned as su­
they simply want to make a profit. For instance, Securidaca long­ perior and non-Westerners inferior (Shackeroff & Campbell, 2007).
ipedunculata (locally known as Mpesu) has been commercialised. Mid­ Regarding the second point, the results of this study have shown that
dlemen harvest the roots of this plant and sell them not only to despite democracy, formal education in the study area is largely
traditional healers but also to anyone who may want to start a business entrenched in Western values. Thus, the curriculum of primary and
selling it (#Interview, university scholar, November 22, 2022). It is secondary schools is silent about TEK. Such silence mirrors the trend
popularly used by men for enhancing male sexual performance. Since elsewhere as far afield as formal education in places such as Botswana
the middlemen do not follow traditional or indigenous methods of (Phuthego & Chanda, 2004), Ghana (Diawuo & Issifu, 2015), Malekula
harvesting the roots of these plants, the plant is currently under threat Island in Vanuatu (McCarter & Gavin, 2011), and Malaysia (Gopal,
because harvesting is not done sustainably. Thus, the commercialisation 2005) is similarly rooted in Western culture. Such Western knowledge
of this species is threatening its survival. Since Securidaca long­ hegemony partially stems from the history of colonial domination and
ipedunculata is only found in Muswodi Village in Limpopo Province, partly from the globalising trends that continue to cement Western
there are fears among community members that it can go locally extinct ideals as the only possible conduit for socio-economic development
because of commercial harvesting (#Interview, community member, (Shava, 2016, pp. 121–139). Thus, Western knowledge systems deny
December 20, 2022). This study also found that traditional leaders who pupils the ability and opportunity to bring their own lived experiences
are supposed to protect the culture and enforce rules and regulations to into educational processes. While the education system investigated in
protect nature are also commercialised. The analysis of the results of this this study area has ignored the need to incorporate TEK into the cur­
study revealed that chiefs and headmen no longer protect culture riculum, many developed nations such as Australia, Canada and New
because they are after money. As one elder from Ngovhela Village Zealand have not only developed such modules but also recognize the
recounted: role of indigenous knowledge as a national heritage. This is the basis for
a sustainable living example in the modern world (Gopal, 2005). In
“Our traditional leaders are commercialised. They will do anything
addition, the study found that the main medium of instruction in schools
to get money. Look at what they have done at the at Phiphidi
in the study area and South Africa in general is the colonial language,
Waterfall (sacred site). The chief himself is responsible for building a
which is English. The use of local native dialects is seen as inferior,
lodge in a sacred site in the name of economic development and this
particularly by young generations. Since TEK is passed from one gen­
has already destroyed the area. Our leaders are greedy and selfish”
eration to another through local languages, the loss of interest in
(# Interview, community elder, 24/11/2022).
traditional languages by the youth is threatening the survival of TEK
Thus, it is alleged that chiefs and headmen can allocate plots of land (Tang & Gavin, 2016). The situation is made worse when the elders pass
anywhere, irrespective of taboos, as long as you give them money. Since away without transmitting the TEK to younger generations.
the chiefs and headmen are commercialised, the perception is that they Democracy has also appeared as a reason undermining the use of
no longer enforce the rules and regulations that protect taboos and TEK in the study area. Africa has been colonised by European countries
customs. for many years. The European immigrants who colonized the continent
in the late 19th century sought to destroy, degrade, or marginalise local
5. Discussion people and their TEK, replacing them with the West’s views and ap­
proaches, which were consistent with their imperial objectives (Mapira
The results of this study have shown that the erosion of TEK systems & Mazambara, 2013). The demise of colonial rule and the idea of TEK as
is the consequence of complex and multifaceted factors, including the a source for pride, dignity and possible solutions to some difficult
compounding influences of dominant religions, formal education, new problems has become renewed with the introduction of democracy in
political dispensation, modernisation and advances in science and Africa. Despite the applause and celebrations of democracy following
technology, and commercialisation. Regarding the first point, Chris­ decades of colonialism, it also poses a challenge to TEK. Democratic
tianity was confirmed to be the dominant religion in the study area. This governance assures or promises all citizens’ freedom and human rights.
has involved most local communities changing from animist practices, As Jimoh et al. (2012) have noted, given this set of circumstances,
and as Sambe et al. (2021) have noted, this has reduced the ideological traditional leaders have lost their power over the villagers. For instance,
and popular support for TEK in favour of Christianity. Some custodians as in the study area, if lawbreakers or criminals in villages in Nigeria feel
of sacred natural sites have been converted from the traditional religion that they have been ill-treated or their human rights have been violated
to what is perceived in the context to be a modern religion. Similarly, by the chiefs or headmen in trying to enforce the traditional rules and
some local traditional leaders whose traditionally perceived duty is regulations, they could litigate the community leaders (Jimoh et al.,
enforcing traditional rules, regulations, taboos, and customs have con­ 2012). This study found that in many instances, the court rules in their
verted to Christianity. favour. Thus, traditional leaders have reduced power to enforce
The abandonment of indigenous religious beliefs has been widely compliance in local communities; the power to rule rests mostly with
recorded in the literature, particularly in regions with a history of politicians who tend to be privileged and wealthy. In the name of

6
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

democracy, there is also the tendency of a group of vocal people in the do anything in their power to get money. In the study area, traditional
community to adopt resolutions on behalf of the majority. For instance, leaders particularly in villages are entrusted with the responsibility of
in Botswana, the now defunct veld products domestication project was allocating land for residential, commercial, and farming purposes. A
embarked on after only a few optimistic and influential local people had previous study identified that land at the sacred natural site in Phiphidi
approved it (Phuthego & Chanda, 2004). In Cameroon, traditional Waterfall in the Vhembe district has been allocated for tourism devel­
forestry committees have overseen forest protection and ensured that opment by the local chief. Thus, instead of protecting this culturally
rules on the exploitation of natural resources are respected by local important area, a lodge has been developed without the approval of the
councils. However, the management of the park has recently set up custodians of the area (Sinthumule et al., 2021). This has destroyed the
village forest management committees that are perceived to be politi­ trees that had been protected for decades and has created conflict be­
cally motivated, inefficient, unrepresentative and in conflict with the tween traditional leaders and the custodian of the area. This violation
local council and the local population (Ntoko & Schmidt, 2021). The role can be linked at least in part to the custodians of the sacred natural site
of the Traditional Councils in forest resource management was therefore not having property rights or title deeds for the area; the latter would
weakened by setting up village forestry committees. empower them to have greater control over the area.
Concerning modernisation and advances in science and technology,
this study has found that the youth are modernised and this makes it 6. Conclusion
difficult for them to participate in TEK. Studies by Mekoa (2018) and
Tang and Gavin (2016) revealed similar results whereby the younger Overall, the data collected in this study has demonstrated that
generation has moved away from perceived ‘primitive’ ways of doing although there are still pockets of TEK, this knowledge is under threat
things to the present or current approach that relies more on technology. from complex processes and multifaceted sources. These include the
For instance, the youth rely mostly on modern products and technolo­ compounding influences of dominant religions, formal education, post-
gies such as cell phones, iPads, computers, and television, which makes apartheid political dispensation, commercialisation, and modernisa­
it difficult for them to appreciate TEK (Tang & Gavin, 2016). Mekoa tion/advances in science and technology. Although these findings
(2018) also found out that there is resistance to the use of TEK by the cannot be generalised to other countries, the changing conditions linked
youth because TEK is considered unscientific and backward. As Tang to the situations described in this study are faced by indigenous pop­
and Gavin (2016) have noted, younger generations are more interested ulations living in rural and urban areas of developed and developing
in the knowledge and skills that enable them to find a job in towns and countries. Therefore, the findings of this study can be considered a
cities, resulting in TEK being ignored and relegated to a low-priority warning sign for an overall trend in TEK deterioration between today’s
status. This is in line with findings of Reyes-García et al. (2013), who indigenous societies. The loss of TEK is concern because it does not just
argued the Tsimane communities of Bolivia, who consider that this form provide those who hold this knowledge with a wide variety of benefits
of knowledge does not provide them with a sufficient level of informa­ but also contribute to protecting the environment and ecosystem
tion to deal with today’s social and economic conditions, have services.
contributed to the abandonment of ancient knowledge. As in the present To ensure that TEK is not lost forever in communities, there is a need
study area, Mekoa (2018) reported that the older generation who are for decolonization of TEK in order to sustain traditional practices. To
bearers of TEK find it difficult to communicate their beliefs and practices ensure that South African children do not continue to be caught up in
to the younger generation, with the latter being relatively educated and Western frameworks of thinking that caused serious cognitive conflicts,
technologically orientated. there is an urgent need for Basic Education Department to decolonise
This study also found that commercialisation is also eroding TEK. school curricula. The curriculum for subjects like geography, agricul­
Over the years, indigenous people have relied on traditional medicines tural science, life sciences and languages should be redesigned to
to treat various diseases. In the process of extracting or harvesting incorporate indigenous knowledge. Government funding institutions
nature-based medicines, they were usually concerned about environ­ like the National Research Funds should prioritise students research at
mental sustainability. As a result, taboos, rules and regulations were university level that has TEK component or that entirely deal with TEK
used (Constant & Tshisikhawe, 2018) to promote selective harvesting to practices. Thus, schooling, research, and other forms of knowledge
ensure that the removal of selected parts did not retard regeneration and production that focus on indigenous knowledge should be prioritised by
recovery of the affected plants (Msuya & Kideghesho, 2009). Traditional both state and non-state actors. There is also need for government and
healers and herbalists held the view that cutting off all the roots, and education sector to document the existing pockets of TEK in both rural
ringbarking plants or harvesting the whole plant for medicinal purposes and urban areas for current and future generations. This will ensure that
would result in patient death (Kanene, 2016). In the study area, tradi­ this knowledge is not lost forever when knowledge carriers pass away.
tionally, the selective harvesting of leaves, roots and stems is done in The promotion of TEK practices, as well as their role for improving
such a way that allows the plants to regenerate. This is not unique in the livelihoods, protecting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services,
study area; rather, this practice is also common among the Tonga people also needs to be promoted by the government through radio and tele­
in Zambia (Kanene, 2016) and the Teso community in Kenya (Ayaa & vision programmes. In this way, this knowledge can reach young people
Waswa, 2016). However, the increased demand for medicinal plants who, otherwise, seem more interested in listening to the radio or
such as Securidaca longipedunculata in recent years has led to commercial watching television. Traditional leaders should be empowered by the
harvesting of plants. Thus, the indigenous ways of harvesting of plants government to enforce taboos, customs, rules and regulations, particu­
have been neglected in favour of making profit. As a result of the tran­ larly in rural areas so that they become protectors rather than destroyers
sition from subsistence use to commercial trade in medicinal plants, of TEK. Efforts should be undertaken to confer legal personhood and
there has been an increase in the number of medicinal plants harvested natural rights on sacred sites at a time when almost all of them are
out of wild areas (see Van Wyk & Prinsloo, 2018). threatened by man’s activities.
Consequently, overharvesting of plants for medical purpose pose
threat to species and make them vulnerable to extinction. For instance, CRediT authorship contribution statement
the increased demand for Anemone altaica (a traditional Chinese herb)
over the last few years and more intense harvesting activities of the Ndidzulafhi Innocent Sinthumule: Writing – review & editing,
species in China has largely impacted the natural recovery of the har­ Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Soft­
vested populations (Huai et al., 2013). In addition, this study also found ware, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation,
that traditional leaders who are supposed to enforce taboos, rules and Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
regulations are also commercialised. Thus, they are after money and will

7
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

Declaration of competing interest Mapira, J., & Mazambara, P. (2013). Indigenous knowledge systems and their
implications for sustainable development in Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable
Development in Africa, 15(5), 90–106.
The author declare there is no potential conflict of interest with McCarter, J., & Gavin, M. C. (2011). Perceptions of the value of traditional ecological
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. knowledge to formal school curricula: Opportunities and challenges from Malekula
Island, Vanuatu. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7, 1–14.
Mekoa, I. (2018). Essentialising African indigenous knowledge systems in the midst of
References globalization and modernity. African Renaissance, 11–28.
Miles, M., & Huberman, A. M. (1998). Data management and analysis methods. In
Ayaa, D. D., & Waswa, F. (2016). Role of indigenous knowledge systems in the N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative enquiry. Thousand Oaks:
conservation of the bio-physical environment among the Teso community in Busia Sage publications.
County-Kenya. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 10(12), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human wellbeing: Synthesis.
467–475. Washington DC: Island Press.
Berkes, F. (1993). Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective. In J. T. Inglis (Ed.), Msuya, T. S., & Kideghesho, J. R. (2009). The role of traditional management practices in
Traditional ecological knowledge: Concept and cases. International program on traditional enhancing sustainable use and conservation of medicinal plants in West Usambara
ecological knowledge and (pp. 1–9). Ottawa, Canada: International Development Mountains, Tanzania. Tropical Conservation Science, 2(1), 88–105.
Research Centre. Narchi, N. E., & Cristiani, B. C. (2015). Subtle tyranny: Divergent constructions of nature
Berkes, F. (1999). Sacred ecology. Traditional ecological knowledge and resource and the erosion of traditional ecological knowledge in xochimilco. Latin American
management. Philadelphia and London, UK: Taylor and Francis. Perspectives, 42(5), 90–108.
Caballero-Serrano, V., McLaren, B., Carrasco, J. C., Alday, J. G., Fiallos, L., Amigo, J., & Ntoko, V. N., & Schmidt, M. (2021). Indigenous knowledge systems and biodiversity
Onaindia, M. (2019). Traditional ecological knowledge and medicinal plant diversity conservation on Mount Cameroon. Forest, Trees and Livelihoods, 30(4), 227–241.
in Ecuadorian Amazon home gardens. Global Ecology and Conservation, 17, Article Phuthego, T. C., & Chanda, R. (2004). Traditional ecological knowledge and community-
e00524. based natural resource management: Lessons from a Botswana wildlife management
Casimirri, G. (2003). Problems with integrating traditional ecological knowledge into area. Applied Geography, 24(1), 57–76.
contemporary resource management. In Submitted to the XII world forestry congress. Reyes-García, V., Aceituno-Mata, L., Calvet-Mir, L., Garnatje, T., Gomez-Baggethun, E.,
Cetinkaya, G. (2009). Challenges for the maintenance of traditional knowledge in the Lastra, J. J., … Pardo-de-Santayana, M. (2014). Resilience of traditional knowledge
Satoyama and Satoumi ecosystems, Noto Peninsula, Japan. Human Ecology Review, systems: The case of agricultural knowledge in home gardens of the Iberian
27–40. Peninsula. Global Environmental Change, 24, 223–231.
Charnley, S., Fischer, A. P., & Jones, E. T. (2007). Integrating traditional and local Reyes-García, V., Guèze, M., Luz, A. C., Paneque-Gálvez, J., Macía, M. J., Orta-
ecological knowledge into forest biodiversity conservation in the Pacific Northwest. Martínez, M., … Rubio-Campillo, X. (2013). Evidence of traditional knowledge loss
Forest Ecology and Management, 246(1), 14–28. among a contemporary indigenous society. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34(4),
Constant, N. L., & Tshisikhawe, M. P. (2018). Hierarchies of knowledge: Ethnobotanical 249–257.
knowledge, practices and beliefs of the vhavenda in South Africa for biodiversity Reyes-García, V., Marti, N., McDade, T., Tanner, S., & Vadez, V. (2007). Concepts and
conservation. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 14, 1–28. methods in studies measuring individual ethnobotanical knowledge. Journal of
Cook, G., & Offit, T. (2008). Pluralism and transculturation in indigenous maya religion. Ethnobiology, 27(2), 182–203.
Ethnology, 47(1), 45–59. Rubenstein, J. M. (2018). The cultural landscape: An introduction to human geography.
Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral Science, 2(3), 201–215. Pearson.
de Sousa Santos, B. (2014). Epistemologies of the South: Justice against epistemicide. Ruiz-Mallén, I., Corbera, E., Novkovic, A., Calvo-Boyero, D., & Reyes-García, V. (2013).
Paradigm Publishers. Adapting to environmental change in Latin America: Planning the future from the
de Sousa Santos, B. (2018). Decolonising the university: The challenge of deep cognitive bottom-up. Policy implications of COMBIOSERVE, an EU-funded research project on
justice. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. community-based conservation in Latin America. European Policy Brief. estevecorbera.
Diawuo, F., & Issifu, A. K. (2015). Exploring the African traditional belief systems in com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/policy_brief_adapting_ to_environmental_
natural resource conservation and management in Ghana. Journal of Pan African change_sept_2013. pdf.
Studies, 8(9), 115–131. Sambe, L. N., Yager, G. O., Ver, P. N., & Ikape, M. O. (2021). Approaches and challenges
Foucault, M. (1991). Discipline and punish: The birth of a prison. London: Penguin. of traditional institutions in conservation of biodiversity: Implications for sustainable
Foucault, M. (1998). The history of sexuality: The will to knowledge. London: Penguin. management of natural resources in Nigeria. Plants and Environment, 3(1), 14–22.
Gopal, R. (2005). Indigenous environmental knowledge in formal education. Jurnal Shackeroff, J. M., & Campbell, L. M. (2007). Traditional ecological knowledge in
Penyelidikan MPBL, 6, 120–132. conservation research: Problems and prospects for their constructive engagement.
Gruberg, H., Dessein, J., D’ Haese, M., Alba, E., & Benavides, J. P. (2022). Eroding Conservation and Society, 5(3), 343–360.
traditional ecological knowledge. A case study in Bolivia. Human Ecology, 50(6), Shackleton, R. T., Walters, G., Bluwstein, J., Djoudi, H., Fritz, L., Lafaye de Micheaux, F.,
1047–1062. … Kull, C. A. (2023). Navigating power in conservation. Conservation Science and
Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An Practice, 5(3), Article e12877.
experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. Shava, S. (2016). The application/role of indigenous knowledges in transforming the
Heizmann, H., & Olsson, M. R. (2015). Power matters: The importance of Foucault’s formal education curriculum: Cases from Southern Africa. Africanising the curriculum:
power/knowledge as a conceptual lens in KM research and practice. Journal of Indigenous perspectives and theories.
Knowledge Management, 19(4), 756–769. Shilliam, R. (2010). Modernity and modernization. In Oxford research encyclopedia of
Holmes, A. G. D. (2020). Researcher positionality–A consideration of its influence and international studies.
place in qualitative research–A new researcher guide. Shanlax International Journal of Shizha, E. (2014). The indigenous knowledge systems and the curriculum. In African
Education, 8(4), 1–10. indigenous knowledge and the disciplines (pp. 113–129). Brill.
Hosen, N., Nakamura, H., & Hamzah, A. (2020). Adaptation to climate change: Does Shukla, S., Barkman, J., & Patel, K. (2017). Weaving indigenous agricultural knowledge
traditional ecological knowledge hold the key? Sustainability, 12(2), 676. with formal education to enhance community food security: School competition as a
Huai, H., Wen, G., Xu, W., & Bai, W. (2013). Effects of commercial harvesting on pedagogical space in rural anchetty, India. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 25(1),
population characteristics and rhizome yield of Anemone altaica. Economic Botany, 87–103.
67, 41–50. Sinthumule, N. I. (2023). Traditional ecological knowledge and its role in biodiversity
Islam, M. R., Ingham, V., Hicks, J., & Kelly, E. (2018). From coping to adaptation: conservation: A systematic review. Front. Environ. Sci., 11, Article 1164900. https://
Flooding and the role of local knowledge in Bangladesh. International Journal of doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1164900
Disaster Risk Reduction, 28, 531–538. Sinthumule, N. I., & Mashau, M. L. (2020). Traditional ecological knowledge and
Jackson, J. E., & Warren, K. B. (2005). Indigenous movements in Latin America, practices for forest conservation in Thathe Vondo in Limpopo Province, South Africa.
1992–2004: Controversies, ironies, new directions. Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 34, Global Ecology and Conservation, 22, Article e00910.
549–573. Sinthumule, N. I., Mugwena, T., & Rabumbulu, M. (2021). The conflict between
Jimoh, S. O., Ikyaagba, E. T., Alarape, A. A., Obioha, E. E., & Adeyemi, A. A. (2012). The preserving a ‘sacred natural site’and exploiting nature for commercial gain: Evidence
role of traditional laws and taboos in wildlife conservation in the oban hill sector of from Phiphidi Waterfall in South Africa. Sustainability, 13(18), Article 10476.
cross river national park (CRNP), Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 39(3), 209–219. South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the republic of South Africa. Printers, Pretoria:
Kanene, K. M. (2016). Indigenous practices of environmental sustainability in the Tonga Government.
community of southern Zambia. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 8(1). Tang, R., & Gavin, M. C. (2016). A classification of threats to traditional ecological
Keane, M., Raciti, M., van der Westhuizen, G., Motala, S., Stanton, S., Gilbey, K., … knowledge and conservation responses. Conservation and Society, 14(1), 57–70.
Msimango, S. (2023). Indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and Australia: Trosper, R. L., & Parrotta, J. A. (2012). Introduction: The growing importance of
Transforming doctoral education. Curriculum perspectives, 43(1), 83–93. traditional forest-related knowledge. Traditional forest-related knowledge: Sustaining
Kelbessa, W. (2013). Indigenous knowledge and its contribution to biodiversity communities, ecosystems and biocultural diversity, 1–36.
conservation. International Social Science Journal, 64(211–212), 143–152. United Nations. (1992). Convention on biological diversity (with annexes). Rio de Janeiro,
Kgatla, S. T. (2016). Clergy’s resistance to Venda Homeland’s independence in the 1970s Brazil: United Nations.
and 1980s. Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, 42(3), 121–141.
Kosoe, E. A., Adjei, P. O. W., & Diawuo, F. (2020). From sacrilege to sustainability: The
role of indigenous knowledge systems in biodiversity conservation in the upper west
region of Ghana. Geojournal, 85(4), 1057–1074.

8
N.I. Sinthumule Social Sciences & Humanities Open 10 (2024) 101027

Van Wyk, A. S., & Prinsloo, G. (2018). Medicinal plant harvesting, sustainability and World Bank. (1998). Indigenous knowledge for development, a framework for action.
cultivation in South Africa. Biological Conservation, 227, 335–342. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/ikrept.pdf. (Accessed
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology. Berkeley, CA: 25 October 2022).
University of California Press.