NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

HYDRAULICS

STUDY MANUAL

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the training, the learner should be able to:

1. Apply safety
2. Describe the principles of hydraulics
3. Identify the hydraulic system layouts and components
4. Design and interpret hydraulic circuits
5. Describe operation of the hydraulic system
6. Describe construction and operation of hydraulic system components
7. Service and overhaul hydraulic systems with speed and skill
8. Diagnose hydraulic system faults and find remedies

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COURSE CONTENT

TOPIC 1: SAFETY............................................................................................................ PAGE 4

TOPIC 2: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. PAGE 4
TOPIC 3: PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS...................................................................... PAGE 8
TOPIC 4: HYDRAULIC TERMINOLOGIES...................................................................... PAGE 11
TOPIC 5: HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS.......................................................................... PAGE 13
TOPIC 6: HYDRAULIC SEALS........................................................................................ PAGE 72
TOPIC 7: HOSES, PIPES AND FITTINGS...................................................................... PAGE 76
TOPIC 8: HYDRAULIC SYMBOLS.................................................................................. PAGE 77
TOPIC 9: HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS................................................................................... PAGE 82
TOPIC 10: MAINTENANCE.............................................................................................. PAGE 84
TOPIC 11: DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM................................ PAGE 87

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TOPIC 1: SAFETY
SAFETY RULES FOR HYDRAULCS

1. Always lower the hydraulic working units to the ground before leaving the machine.
2. Park the machine where children cannot easily reach it.
3. Never work on dirty equipment.
4. Block up the working units when you must work on the system while raised. Do not rely on
the hydraulic lift.
5. Never service the hydraulic system while the machine’s engine is running unless
absolutely necessary, as for bleeding the system.
6. Do not remove cylinders until the working units are resting on the ground or securely on
safety sands or blocks. Also shut-off the engine.
7. When transporting the machine, lock the cylinder stops to hold the working units solidly in
place.
8. Before disconnecting oil lines:
i. Relieve all hydraulic pressure.
ii. Discharge the accumulator [if used].
9. Be sure all line connections are tight and lines are not damaged. Escaping oil under
pressure is a fire hazard and can cause personal injury.
10. Some hydraulic pumps and control valves are heavy. Before removing them, provide a
means of support such as a chain hoist, floor jack, or blocks.
11. When washing parts, use a non-volatile cleaning solvent.
12. To insure control of the unit, keep the hydraulics in proper adjustment.

TOPIC 2: INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS

The word hydraulics originates from the Greek word ‘hydro’ which means ‘water’ and ‘aulis’
which means ‘tube’ or ‘pipe’.
The present day study of hydraulics includes the behavior of all fluids including gases under
pressure.

1. Hydraulic means the generation of forces and motion using hydraulics.

2. Hydraulic system is a method of transmitting forces or motion by applying pressure on a
confined liquid.

APPLICATION OF HYDRAULICS

It is applied in Heavy Equipment Repair in the following:-

1. Braking system
2. Clutch system
3. Suspension system
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 4. Transmission system
5. Steering system
6. Implements control including;
a) Loaders
b) Log handler
c) Folk lift
d) Dump truck
e) Motor grader
f) Dozer crawler
g) Mobile crane
h) Shovel
i) Scraper
j) Road surface
k) Excavators
The application of hydraulics is based on the service of fluid Mechanics which deals with properties
of fluid.

FUNCTIONS OF HYDRAULIC OIL

1. Cool the parts.

2. Cleans the parts.
3. Lubricate the parts.
4. Dampens the noise.

CHARACTERISTICS (PROPERTIES) OF HYDRAULIC OIL

1. Incompressibility – As the hydraulic systems are designed to operate with high loads and
pressure, the medium used in such systems should not permit greater compressibility. The
compressibility of hydraulic oil is so minimal.
2. Viscosity – This is a measure of fluidity also defined as the resistance to flow of the oil.
The oil selected for hydraulic operation must have proper viscosity to maintain adequate
lubricating film at system operating temperatures. In addition to dynamic lubricating
properties, the oil must have sufficient body to provide adequate sealing effect between
working parts of the hydraulic system
3. Viscosity Index – defined the way viscosity changes with temperature. The smaller the
viscosity change, the higher the viscosity index. Additives are incorporated in the oil to
improve the viscosity index. Not only do additives improve the viscosity index, but they are
also selected to reduce parts wear, increase chemical stability, inhibit corrosion and
depress the pour point.
4. Resist emulsification and foaming – The hydraulic oil must not easily trap air or mix with
water. The air and water trapped in the oil during operation must easily escape when the
oil has reached the reservoir.
5. Resist chemical breakdown due to oxidation – The hydraulic oil should serve long
enough before its properties breakdown. When the properties have broken-down the
machine will require oil change.
6. Flow characteristics – Hydraulic system involves the conversion of mechanical energy
into hydraulic energy, and hydraulic energy back to mechanical energy. This function is
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 achieved through the fluid flowing from one component to another. Therefore, the fluid
used in hydraulic system must have a flow characteristic. Care must be taken to prevent
the loss of work due to heat generated.
7. Good ageing ability – the hydraulic oil should not easily lose its additives.
8. Low Flammability – The hydraulic oil should be highly inflammable.

REQUIREMENTS OF HYDRAULIC OIL

1. Quick air release

2. Non-frothing
3. Resistance to cold
4. Corrosion resistance
5. Easy water separation

MERITS OF HYDRAULIC OIL

1. Less noisy in operation – fluid absorbs noise, vibration eliminated.

2. Varies force output – the same energy source can vary the output force by changing the
pressure and/or area of the piston.
3. Easy to re-route the force
4. Easy production of both rotary and linear motion.
5. Overload protection – the valves placed in the circuit protect the system components from
damage which may result from overload.
6. Greater power intensity
7. Forces can be applied at a distance from controls.
8. Motion can be transmitted without the slack inherent in the use of all solids machine parts.
9. Liquids are not subjected breakage.
10. Power costs and frictional losses can be held to a minimum.

DEMERITS

The main disadvantages associated with hydraulic system include:

1. Precision in the operating components – dimensions of the operating components have to

be precise to maintain system efficiency. Wear affects the efficiency of the system.
2. Operation is easily affected by leaks – a leak in the system may cause failure of the
system operation since the system highly depends on pressure in its operation.
3. Dirty and excessive heat is its greatest enemies – dirt and heat deteriorate system
efficiency. Wear and leaks are accelerated.
4. Environmental pollution – if not properly handled, the oil drained from the system may
pollute the environment and render fire risk.
5. Maintenance requires specialized skill – to effectively maintain, diagnose faults and repair
the hydraulic system a special skill is required. This skill acquired through training which
costs money.
6. High pressure risk – the hydraulic system operates with high pressures, therefore posses a
safety hazard.
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FRICTION

Friction is the resistance to relative motion between two bodies.

There are three main causes of excessive friction in hydraulic lines;
i. Excessive length of hydraulic lines (pipes)
ii. Excessive number of bends and fittings or improper bends (too sharp)
iii. Excessive fluid velocity caused by undersized hydraulic lines.

HYDRAULIC FACTS

1. There are two basic types of hydraulics

a) Hydrodynamics which is the use of fluids at high speeds ‘on impact’ to supply
power. Example – a Torque Converter.
b) Hydrostatic which is the use of fluids at relatively low speeds but at high pressures
to supply power?
2. Hydraulic power is nearly always generated from mechanical power. Example – a
hydraulic pump driven by an engine crankshaft. Sometimes the use of Pneumatics and
Electrical are applied.
3. Hydraulic power output is nearly always achieved by converting back to mechanical
energy. Example – a cylinder which raises a heavy plow.
4. Hydraulic energy is neither created nor destroyed, but converted to another form.
5. All energies put into a hydraulic system must come out either as work (gain) or as heat
(loss).
6. When a moving liquid is restricted, heat is created and there is loss of potential energy
(pressure) for doing work. Example – a tube or hose that is too small or is restricted.
Orifices, venture and relief valves are all retractors so purposely designed into the system.
7. Flow through an orifice or restrictor causes a pressure drop.
8. Oil takes the course of least resistance.
9. Oil is normally pushed into a pump, not drawn into it. Atmospheric pressure from the
reservoir supplies this push. For this reason an air vent is required on top of the reservoir.
10. A pump does not pump pressure; it creates flow. Pressure is caused by resistance to flow.
11. Two hydraulic systems may produce the same power output;
a) One at high pressure and low flow
b) The other at low pressure and high flow
12. A basic hydraulic system must include four components:
a) Reservoir to store the oil
b) Pump to push the oil through the system
c) Valves to control oil pressure and directional flow.
d) Actuator to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy or work.
13. Comparison between the two major hydraulic systems:
1. Open - centre system
- When the valve is neutral, oil flows through the valve centre while the
pump takes a break
- Pressure is varied but flow is constant.
2. Closed – Centre system
- When the valve is in neutral, no oil passes through the valve centre.
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 - Flow is varied
TOPIC 3: PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS
In order to understand the operation of hydraulic system, it is important that one understands the
fundamental principles upon which the hydraulic system is based.

a) Liquids have no shape of their own.

b) Liquids are practically incompressible.
c) Liquids transmit applied pressure in all directions, and act with equal force at right angles
to-all-surfaces.
d) Liquids under pressure follow the path of least resistance.
e) Pressure can be created only by a resistance to flow.
f) Flow across an orifice results in a pressure drop that is directly proportionate to the flow
and inversely proportionate to the area of the orifice opening.
g) Hydraulic systems can provide great increase in work force.
h) Energy put into a hydraulic system in the form of flow under pressure will result in either
work or heat.

1. ENERGY
The transmission of power in the hydraulic system is based on the energy applied to a
liquid in a confined space. This principle is derived from Pascal’s Law which states that:
‘Pressure exerted anywhere upon the surface of a liquid enclosed in a vessel
is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force on
equal surfaces, and at right angles to the surface.’

FIG. 3A
2. PRESSURE
a. One of the most important measurements in hydraulic is pressure.
b. Pressure is defined as: Force exerted on a unit area.
c. Force is a product of mass contained in a body and gravitation pull is constant
d. Force is a product of mass contained in a body and gravitational pull.
F = Mg
e. Since gravitational pull is constant {acceleration due gravity is 9.81m/s2, it is the
change in mass that alters the force.
f. The amount of force exerted on a unit area is termed as pressure, P =F/A
g. The intensity of pressure on a unit area is affected by two factors
i. Area

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 ii. Force
EFECTS OF SIZES
If two areas of different sizes were to be exerted with equal forces, the area with a smaller space
would experience higher pressure intensity than the area with a larger space.

a) F1 = 10N b) F2 = 10N

A1 = 0.2m2 A2 = 0.1m2
Pressure (P1) = F1/A1 Pressure (P2) = F2/A2
10/0.2NM-2 10/0.1NM-2
100/2NM-2 100/1NM-2
50NM-2 100NM-2

FIG 3B AND C
In hydraulic system, pressure increase is as a result of resistance to fluid flow.
The S.I unit for
 Force is Newton (N)
 Area is Meter Squared (m2)
 Pressure is Newton per meter squared or Pascal. 1 pa = 1Nm-2
Where Pascal digits are too many for practical application, a bar is preferred
1bar = 100, 000Pa
The unit, pounds per square inch (psi) though not international standard unit, is still
being used.
1 bar = 14.5 psi
1 psi = 7 kpa
1 bar = 103 kpa

PRESSURE HEAD OF A LIQUID

This is sometimes known as Hydrostatic Pressure.

A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight.
This pressure increases as the depth of the liquid increases

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 H3

H2

H1

FIG. 3D
Total pressure at the base of the cylinder is = Weight of liquid X Height
The intensity of pressure is related to the liquid head.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 Air exerts pressure on the surface of a liquid with which it is in contact. This pressure is
known as atmospheric pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure reduces as the distance from the Earth’s surface increase which is
one reason why aircraft engines are supercharged when designed to fly at higher altitudes.
 At sea level atmospheric pressure is usually taken as 101.3kn/m2
 Gauge Pressure – It is the pressure measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument. In gauge pressure, atmospheric pressure is taken as a datum and is marked
as zero.
 Absolute Pressure – Is the gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure. The pressure
shown on a gauge pressure is not the true pressure of the air. Absolute pressure takes into
account atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure. Remember that absolute pressure
applies only to gases.

FORCE

The concept of force can be summed up using the following simple laws:
i. A body will remain at rest or if in motion, will remain in uniform motion with constant
speed in a straight line, unless it is acted on by an unbalanced force.
ii. The acceleration produced by unbalanced force acting on a body is proportional to
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
iii. Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts a force
on the first body. This force is equal in magnitude but oppositely directed.

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HYDRODYNAMICS (MECHANICS OF MOVING FLUID)

 When fluids are at rest, the only fluid property of significance is the weight of the fluids.
 On the other hand, when a fluid is in motion various other fluid properties become
significant.
 The energy law applied to a flowing fluid says that the total energy of flow does not change
as long as energy is not supplied from outside or the energy is not drained to the outside.
 There are three types of energies or heads of flowing liquids. These are;
i. Potential Energy – Energy due to configuration or position above some suitable
datum line related to the height of the head of liquid.
ii. Kinetic Energy – The energy due to the velocity (speed) of the flowing liquid.
iii. Pressure Energy - The energy due to the pressure of the liquid.

The sum of total energy of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its
i. Potential energy
ii. Kinetic energy
iii. Pressure energy
The theory of total liquid energy is derived from Bernoulli’s Equation, which states that:

‘In an ideal, incompressible fluid, when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum
of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is constant along a stream
line’.

This theory is only mathematically true, because during flow fluid particles experiences friction.
Friction causes loss to the fluid flow. Hence;
 The sum of the pressure and kinetic energy of various points in a system must be
constant, if flow is constant.
 When a fluid flows through areas of different diameters, there must be corresponding
changes in velocity.
 Increase in velocity means an increase in kinetic energy.
 Pressure developed in an actuator depends on the load.
 The force developed by a cylinder depends upon the pressure of the fluid and area of the
piston.
 Actuator speed depends upon the rate of fluid flow.

Remember that: The quantity of fluid displaced into the actuator is equal to the quantity of fluid
displaced by the pump.

TOPIC 4: HYDRAULIC TERMINOLOGIES

1. Accumulator – A container which stores fluids under pressure as a source of hydraulic

power.
2. Actuator – A device which converts hydraulic power into mechanical force and motion.
3. Bypass – A secondary passage for fluid flow.

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 4. Cavitation - Air pockets in the oil circuit.
5. Circuit – A series of hydraulic component parts connected to each other by fluid lines or
passages.
6. Closed Centre System – A hydraulic system in which the control valves are closed during
neutral, stopping oil flow.
7. Cooler (oil) – A heat exchanger which removes heat from a fluid.
8. Cushion – A device sometimes built into the end of a cylinder which restricts outlet flow
and thereby slows down their piston.
9. Manifold – A fluid conductor which provides many ports.
10. Open centre system – A hydraulic system in which the control valves are open to
continuous oil flow, even in neutral.
11. Orifice – A restricted passage in a hydraulic circuit. Usually a small drilled hole to limit flow
or to create a pressure differential in a circuit.
12. Packing – Any material or device which seals by compression.
13. Breakout Pressure – The minimum pressure which starts moving an actuator.
14. Cracking Pressure – The pressure at which a relief valve, and so forth, begins to open
and pass fluid.
15. Differential pressure or pressure drop – The difference in pressure between any two
points in a system or a component.
16. Full flow pressure – The pressure at which a valve is wide open and passes its full flow.
17. Pilot pressure – Auxiliary pressure used to actuate or control a component.
18. Rated pressure – The operating pressure which is recommended for a component or a
system by the manufacturer.
19. Suction pressure – The absolute pressure of the fluid at the inlet side of the pump.
20. Surge pressure – The pressure changes caused in a circuit from a rapidly accelerated
column of oil.
21. System pressure – The pressure which overcomes the total resistances in the system.
22. Working pressure – The pressure which overcomes the resistance of the working device.
23. Pulsation – Repeated small fluctuation of pressure within a circuit.
24. Pump – A device which converts mechanical force into hydraulic fluid power.
25. Fixed displacement pump – A pump in which the output per cycle cannot be varied.
26. Variable Displacement pump – A pump in which the output per cycle can be varied.
27. Valve – A device which controls either pressure of the fluid, direction of the fluid or rate of
flow of the fluid.
28. Bypass flow regulator valve – A valve which regulates the flow to a circuit at a constant
volume dumping excess oil.
29. Check valve – A valve which permits flow in only one direction.
30. Closed centre valve – A valve in which inlet and outlet ports are closed in the neutral
position, stopping flow from pump.
31. Direction Control Valve – A valve which directs oil through selected passages.
32. Flow control valve – A valve which controls the rate of flow (volume control valve).
33. Flow divider valve – A valve which divides the flow from one source into two or more
branches, includes priority and proportional types.
34. Needle valve – A valve with an adjustable tapered point which regulates the rate of flow.
35. Open centre valve – A valve in which the inlet and outlet ports are open in the neutral
position, allowing a continuous flow of oil from pump.
36. Pilot valve – A valve used to operate another valve or control.
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 37. Poppet valve - A valve designed in which the seating element pops open to obtain free
flow in one direction and immediately reseats when flow reverses.
38. Pressure control valve – A valve whose primary function is to control pressure. These
include; relief valves, pressure reducing valves or sequencing valves and unloading
valves.
39. Pressure reducing valve – A pressure control valve which limits outlet pressure.
40. Pressure Sequence valve – A pressure control valve which directs flow in a preset
sequence.
41. Priority flow Divider valve – A valve which directs oil to one circuit at a fixed rate and
dumps excess flow into another circuit.
42. Proportional flow divider valve – A valve which directs oil to all its circuits at all times.
43. Relief valve – A valve which limits the presence in a system, usually by releasing excess
oil.
44. Rotary directional valve – A valve designed in a cylindrical shape. When the valve is
turned, it opens and closes drilled passages to direct oil.
45. Selector valve - A valve which selects one or two or more circuits in which to direct oil.
46. Shuttle valve – A connecting valve which selects one of the two or more circuits because
of flow or pressure changes in these circuits.
47. Shutoff valve – A valve which operates fully open or fully closed.
48. Spool Directional valve – A valve designed as a spool which slides in a bore, opening
and closing passages.
49. Thermal relief valve – A valve which limits the pressure in a system caused by heat
expansion of oil.
50. Unloading valve – A valve which allows a pump to operate at minimum load by dumping
the pump’s excess oil at a low pressure.
51. Volume control valve – A valve which controls the rate of flow. Includes flow control
valves, flow divider valves and bypass flow regulators.
52. Valve stack – A series of control valves in a stack with common and plates and a common
oil inlet and outlet.
53. Viscosity – The measure of resistance of a fluid to flow.

TOPIC 5: HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS

The hydraulic components which are going to be covered are:

5.1. Reservoirs
5.2. Filters and Strainers
5.3. Oil coolers
5.4. Accumulators
5.5. Pumps
5.6. Valves
5.7. Hoses
5.8. Actuator i.e. motors, cylinders and so forth.

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5.1. RESERVOIR

FUNCTIONS

1. To store hydraulic oil

2. To dissipate heat from the oil
3. To separate air from the oil
4. To settle out contaminants in the oil

TYPES

1. Vented to the atmosphere

2. Pressurized type

CONSTRUCTION

BAFFLES

INLET OUTLET

FIG, 5.1
1. Should be high and narrow
2. Oil level should be higher than the opening to the pump suction line. This prevents the
creation of a vacuum and hence prevents a vortex-whirl pool.
3. Has baffles to:
i. To prevent sloshing of oil
ii. To separate suction line from return line.
4. It has magnetic plugs used for removing iron and steel particles from the fluid.

TASK: SERVICE HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR

MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT

1. Earthmoving equipment complete with hydraulic reservoir.

2. Overhead hoist
3. Lifting tools
4. Artisan’s tool kit
5. Oil drain container
6. Mutton cloth

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SAFETY

When servicing a reservoir, regardless of its design, location, or the type of service to be
performed, one must proceed with care and follow the recommended precautionary steps outlined
in the service manual.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

1. Thoroughly clean the outside of the area surrounding the reservoir.

2. Position the machine at a clear working place and block the machine.
3. Operate the directional control valve back and forth to remove pressure from the system.
4. Slowly open the vent screw and remove filler cap.
5. Open the drain plug and drain the oil from the reservoir.

NB. In small machine, disconnect the pipes to and from the reservoir and any attachment and
remove the reservoir using appropriate lifting equipment.

6. Remove filters all covers, screens, filters, and breather.

7. Using clean steam cleaner, clean the inside of the reservoir and dry it with compressed
air.

INSPECTION

1. Check all threaded holes for damage.

2. Make certain the baffles have not broken loose.
3. Check screens sealing surfaces.
4. Check seals and gaskets for damage.
5. Check reservoir housing for cracks.

REASSEMBLY

1. If reservoir was removed, refit it back.

2. Using new seals and gaskets; fit back filters, covers, drain plug and all attachments.
3. Top up reservoir with clean recommended oil to correct level.
4. Test-run the machine and check for leakages.

NOTE. Oil drain procedure should be followed according to machine design.

1. In some machines drain plugs are equipped with drain pipes.

2. In other machines you insert a hand or motor driven pump to draw oil out of the reservoir
through the filler neck.

5.2. FILTERS AND STRAINERS

1. Both these are filters.

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 2. Strainers are used in pump suction lines where pressure drop must be kept to a minimum.
They remove/screen large particles of dirt from the fluid.
3. Filters so called, as they separate micro particles from the fluid.

FILTERS

FUNCTIONS

Remove from the hydraulic oil

1. Chucks from a disintegrated seal of hose
2. Dust, dirt and miscellaneous particles like Teflon pipe joint tape, painting and pieces of
disintegrated filter.
3. Metal particles from wearing or failed components
4. Rust and scale from replaced pipes and other components

CONSTRUCTION

1. At top in the filter body

i) Its where the oil connections are located
ii) Below the oil connections, are the filter cover
iii) Inside filter cover, is a filter element
iv) Inside filter element is the filter cartridge.
2. The filter body usually has safety valve, which opens when the difference in pressure over
the filter element reach a certain value, so that the element does not burst.
3. The filter element consists of a frame usually of sheet metal, on which there is a porous
mass, e.g. cellulose, fiberglass or the like.

TYPES OF FILTERS

There are two types of hydraulic filters:

1. Surface filters
2. Depth filters

SURFACE FILTERS

i. Have a single surface that catches and removes dirt particles larger than the holes in the
filter
ii. Dirt is strained or sheared from the oil and stopped outside the filter as oil passes through
the holes in a straight path.
iii. Usually made of:
1. Fine wire mesh
2. Stacked metal or paper discs,
3. Ribbon wound to form a cylinder,
4. Cellulose material molded to the shape of the filter or accordion-pleated paper.

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DEPTH FILTER

There are two classifications to the filter;

1. ABSORBENT FILTER
iv. Filters operate mechanically like a sponge soaking up water.
v. Oil passes through a large mass of porous materials such as cotton waste, wood pulp,
wool yarn, paper or quartz, leaving dirt trapped in the filter.
vi. This type of filter removes particles suspended in the oil and some water and water soluble
impurities.

2. ADSORBENT FILTERS
i. They are normally made of
1. Charcoal
2. Chemically treated paper
3. Fuller’s earth
ii. They remove contaminants particles, water soluble impurities
iii. As it is chemically treated, it does also remove contaminants caused by oil oxidation
and deterioration.
iv. These types of filters are not used in hydraulic oil filters nowadays as desirable
additives could be removed.

TASK: CHANGING OIL

The oil additives become depleted as the machine is operating. The antioxidant additive is used up
which may cause thick tar-like deposits in the system. In some cases moisture gradually forms
sludge in the oil.
Oil change intervals are based on the time or mileage, whichever occurs first. It is very important to
change the oil at the manufacturers’ recommended intervals to maintain system internal
cleanliness and long life. Older machines usually have shorter recommended oil change intervals.
When the oil is changed it is very important to follow the manufacturers’ recommended oil
classification and viscosity rating.

The machine should be at normal operating temperature before oil is drained from the reservoir.
This helps for complete drainage of oil with contaminates. To change the hydraulic oil, the machine
is packed on level surface. An oil drain pan is placed in position and the drain plug is removed from
the oil reservoir. After oil is drained, the plug is installed. Then oil is filled in the reservoir and
machine is started to check for leakages.

SERVICING THE OIL FILTER

As per the recommendation of the manufacturer, the oil filter should be serviced or replaced
regularly for long life of the machine. Normally oil filter is serviced with the first oil change and then
after every other oil change. Some filters have replaceable elements, the filter element and
container are replaced as a unit. A new filter should always start out with new oil.

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With the old filter off, the recess and sealing face of the filter bracket should be wiped with a clean
shop towel. Then, the sealing gasket of the new filter should be coated with oil.

The seal on the new oil filter should be lubricated with a small amount of clean oil before the filter is
installed. When the new oil filter is installed, it should be tightened by rotating it about one half-turn
after the seal makes contact with the mounting plate.

5.3. OIL COOLERS

FUNCTION

Help to control operating temperature.

TYPES

There are two types of oil coolers.

1. Air – to - Oil Coolers
2. Water – to Oil Coolers

1. AIR –TO – OIL COOLERS

FIG 5.3A

The system uses moving air to dissipate heat from the oil.
On mobile machines, the cooling system (radiator) fan may supply the air blast.
The cooler has fins which direct air over long coils of oil tubes which expose more oil to the air.
The cooler may also have a tank to store a reserve of cooled oil.
A bypass valve is also sometimes used as a safety valve in case the cooler oil tubes become
clogged.
This cooler is also known as “A fluid-to air cooler.”

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WATER-TO-OIL COOLER

FIG 5.3B
1. It is basically a can with tubes.
2. Water flows through the tubes and hydraulic oil around the tubes in a can.
3. Since water carries away heat much better than air, a fluid-to-water cooler is
much smaller than a fluid- to – air cooler.
4. The same water from the engine radiator is used in the cooling of oil.
Another less common type of water-to cooler uses the evaporation of water to cool oil. Water is
sprayed over coils of oil tubes, while forced air is blown in from the bottom.
Part of the water evaporates, cooling the remaining water which in turn draws heat from the oil in
the tubes. This cooler is not as compact as one described above.

LOCATION OF OIL COOLERS

1. Air-to-oil coolers are usually mounted in front of the engine radiator, making use of the fan’s
air blast.
2. Other coolers are located:
i. In the system main line
ii. On the relief valve outlet line or in the case of pressure line from a pump or motor.
iii. In a separate circuit, with a small pump to circulate fluid from the reservoir through
cooler and back.

TASK: SERVICE OIL COOLERS

MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT

1. Earthmoving equipment complete with hydraulic cooler.

2. Lifting tools
3. Artisan’s tool kit
4. Oil drain container
5. Mutton cloth

LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 19

SAFETY

When servicing oil cooler, regardless of its design, location, or the type of service to be performed,
one must proceed with care and follow the recommended precautionary steps outlined in the
service manual.

1. Clean the outside of the cooler assembly.

2. Ensure oil pressure is relieved before you start working on the oil cooler.
3. Disconnect the oil pipes from the cooler and plug the hoses and ports.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

(a) LIQUID/OIL COOLER

Cooler using liquid coolant to cool oil

1. Cross the coolant tap.

2. Disconnect the oil connections from the cooler.
3. Remove the cooler.
4. Drain oil from the cooler.
5. Clean cooler oil passage using clean diesel or recommended solvent and plug the ports.
6. Using compressed air, blow out any dirt in the coolant passage directing it in the opposite
direction to the flow of coolant.
7. Inspect seals and gaskets.

b) AIR/OIL COOLER

Cooler using air to cool oil

1. Disconnect cooler attachments.

2. Disconnect oil pipes from cooler.
3. Remove cooler.
4. Drain oil from cooler.
5. Clean cooler oil passage using clean diesel or recommended solvent and plug the ports.
6. Using a steam cleaner, clean the cooler fins.

After cleaning and inspecting the cooler, reinstall the cooler in the exact reverse order from
disassembly and test ran the machine to check for leakages.

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5.4 HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

FIG. 5.4A
An accumulator is basically a container, which stores oil under pressure. Accumulators are used
for the following functions: -
1. Stores hydraulic energy for use later.
2. Absorbs hydraulic shocks in a circuit.
3. Gradually build up hydraulic pressure.
4. Maintains a constant pressure in the hydraulic circuit.

USES OF ACCUMULATORS

1. TO STORE HYDRAULIC ENERGY

This accumulator usage is usually applied in systems that use displacement pumps. The
accumulator stores hydraulic energy during the time the actuator is not demanding greater
oil volume. It releases the stored hydraulic energy when the actuator demands an
increased oil volume more than that supplied by the pump. Sometimes the stored oil is
used on emergency when the pump has failed for any reason. In such a situation, the
accumulator becomes the main oil supplier.

2. ABSORB SHOCKS

During hydraulic shocks or peak operating pressures, the accumulator takes in excess oil,
which it releases later into the circuit after the surge is over. This action reduces hydraulic

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 vibrations or noise. The hydraulic operations are smoothened during pressure delays that
may occur when a variable displacement pump is taking a break while there is a sudden
demand. The accumulator will discharge the oil into the circuit at this moment, which takes
up the slack operation.

3. BUILD PRESSURE GRADUALLY

Accumulators that are installed for the purpose of gradual pressure build-up, make the
operating strokes or pulses of the hydraulic pump smooth. This action results in gradual
rising of the load because the accumulator is absorbing some of the actuator operating
strokes.

4. MAINTAIN CONSTANT PRESSURE

The type of accumulator used for this purpose is the weight loaded. The weight-loaded
accumulator exerts a fixed force on the oil in a closed circuit. This action maintains a
constant pressure in the circuit so that even if change in oil volume due to leakage or
expansion due to heat or contraction takes place the pressure will remain constant.

TYPES OF ACCUMULATORS

Accumulators are classified according to the material used to pressurize the oil. Materials such as
air, spring or weight are used to load the accumulators, hence types of accumulator include:
1. Pneumatic Accumulators
2. Spring Loaded Accumulators
3. Weight Loaded Accumulators

1. PNEUMATIC ACCUMULATORS

Pneumatic accumulators use inert gas such as Nitrogen to exert pressure on the oil in the
container. Gas is compressible and is able to expand when the volume of the container allows. The
type of gas used in accumulators Nitrogen does not react even under extreme pressure.
When the oil pressure rises, the incoming oil will compress the gas increasing gas pressure in the
accumulator and, when the energy pushing the oil into the accumulator has dropped, the gas in the
accumulator will expand forcing the oil out of the accumulator into the system to do work

TYPES OF PNEUMATIC (GAS CHARGED) ACCUMULATORS

Gas charged accumulators are according to the method used to separate the gas from the oil. Oil
may be separated from the gas using:
1. A piston, floating in a cylinder.
2. A bladder, a flexible bag-like container.
3. A diaphragm.

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 1.1. PISTON- TYPE PNEUMATIC ACCUMULATOR

FIG. 5.4B
In a piston-type accumulator, a free floating piston is used to separate the gas from the oil. The
container is like a hydraulic cylinder without a piston rod.
The piston is fitted with seal packing that seal between the two chambers. A bleed hole is provided
in the piston that removes the oil seeping through the piston area.
Piston-type accumulators offer high power output and are very accurate in operation.

1.2. BLADDER-TYPE PNEUMATIC ACCUMULATORS

In a bladder-type accumulator, the gas is contained in a flexible bag or rubber made of synthetic
rubber. This bag separates the gas from the oil.
The bag is fitted with a gas charging valve at the top while the button has a hardened portion called
protective button which prevents possible damage to the bag when the oil is flowing out of the
accumulator.

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 1.3. DIAPHRAGM-TYPE ACCUMULATORS

Diaphragm-type accumulators use a rubber diaphragm to separate the gas from the oil. They are
light in weight and are often used in aircraft systems.

FIG. 5.4D

2. SPRING-LOADED ACCUMULATORS

The spring-loaded accumulators use the force of the spring to maintain pressure on the oil. Oil
pressure acts on the piston during accumulator loading compressing the spring behind the piston.
When the system pressure drops, the spring will remove the piston against the oil forcing the oil
into the system to do work.

FIG. 5.4E
Changing one of the following can alter the operation of the spring-loaded accumulator:
1. The strength of the spring.
2. Length of the spring.
3. The size of the piston.
4. The length of the piston stroke.

In order to maintain the required operation of a spring-loaded accumulator, the correct spring and
the correct pair of cylinder and piston should be maintained.
The advantage of a spring-loaded accumulator is that it does not need pre-charging or recharging.
The disadvantage is that it is too bulky especially for use on high volume or high pressure systems.
Therefore, spring-loaded accumulators are a choice on low volume or low-pressure systems.

LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 24

 FIG. 5.4F

3. WEIGHT-LOADED ACCUMULATORS

This type of accumulator also known as piston and cylinder, but a heavy load is placed on the
piston to exert pressure on the oil filling the cylinder. The load is by gravity.
The advantage of a weight-loaded accumulator is that it provides constant pressure.
The disadvantages are that it is:
1. Bulky in size.
2. Heavy.

Due to the above disadvantages, the weight-loaded accumulator has less use on mobile hydraulic
systems.

FIG 5.4G

PRECAUTIONS FOR PNEUMATIC ACCUMULATORS

Observe the following precautions when working on pneumatic accumulators. The correct
procedures for service are given in detail below under service and pre-charging pneumatic
Accumulators.

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 1. Caution – Never fill accumulator with Oxygen. An Explosion could result if oil and oxygen
mix under pressure.
2. Caution – never fill an accumulator with compressed air. An explosion could result if air
and water mix under pressure. When air is compressed, water vapour in the air condenses
and can cause rust. This in turn may damage seals and ruin the accumulator.
3. Always fill an accumulator with dry nitrogen. This gas is inert and free of both water
vapour and oxygen. This makes it harmless to parts and it is safe to use.
4. Never charge an accumulator to a pressure more than that recommended by the
manufacturer. Read the label and observe the ‘working pressure.’
5. Before removing an accumulator from a hydraulic system, release all hydraulic pressure.
6. Before you disassemble an accumulator release both gas and hydraulic pressures.
7. When you disassemble an accumulator, make sure that dirt and abrasive material does
not enter any of the openings.

SERVICING AND PRECHARGING PNEUMATIC ACCUMULATORS

1. If you suspect external gas leaks, apply soapy water to the gas valve and seams on the
tank at the ‘gas’ end if bubbles form, there is a leak.
2. If you suspect internal leaks, check for foaming oil in the system reservoir and/or no action
of the accumulator. These signs usually mean a faulty bladder or piston seals inside the
accumulator.
3. If the accumulator appears to be in good condition but is still slow or inactive, pre-charge it
as necessary.

BEFORE REMOVING THE ACCUMULATOR FROM MACHIINE

First be sure all hydraulic pressure is released. To do this, shut down the pump and cycle a priority
function in the accumulator hydraulic circuit to relieve oil pressure (or open a bleed screw).

REMOVING ACCUMULATOR FROM MACHINE

After all hydraulic pressure has been released; remove the accumulator from the machine for
service.

REPAIRING ACCUMULATOR
1. Before dismantling accumulator, release all gas pressure.
1.1. Unscrew the gas valve very slowly.
1.2. Install the charging valve first if necessary.
1.3. Never release the gas by depressing the valve core, as the core might be ruptured.
2. Disassemble the accumulator on a clean bench area.
3. Check all parts for leaks or other damage.
4. Plug the openings with plastic plugs or clean towels as soon as parts are removed.
5. Check bladder or piston seals for damage and replace if necessary.
6. If gas valve cores are to be replaced, be sure to use the recommended types.
7. Carefully assemble the accumulator.

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PRECHARGING ACUMULATOR – Pneumatic Type

FIG 5.4I
Caution:
1. Incorrect charging procedure can be dangerous. Only charge the accumulator yourself if
you have the know-how and equipment to do so safely. If in doubt, have it charged by a
professional.
2. Attach the hose from a DRY NITROGEN tank to the gas valve of the accumulator and
open the accumulator gas valve.
3. Open the valve on the regulator very slowly until pressure on the gauge is the same as
that recommended by the manufacturer.
4. Close the gas valve on the accumulator, and then close the valve on the regulator.
5. Remove the hose from the gas valve.

5.5. HYDRAULIC PUMPS

PURPOSE

1. To push hydraulic fluid and create flow.

2. To convert mechanical energy from the prime mover (engine or electrical) into hydraulic
(pressure) energy which is used to operate the actuator.
SPECIFICATION

Pumps are classified into:

1. Non-displacement pumps
2. Positive displacement pumps
NON-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

1. They discharge liquid in a continuous flow.

2. The volume of liquid delivered for each cycle depends on the resistance to flow.
LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 27
 3. Resistance in the discharge line produces a force in the opposite direction.
4. When the pushing and the resistance forces are equal, then the liquid will be in a state of
equilibrium and will not flow.
5. The non-positive displacement pump is a pump whose discharge capacity per cycle vary
according to the speed of the prime mover. An example of a non-positive displacement
pump is a centrifugal pump.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

1. They discharge volume of liquid separated by periods of no discharge.

2. A definite volume of fluid is delivered for each cycle of pump operation, regardless of the
resistance as long as the rated capacity of the prime mover is not exceeded.
3. If the outlet is closed completely, either the prime mover or something else in the
installation will break. An example of a positive displacement pump is a Vane pump.
PERFORMANCE

Pumps are rated according to their volumetric output, displacement and pressure.
Volumetric output (delivery rate or capacity) is the amount a pump can deliver at its outlet
port. This is measured in gallons per minute or litres per minute.

Displacement:

This is the amount of liquid transferred from a pump’s inlet to its outlet in one revolution or
cycle. Displacement is expressed in cubic inches per revolution and cubic inches per cycle in
rotary and reciprocating pumps respectively.
If a pump has more than one pumping chambers, displacement is equal to the displacement of
one chamber multiplied by the number of chambers.

a) FIXED DISPLACEMENT PUMP – The litres per minute output can be changed only by
varying the drive speed. The pump can be used in Open-centre system, in which a
pump’s output has a free-flow back to a reservoir in the neutral condition of the circuit.
b) VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMP – The size of the pumping chambers can be
changed. The litres per minute (LPM) can be changed by moving the displacement
control, driver speed or both. The pump can be used in a Closed-centre system, in
which a pump continues to operate against a load in the neutral condition.
c) PRESSURE – Is the force per unit area of liquid expressed in Pounds per Square Inch
(PSI) or Bars, or Pascal. As pressure increases, volumetric output decreases. This
drop in output is caused by an increase in internal leakage (slippage from a pump’s
outlet side to its outlet side.
SLIPPAGE

This is a measure of pump’s efficiency and usually expressed in percent. The oil leaks
from a pressure outlet to a low-pressure area or back to the inlet. Some slippage is
designed into a pump for lubrication purposes. A drain passage allows oil to return to an
inlet or reservoir. Slippage increases with pressure, if pressure increases, more flow will
occur through the leakage path and less from an outlet port.
LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 28
DESIGNS

In most rotary pumps, inlet to the pumping chambers is larger than the outlet from the pumping
chambers. Larger inlets create vacuum and enable the pump get free flow of liquid from reservoir.
Decreased size outlet port enables the pump to push the liquid in the system.
The essentials of any hydraulic pumps are:
a) A low-pressure inlet port, which receives fluid from the reservoir.
b) A high-pressure outlet port connected to the pressure line.
c) Pumping chamber(s) to carry a fluid from inlet to the outlet port.
d) A mechanical means for activating the pumping chambers.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Pumps are classified according to specific design used to create the flow of a liquid. These designs
can be:
a) Centrifugal
b) Rotary
c) Reciprocating
ROTARY PUMPS – these are classified according to the type of pumping element that
actually transmit the fluid, i.e. gear, vane or piston type rotary pump.

GEAR PUMP – there are three types of gear pumps:

a) External
b) Internal
c) Lobe types
EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP – The operating principle of an external gear pump is that it
consists of driving gear and a driven gear enclosed in a closely fitted housing. The gears
rotate in opposite directions and meshed at a point in the housing between the inlet and
outlet ports. As the two gears rotate, a partial vacuum is created and draws fluid through
an inlet port into chamber ‘A’ (receiving). The fluid in the chamber is trapped between gear
teeth of the two gears and the housing so that it is carried through two separate paths to
chamber ‘B’ (outlet) and the process continues.

LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 29

 FIG.5.5A EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP
TASK: SERVICE GEAR PUMP

MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT

1. Earthmoving equipment complete with hydraulic pump.

2. Lifting tools
3. Artisan’s tool kit
4. Oil drain container
5. Mutton cloth

SAFETY

When servicing a pump, regardless of its design, location, or the type of service to be performed,
one must proceed with care and follow the recommended precautionary steps outlined in the
service manual.

NOTE: pump failure is evidenced by noise, driveshaft seal leakage, or a drop pump delivery. Since
any of these malfunctions may be due to one or several causes, it is important to diagnose and
correct any such failure before the pump is serviced or a new one is fitted.
Oil pumps will normally give good performance over a long period of time when operating in a
properly maintained system:
1. Using clean and correct grade of oil.
2. Regular filter changes.
3. Frequent inspection of all hydraulic system components.

GEAR PUMPS
A gear pump is one of the reliable hydraulic pumps. It is robust and lasts long.

SAFETY PRECAUTION
Before removing oil pump, first relief system hydraulic pressure and clean the machine.

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
1. Clean the machine and area around the pump.
2. Disconnect hydraulic hoses from the pump and plug both ports and hoses.
3. Remove pump mounting bolts and remove pump from the machine.
4. Mount pump on a fixture.
5. Mark pump’s housing segments.
6. Remove pump mounting bolts.
7. Remove the pump housing cover to expose the gears.
8. Mark meshing gears and using hands remove both driven and the driving shaft at once
with a quick motion.
9. Remove the pump bearing.
10. Clean all disassembled parts in correct solvent.

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CAUTION
1. Don not use screw driver or chisel to try apart the pump sections. Use soft hammer.
2. Do not remove the seals unless replacement seals are available.

INSPECTION
1. Check housing for cracks.
2. Check seals for damage.
3. Check shafts and gears for damage.
4. Check seals for damage.

PUMP MEASUREMENTS
(A) TIP CLEARANCE
1. Assemble back the seals and bearings in the housing.
2. Reassemble the drive shaft and gear then the driven gear.
3. Using a correct thickness of filler gauge, measure tip clearance by inserting a filler gauge
blade between the tip of the gears and the pump housing.
4. Compare it with the manufacturer’s recommendation.

FIG 5.5B
(b) END FLOAT
1. Measure pump’s gear to cover clearance by placing a straight edge across the top side of
the gears as shown.
2. Using a correct blade of filler gauge, measure the clearance and compare it with the
manufacturer’s specification.

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 FIG 5.5C
(c) TOOTH CONTACT
1. Measure tooth contact by placing a correct bade of filler gauge between the meshing teeth.
2. Compare the measurement with the manufacturer’s specification.

FIG 5.5D
REASSEMBLY
Lubricate all components and replace all worn or damaged parts before reassembly.
1. Assemble seals, bearings and both shafts in their correct meting order.
2. Fit back end plate.
3. Refit the pump back unto the machine.
4. Refit the hoses.
5. Check hydraulic oil and top up if necessary.
6. Test ran the machine and check for leakages.

INTERNAL GEAR PUMP –

This pump consists of two gears. The teeth of one gear project outward, while the teeth of the other
gear project inward toward the centre of the pump. One gear wheel stands inside the other. It is
called inner gear. The other one is called external gear.

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 FIG. 5.5E INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

An internal gear is directly attached to the drive shaft of the pump and is placed off-centre
in relation to an inner gear. The two gears mesh on one side of the pump chamber,
between an inlet and discharge. On the opposite side of the chamber is a crescent seal
which stands in the space between the two gears to provide a close tolerance. The
rotation of an external gear by the shaft causes the inner gear to rotate since the two are
in mesh. The crescent seal does not rotate and as the two gears rotate, cause the fluid to
be trapped in gear spaces as it pass though the crescent. Both gears move in the same
direction. The fluid is carried from inlet side of the pump creating partial vacuum in the
inlet port, thereby forcing more liquid from supply source to supply the inlet. The size of
the crescent seal determines the volume delivery of the pump. A small crescent seal
allows more volume of liquid per revolution than a large crescent.

LOBE (GEAR OR ROTOR) PUMP

Differs from other gear pump because it uses lobed elements instead of gears. The
element drive also differs in a lobe pump. In gear pump, one gear drives the other. In lobe
pump, each element (lobe) is driven through external gearing.

FIG. 5.5F LOBE (ROTOR) PUMP

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VANE PUMP

It consists of;
i. Slotted rotor
ii. Pumping chamber
iii. Cam ring

OPERATION

A slotted rotor splined to a drive shaft rotates between closely fitted side plates that are
inside of circular shaped ring. Polished and hardened vanes slide in and out of the rotor
slots and follow the ring contour by centrifugal force. The vanes may be spring loaded to
maintain a positive load against the cam ring. The pumping chambers are formed between
succeeding vanes carrying oil from the inlet to the outlet. A partial vacuum is created in the
inlet as the oil is carried away by the vanes.
A vane pump is designed with an automatic wear compensation built in. as wear occurs,
the vanes simply slide further out of the rotor slots and continue to follow a ring’s contour.
The vane pumps are of two types; i) Unbalanced vane Pump ii) Balanced Vane Pump.
Vane pumps have good efficiency and durability if operated in a clean system and using
correct oil.

UNBALANCED VANE PUMP

It can be either fixed or variable displacement. A cam ring’s shape is a true circle that is on
different centerlines from that of a rotor. Pump displacement depends on how far a rotor
and ring are eccentric.
The advantage of a true-circle ring is that control can be applied to vary the eccentricity
and thus vary the displacement.
A disadvantage is that unbalanced pressure at the outlet is effective against a small area
of the rotor’s edge, imposing side
loads on the shaft.

FIG. 5.5G UNBALANCED VANE PUMP

BALANCED VANE PUMP

It is a fixed displacement pump. It has a stationary, elliptical cam ring and two sets of
internal ports. A pumping chamber is formed between any two vanes twice in each
revolution. The two inlets and outlets are 1800 apart. Back pressure against the edges of a
rotor cancels each other.
LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 34
 FIG. 5.5H BALANCED VANE PUMP

TASK: VANE PUMP SERVICE

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
1. Clean the pump external parts.
2. Mark the pump housing segments.
3. Remove securing bolts and remove the end plate.
4. Remove the drive shaft and rotor.
5. Remove the sliding vanes.
6. Clean all disassembled parts.

INSPECTION
1. Check pump housing for cracks and damage.
2. Check seals for damage.
3. Check rotor for cracks and signs of wear.
4. Check sliding vanes for damage and signs of wear.
5. Check rotor and bore foe cracks and damage.
6. Check clearances as shown in Fig. 5.5I to 5.5K.

FIG 5.5I
 Measure the gap between the straight-edge and the surface of the vanes and rotor using a
0.006” (0.13mm) feeler gauge.

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 FIG 5.5J
 Check for too much clearance round each vane in its groove.

FIG 5.5K
 Check the lateral clearances between the rotor assembly and the pump body.
REASSEMBLY
Lubricate all internal parts ad replace all damaged parts.
1. Assemble the vanes in the rotor.
2. Fit the rotor assembly in the housing.
3. Fit the end plate fitted with new seals.

PISTON PUMPS

These are of two types; i) Radial Type ii) Axial Type

RADIAL PISTON PUMP

COMPOSISTION: -1) Pintle. 2) Cylinder block /rotor. 3) Pistons. 4) Drive shaft.

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 FIG. 5.5L RADIAL PISTON PUMP

OPERATION
The pistons are arranged like wheel spokes in a short cylindrical block. A drive shaft is
inside a circular housing, rotates a cylinder block. It turns on a stationary pintle that
contains the inlet and outlet ports. As a cylinder block turns, a centrifugal force slings out
the pistons which follow a circular housing. The housing’s centre line is offset from cylinder
block’s centerline. The amount of eccentricity between the two determines a piston stroke
as well as the pumps displacement. Control can be applied to change the housing’s
location and thereby vary the pump’s delivery from zero to maximum.

NOTE:
a) When a pump has an uneven number of pistons, no more than one piston is
completely blocked by a Pintle at one time thus reduction in flow pulsation.
b) An even number of piston will increase pulsation flow. This is so because two
pistons would be blocked by the Pintle at the same time, thereby allowing three
pistons to discharge at one time and again four at another time.

PART DESCRIPTION

FIG 5.5M
LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 37
 1. PINTLE – This is a round bar that serves as a stationary shaft around which the
cylinder block turns. It has four holes bored from one end lengthwise through part
of its length. Two of the holes serve as an inlet and the other two as discharge. A
slot is cut on each set of the bored holes on the side of the shaft in order to
accommodate the pistons when the cylinder block is assembled on the Pintle. One
slot provides for intake while the other provides for discharge. The discharge holes
are connected through appropriate fittings to discharge line in the system.

FIG 5.5N

2. CYLINDER BLOCK – This is a block of metal with a hole bored through its centre
to lift on to the Pintle. The cylinder holes are bored equal distance apart around its
outside edge. The cylinder’s holes connect with the hole that receives the Pintle.
The cylinder and Pintle holes are accurately machined so that the fluid loss will be
minimal.

FIG 5.5O
3. PISTONS – Pistons are of different designs.
a) Pistons with small wheels that roll around the inside of a curve of a rotor.
b) Pistons with a conical edge on its top. It bears directly against a reaction
of the rotor. The piston goes back and forth in the cylinder while it rotates
about its axis so that the top surface will wear uniformly.
c) Pistons attached to curve plates. The curve plates bear against and slide
around the inside surface of the rotor.

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 FIG 5.5P
4. ROTOR – This is a circular ring against which the pistons bear. It rotates within a
slide block and can be shifted from side to side in order to control the length of a
stroke.

AXIAL PISTON PUMPS

FIG. 5.5Q Bent axis Axial Pump

The pump’s stroke direction is along the cylinder block’s axis, hence the name, axial
piston pump. Axial pumps may be an in-line or angle design.

1. Capacity – ranges from low to very high.

2. Efficiency – high and have excellent durability.
3. Pressure – as high as 4, 000 psi.
4. Drive speed – medium to high.

Types –
1. In-line piston pumps
2. Wobble-plate in-line pump
3. Bent-piston pump.

Discussion will be based only on an in-line piston pump, because it shares the same
principle of operation as the rest.

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 IN-LINE PISTON PUMP

FIG. 5.5R
COMPOSITION –
1. Housing
2. drive shaft
3. Rotating group
4. Shaft seal
5. Valve plate.

Rotating group consists of;

1. Cylinder block
2. Drive shaft
3. Spherical washer
4. Spring
5. Pistons
6. Shoe and shoe plate
7. Swash plate

FIG 5.5S
When the rotating group is assembled, a spring forces the cylinder against a valve
plate and a spherical washer against a shoe plate. This action holds the piston shoes
against a swash plate, ensuring that the pistons will reciprocate as the cylinder turns.
A swash plate is stationary in the fixed displacement design while in the variable
displacement it can be altered to vary the displacement.

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 OPERATION
A drive shaft and the cylinder block are on the same central axis. Reciprocation of the
pistons is caused by swash plate that the piston run against as the cylinder block turns
or rotates. The cylinder block is driven or rotated by drive shaft as a result the cylinder
block carriers the pistons around a shaft.
The piston shoes slide against a swash plate and are held against the pistons to
reciprocate in the cylinder bores. At the point where a piston begins to retract, an
opening in the end of a bore slides over an inlet slot in the valve plate, and oil is drawn
into the bore through in less than half revolution. As a piston begins to extend, an
opening in the cylinder barrel moves over an outlet slot and oil is force out a pressure
port.

DISPLACEMENT
Pump displacement depends on the bore diameter (size), stroke of the piston (length
of movement) and the number of pistons. A swash plate’s angle determines the
stroke, which can vary by changing the angle. In fixed displacement pumps the swash
plate is stationary in the housing. In variable displacement pump, it is mounted on the
yoke which can turn on pintles. Different controls can be attached to the pintles to vary
pump delivery from zero to maximum. A yoke can be positioned manually with a screw
or lever or by compensated control, which positions a yoke automatically to maintain
constant output pressure under a variable flow requirement.

FIG 5.5T

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 FIG. 5.5U

TASK: PISTON PUMP SERVICE

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
1. Remove the valve plate.
2. Remove spring and yoke actuating piston.
3. Remove pump shaft cover bearing.
4. Remove rotating group (piston and cylinder assembly).
5. Remove swash plate and yoke assembly.
6. Remove drive shaft.

INSPECTION
1. Clean all pump internal parts.
2. Inspect spring and piston for cracks or breakage.
3. Inspect pump shaft cover bearing.
4. Inspect shall bearing for wear.
5. Inspect drive shaft bearing.

REASSEMBLY
1. Reassemble pump in reverse order.
2. Turn pump shaft to ensure free movement of internal parts.
3. Plug off inlet and outlet ports to prevent ingress of dirt from entering the inner part of the
pump.
4. Store the pump in a clean dry place.

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PRESSURE COMPENSATOR SERVICE

COMPENSATOR DISASSEMBLY

NOTE:
Access plugs on end of compensator spool bores are hardened plugs. Do not interchange with
other plugs in the control. For rotation change, the complete compensator assembly will need to be
replaced.

PROCEDURE
i. Measure and record the extension of the two pressure adjusting screws.
ii. Carefully remove the main compensator spring cap. Remove the two springs.
iii. Remove the seal piston and spring seat.
iv. Remove the O-ring boss access plug on the opposite side of the compensator
v. Remove the load sense compensator spool.
For ‘L’ series compensators:
i. Carefully remove the load sense compensator spring cap with spring seat/seal piston.
ii. Remove the spring.
iii. Remove the spring seat.
iv. Remove the O-ring boss access plug on the opposite side of the compensator.
v. Remove the load sense compensator spool.
vi. Remove all O-ring boss access plugs.

NOTE:
i. The compensator spool and inner spring are not interchangeable with the load sense
compensator spool and spring.
ii. The load sense compensator spool and inner spring are not interchangeable with the main
compensator spool and inner spring of the main compensator.

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 FIG 5.5V
INSPECTION

NOTE: The compensator is supplied as an assembly. Individual parts are not available. If there is
significant damage to any of the parts, the complete compensator will need to be replaced.
i. Inspect the main compensator spool and the load sense spool for scratches or other
damage.
ii. Inspect the springs for proper free extension length.
iii. Inspect the spool bores for damage. Apply a light oil film on the appropriate spool and
check its fit in the bore. The spool should fit snugly in housing and not have any radial
play.
COMPENSATOR REASSEMBLY
Carefully clean and dry all parts prior to assembly. Use caution to insure that spools and other
parts are not damaged during cleaning process. Use clean oil to lubricate seals and spools for
easier assembly.
1. Remove and discard all O-rings. Install new O-rings on boss plugs and seal pistons.
2. Apply a light film of oil to the O-ring on the main compensator seal piston. Install the main
compensator seal piston in the main compensator spring cap.
3. Place inner compensator spring on seal piston.
4. Install the outer compensator spring over the inner spring on the seal piston.
5. Position the spring seat over the springs.
6. Insert this assembly into the main compensator housing bore. Torque the main
compensator spring cap to 169-183 Nm.
7. Apply a light film of oil on the main compensator spool [the longer of the 2 spools].
8. Insert the spool into the spool bore opposite the main compensator spring assembly in the
compensator body. The rounded end of the spool should be installed first so it will contact
the spring seat.

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 9. Install a new O-ring on the hardened boss fitting and place it into the port. Torque fitting to
4±0.5 Nm.
10. Apply a light film of oil to the O-ring on the load sense seal piston.
11. Install the load sense compensator seal piston seat in the load sense spring cap.
12. Install the load sense spring over the seal piston.
13. Position the spring seat over the spring.
14. Install this assembly into the load sense bore of the compensator housing.
15. Torque the load sense spring cap to 35-38 Nm.
16. Apply a light film of oil to the O-ring on the load sense seal piston and install the load
sense compensator seal piston seat in the load sense spring cap.
17. Install the load sense spring this over the seal piston. Position the spring seat over the
spring and install this assembly into the load sense bore of the compensator housing.
Torque the load sense spring cap to 35-38 Nm.
18. Apply a light film of oil to the load sense compensator spool bore [the shorter of the 2
spools]. Install the spool into the spool bore opposite the load sense spring assembly.
19. Install O-rings on remaining boss fittings and install into housing.

PUMP OPERATION PROBLEMS

1. OVERLOADING – one risk of overloading is the danger of excess torque on the drive
shaft. Torque is circular force on an object. An increase in pressure or pump displacement
or pressure remains constant.
2. EXCESS SPEED – Running a pump at too high speed causes loss of internal lubrication
which may eventually to lead premature failure. If a needed the delivery requires a higher
drive speed than a rated.
3. CAVITATION – It is the presence of air pockets in the fluid. The condition can lead a pump
to be unable to perform to specified capacity or required pressure.
Conditions – i) Obstruction in the circuit
ii) The reservoir’s oil level is too far below suction line.
iii) The oil viscosity is too high
v) Vacuum in the inlet or suction
Solution - i) Ensure no obstruction in the inlet
ii) Locate the reservoir above the suction line or inlet.
iii) Maintain oil with right viscosity
iv) Prime or pressurize the suction line into the inlet.
4. AERATION – This occurs when excessive air is trapped in the fluid. Pumping aerated fluid
with a positive displacement pump will cause pump erosion to occur at the outlet of the
pump. The pump will fail prematurely.
Note: Erosion in the inlet area of the pump results from cavitations.
Erosion in the outlet area of the pump results from Aeration
5. PRESSURE LOSS – pressure is lost due to a leakage path in the system. Normally thus
leakage path is internal. A badly worn pump would cause loss of pressure in the system.

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 EFFECTS: Actuator speed will slow down or may not function at all
Other area of leakage may be relief valve, cylinders, motor etc.
6. SLOW OPERATION – This is caused by a worn pump or by a partial oil leak in the
system. The leaky part will be heated up.
7. NOISE – unusual noise, cavitations noise is caused by a restriction in the inlet line, dirty
inlet filter or too high a driving speed.
- Aerated system, this may be due to low oil level in the reservoir, loose
connection in the inlet, a leaky shaft seal, no oil in the pump before starting.
- The noise may also come from worn of damaged part.
Shut down the pump immediately.

5.6. HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

FUNCTION

The actuators function is to covert fluid energy or power back to mechanical energy or power.
They are the final part of the operation of the hydraulic system.

TYPES OF ACTUATORS

Actuators used on mobile hydraulic systems are classified into two:-

1. Linear actuators – usually of piston type cylinders.
2. Rotary actuators – include vane type cylinders and hydraulic motors.

LINEAR ACTUATORS

1. PISTON TYPE CYLINDERS

Piston type cylinders give linear movement. There are two main types of piston-type
cylinders.
i) SINGLE ACTING CYLINDERS
Single acting cylinders provide hydraulic force only in one direction.
Oil pressure is admitted to one end of the piston. The other end does not receive
hydraulic oil pressure. The load, gravitation force or spring is used to return the
piston after extension.
The non-hydraulic end has a vent whose purpose is to release air when the piston
is extending and allow air to flow into the cylinder when the piston is retracting. Oil
leak beyond the piston is prevented by the seal on the piston. The wiper seal
located at the end of the cylinder prevents water and dirty from entering the
cylinder.

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 FIG. 5.6A – SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
RAM-TYPE CYLINDER

The ram-type cylinder is another type of single acting cylinder. However, a ram does not have
a piston on the rod. The rod is made bigger compared to that for piston type single acting
cylinder. The clearance left between the cylinder and the rod is small. To extend the cylinder,
oil pressure acts on the face of the rod. The rod is prevented from moving out of the cylinder by
a shoulder that is built at its end.

FIG. 5.6B RAM CYLINDERS

MERITS OF A RAM-TYPE CYLINDER OVER A PISTON-TYPE CYLINDER

1. The rod is bigger therefore it is able to resist bending due to side loads.
2. The seal is easier to reach because it is located at the end of the cylinder not on the
piston.
3. Seal packing is not affected by scoring of the cylinder surface.
4. There is no vent required because the whole volume of the cylinder bore is filled with oil.

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS

Double acting cylinders give hydraulic force on both sides of the piston. The piston is moved by
hydraulic pressure in either direction.

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While one end is receiving pressure, the other end will be returning the oil back to the reservoir.
The piston is fitted with seals on both ends to prevent oil leak from either end.
i) Cushions – are built in cylinders for the purpose of slowing down the speed of the
piston as it approaches the last part of its stroke. This cushion is used as a hydraulic
brake to protect against impact damage. As shown in the diagram, the piston will move
normally during its main stroke, but as it approaches the end of its stroke, the piston
will seal off part of the oil passage thereby restricting the flow which results in reducing
the speed of the piston.

ii) Protective check valve – some cylinders use a check valve at the oil inlet to protect
the cylinder against loss of oil which may occur when there is a failure or leak in the
circuit. When the oil supply to the cylinder fails or there is a leak before the check
valve, the check valve will lose trapping the oil in the cylinder so that the cylinder does
not fail as failure of the cylinder could result in damage of the load or cause injury to
the person.

iii) Stepped piston – allow the cylinder to operate rapidly during a start of a stroke, but
with a reduced force. When the force is increased the cylinder operates slowly. The
type of piston used has narrow extension which fit into a narrowed part of the cylinder
as shown in the diagram below.

FIG.5.6G

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DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS

FIG. 5.6H

There are two types of double acting cylinders:-

1. The unbalanced or differential double acting cylinder.
2. The balanced double acting cylinder.

1. THE UNBALANCED OR DIFFERENTIAL CYLINDERS

FIG. 5.6I

The unbalanced double acting cylinder has a difference in the force that acts on the piston. One
end is moved by a greater force, while the other end is moved by a lesser force. This is because
the rod takes part of the area that is supposed to be acted upon by the hydraulic force.
The unbalanced cylinder is designed for systems that require slower but powerful strokes when
extending and faster with less power strokes when retracting.

2. THE BALANCED CYLINDERS

Balanced cylinders have piston rods on both sides of the piston. The piston provides equal
area on which hydraulic pressure is able to act on both sides.

FIG. 5.6J

TELESCOPIC CYLINDERS

Telescope cylinders have more than one piston rod. The piston rod extends one after another. The
speed at which each rod is extended depends upon the piston area.

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 FIG. 5.6K

EXTRA FEATURES OF PISTON TYPE CYLINDERS

Many piston-type cylinders have extra features which add functions or adapt them to different
operations. Some of the extra features are:

FIG. 5.6L

1. Oil is first admitted to the smaller face of the piston moving the piston rapidly until the load
is contacted. When the piston has moved out of the narrow passage, the area on which
the oil acts is increased; hence the force is also increased. The piston will move at a
reduced speed but with greater force.
2. Protective Thermal Relief Valve - High temperatures can cause the oil to expand and
raise the pressure in the cylinder especially when the weather is hot. To prevent this
unwanted expansion which may affect the operation of the system, some cylinders are
fitted with a thermal relief valve. A thermal relief valve is set at pressure higher than the
system pressure. When the pressure in the system rises due to heat, the thermal relief
valve opens, venting the oil to the tank. A thermal relief valve can be called a safety valve.

TASK: OVERHAUL HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

OBJECTIVES: Given a double acting hydraulic cylinder, the learner will be able to disassemble,
inspect ad assemble the cylinder within three (3) hours while observing safety precautions.

TOOLS/EQUIPMENTS: Assorted spanners, socket box, hammer, double acting hydraulic cylinder.

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REMOVING CYLINDER FROM HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT
i. Pack machine on a clear place.
ii. Chock the wheels.
iii. Release hydraulic pressure.
iv. Support the component where the cylinder is attached.
v. Remove connecting hoses and or pipes.
vi. Remove the securing pins and lift off the cylinder using suitable lifting equipment.
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

i. Remove the retainer at the rod end of the cylinder. This may be a snap ring, gland nut or
spanner wrench. You'll probably need a special tool.
ii. Pull the entire rod assembly from the cylinder.
iii. Secure the rod in a soft-jawed vice.
iv. Unscrew the lock nut that holds the piston to the rod.
v. Remove all the seals and rings from the piston and the cylinder. Use a seal pick to remove
O-rings and backup rings if needed. Also remove any rod wipers or additional sealing
parts.

INSPECTION

Check the condition of the following parts:-

i. Cylinder bore for scores.

ii. Piston/rod for scores and bending.
iii. Bushes in the cylinder mounting eyes.

REASSEMBLY

i. Install new seals into head and head into the rod.
ii. Fit new seals unto the piston and install the piston unto the rod.
iii. Lubricate piston assembly and install assembly into the cylinder.
iv. Fit the retaining bolts and torque to specification.
v. Check piston/rod movement.
vi. Fit back the cylinder unto the machine.

ROTARY ACTUATORS

Rotary type actuators include vane-type cylinders and hydraulic motors.

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 1. VANE TYPE CYLINDERS

FIG. 5.6M
A vane cylinder provides rotary motion.
The vane type cylinder consists of a shaft with a vane that rotates in a circular cylinder
when hydraulic pressure is introduced through the barrel. When oil pressure is admitted at
one end of the vane the opposite end releases the oil allowing the shaft and vane to rotate.
Most vane type cylinders are double acting. The two chambers provide the left and right
swing. The fixed vane separates the two chambers. Vane type cylinders are used to swing
rotary equipment such as a back hoe. They allow the operator to swing the boom and
bucket rapidly.
A cushion can be built in the vane type cylinder by providing two outlet orifices of different
sizes. The orifices reduce the amount of oil flowing out as the moving vane approaches the
fixed vane.

2. HYDRAULIC MOTORS

A hydraulic motor is an actuator that works in reverse of the hydraulic pump. A pump
drives fluid but a motor is driven by the fluid. Fluid is forced into a motor and exhausted
out, converting fluid energy into mechanical energy.
A motor differs from a vane cylinder in that it rotates in a full circle while a vane type
cylinder does not make a full circle in its operation. The rotation of the vane type cylinder is
limited by a fixed vane of the barrel.

DISPLACEMENT AND TORQUE OF HYDRAULIC MOTORS

The work output of a motor is called Torque, which is a measure of rotary forces on a drive
shaft. The ratio between speed and torque of a motor depends on the displacement of the
motor per cycle. Motors, like pumps, are designed for two types of displacement:

i) Fixed displacement.
ii) Variable displacement.

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FIXED DISPLACEMENT MOTORS

These have fixed torque output. The torque output is varied when there is a variation in the volume
of fluid flowing into the motor will also increase. Gear type motors, vane type motors and piston
type motors that do not have variation mechanism are all fixed displacement motors.

VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS

These are able to vary the speed and torque output while the input flow and pressure remain
constant. This is achieved by using a mechanism that changes the displacement.

TYPES OF HYDRALIC MOTORS

Hydraulic motors are very similar to hydraulic pumps, the difference lies in their operations. Often,
the parts of a motor can be substituted for parts of a pump. Sometimes pumps are modified to work
as motors. However, when converting a pump to a motor certain factors need to be considered,
such as shaft bearings which wear faster in a motor than in a pump. Both use the same basic
designs, therefore types include:
1. Gear type motors.
2. Sliding vane motors.
3. Piston type motors.

FIG. 5.6N

1. GEAR TYPE MOTORS

Gear type motors include internal and external gear motors. The external ea motors are a
duplicate of the external gear pumps, but there another version which is a balanced
external gear motor. The motor is balanced for equalized pressure on all sides of the
rotating parts. This is done to reduce bearing failures. The construction of this type of
motor is such that oil passages have been added into the housing to connect inlet and
outlet oil pressure to the opposite sides of the motor. This balances the operation of the
motor.

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 FIG. 5.6O- EXTERNAL GEAR

INTERNAL GEAR MOTOR

One popular type of this motor is similar to a rotor type pump.

FIG. 5.6P

2. SLIDING VANE MOTORS

Two types of vane motor are available similar to types of pumps.

1. Balanced vane motor.

2. Unbalanced vane motor.

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 FIG. 5.6Q

Balanced vane motors have a longer service life than the unbalanced; hence they are most
commonly used.

A balanced vane motor operates much the same as a vane pump but it has an extra feature of
spring clips that are used to hold the vanes in contact with the periphery of the ring. In the motor,
incoming oil is under high pressure and would bypass the vanes before rotation of the rotor began
so unless the vanes were held out against the ring.
Vanes motors provide more power and efficient

3. PISTON MOTORS

Piston motors are suitably chosen for systems that operate at higher speeds and high pressures.
Though they are complicated and more expensive than the gear and vane motors, piston motors
are more efficient. They can be manufactured to operate as fixed or variable displacement motors.
Just like their counter part, the pumps, piston motors are either axial or radial type. On mobile
machines axial piston motors are often favoured. The radial piston model is usually confined to
stationary industry uses where space is not limited and more power is needed.

FIG. 5.6R

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 FIG: 5.6S

TASK: OVERHAUL HYDRAULIC MOTOR.

OBJECTIVE: At the end of the lesson learners will be able to disassemble, inspect and
reassemble hydraulic motors of all types.

LEARNING ELEMENT: - Disassemble, inspect, carry out measurement and reassemble motor.

NOTE:
Disassembly, inspection, measurements and reassembly is done just like the ones done on
corresponding hydraulic pumps.

MOTOR INSTALLATION PARAMETERS

1. DIMENSIONS: - Overall dimensions for the motor is required to determine the installation
volume required.
2. INTERFACES –interfaces include tubing/hose connections and locations on the motor, as
well as mounting lugs and output shaft location.
3. WEIGHT –weight of the motor, which is usually provided as a dry weight. When filled with
fluid, weight will be higher.
4. NOISE –Motors run at high speed and create noise. A specification for maximum noise
level should be considered for motor installations. For motor installations.
5. ATTACHMENTS –method of attachment of the motor to the airframe affects structural
rigidity of the motor and also noise (vibration) transmission into the airframe. Motors can
have high starting torque causing large loads to be reacted through the attachments on
start up. Continuous operational torques will affect the fatigue and durability of the
attachments.
6. MOTOR/SHAFT ALIGNMENT – Alignment of motor to shaft needs to hold to tight
tolerances.
Considerations are tolerance stickups, relative motion between motor and shaft, possible
angular displacements on installations, spline teeth dimensions, etc. Improper alignment
can cause excessive vibration (leading to premature failure), or failure of the motor seals.

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 7. SPLINES –Beyond alignment, spline wear is an important Splines –Beyond alignment,
spline wear is an important to the splines to minimize wear. Selection of lubrication should
include temperature, corrosion inhibiting and reasonable life of the grease before
breakdown occurs.
8. TORQUE REQUIREMENTS– Both start-up torque and running torque should be
considered. Start-up torque is higher than running torque. Start-up torque accelerates the
mass/inertia of the motor and load, leading to temporary high stresses within the mounting
hardware and motor. This is more of a concern on installations with high load inertias.
Obviously, the speed of the motor must match the manufacturer’s recommended speed for
actuation device (such as a ball screw actuator). A gear arrangement may be used, if
required.
9. AXIAL AND RADIAL SHAFT LOAD CAPABILITY – Ensures motor shaft and splines are
adequately sized for static and fatigue loads that the motor will see over its operating life.
10. Inlet/Outlet Line –Inlet and outlet lines/fittings must be matched to the motor.
11. DIRECTION OF ROTATION – Motors can be uni-directional or bi- directional. Aerospace
applications tend to be bi-directional pumps. Obviously, the control valve position must be
matched to the appropriate direction of rotation.

5.7 HYDRAULIC VALVES

Valves are components that control the operation of the hydraulic system. They: -
1. Regulates the pressure.
2. Direct the flow of oil.
3. Control the volume of oil flow.

There are three categories of hydraulic valves: -

1. Pressure control valves.

FIG. 5.7A
2. Directional control valves.

FIG. 5.7B

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 3. Volume control valves.

FIG. 5.7C

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

These are used to:-

1. Limit maximum system pressure.
2. Reduce line pressure.
3. Unload a pump.
4. Set the pressure at which oil enters a circuit.

Pressure control valves are:-

1. Pressure relief valves.
2. Pressure reducing valves.
3. Pressure sequence valves.
4. Unloading valves.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

These control direction of the oil flow within a hydraulic system. Directional control valves include:-
1. Check valves.
2. Spool valves.
3. Rotary valves

VOLUME CONTROL VALVES

These regulate the volume of oil flow usually by throttling or diverting it. They include:-
1. Compensated flow control valves
2. Non-compensated flow control valves
3. Flow dividers.

Some volume control valves are a variation of the two main types for example many volume control
valves use a built-in pressure control valve.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

PURPOSE:

The purpose is to protect the hydraulic system against excessive pressure.

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1. When there is excessive buildup of pressure in the system, the relief valve opens to drain the
excess oil back to the reservoir (tank).
2. The amount of pressure (maximum) the system is able to operate at is determined by the
force of the spring in the valve.
3. The spring force can be altered by adjustment.

LOCATION

A pressure relief valve is located in the main pressure line just after the hydraulic pump. When
pressurized oil is flowing to the hydraulic system, it also flows through the relief valve so that the
system pressure is also sensed by the relief valve.

TYPES OF PRESSUE RELIEF VALVE

There are two types of pressure relief valves:

1. Simple pressure relief valve.
2. Pilot operated (compound) pressure relief valve.

SIMPLE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

A simple relief valve is simple in construction and is designed to handle low volumes of oil. It is not
suitable in the system where high pressures are involved.
It has the following disadvantages:-
1. It is noisy in operation because of the chattering.
2. The valve faces wears fast excessively due to chattering.

CONSTRUCTION

The main features of a simple relief valve are:-

1. It has a pressure adjusting screw.
2. It has a single spring.
3. It has a valve and a seat.
4. It has an inlet and an outlet ports.

FIG. 5.7D FIG. 5.7E

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 FIG 5.6F FIG 5.7G FIG 5.7H

OPERATION

1. When maximum system pressure is within the permissible system operating pressure, the
valve is forced onto its seat by the spring force.
2. Fluid cannot flow through the valve to the return line.
3. When system pressure exceeds the rated system maximum pressure, fluid will force the
valve off its seat moving it against the force of the spring. This action allows the excess
fluid to flow through the valve back to the reservoir.

PILOT OPERATED PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

To overcome the problem of valve chatter which reduces the service life of a valve, a pilot operated
relief valve is designed for use in systems that handle large volumes of oil.
A pilot operated relief valve (P.R.V) has two valves in one body. A smaller valve known as a pilot
and a larger valve called a spool. The action of a smaller valve operates the larger valve hence the
name pilot operated valve.

CONSTRUCTION

The main features of the pilot operated relief valve are:-

1. Pilot valve.
2. A pilot valve spring which forces the valve onto its seat.
3. A pressure adjusting screw. The adjustment of pressure is done on the pilot valve.
4. The main pressure valve, also known as a spool, is forced onto its seat by a light spring
and has a drilled oil passage that leads the oil to the face of the pilot valve.
5. A valve body.

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 FIG 5.7I FIG. 5.7J
OPERATION

When the system pressure is below the set valve pressure:

1. Oil from the pump flows along the valve to the system.
2. The system oil pressure acts on the face of the spool.
3. As the spool is drilled, the oil pressure passes through the drilling to the area above the
spool.
4. The oil pressure above the spool, acts on the spool and on the face of the pilot valve.
5. The oil pressure on top of the spool and that at its bottom will be equal, but the spool will
be held on its seat because of the added spring force acting on its top part.

When the system pressure has exceeded the set valve pressure:
1. The pilot valve is moved out of its seat.
2. The opening of the pilot valve allows oil to flow from the area above the spool.
3. The flow of oil from above the spool causes the pressure above the spool to reduce hence
creating a pressure difference between the top and bottom of the spool.
4. The spool is pushed off its seat opening the oil passage to the reservoir.
5. Excess oil flows from the system to the reservoir.
6. The hole drilled in the spool acts as a restrictor causing a pressure drop, thus, during oil
flow, pressure at the bottom of the spool becomes greater than the pressure at the top.
This causes the spool to move towards the low-pressure area hence opening the drain
passage.

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

A pressure reducing valve is used to keep the pressure in one branch of a circuit below that in the
main circuit.

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 FIG 5.7K FIG 5.7L

1. When not operating, a pressure reducing valve is open allowing oil to flow from the main
circuit to the secondary circuit.
2. When operating, it tends to close the passage of oil reducing the flow to the secondary
circuit as shown in figure

FIG 5.7M

OPERATION

During normal operation and pressure still low in the secondary circuit;
1. Oil flows to both secondary circuit and behind the spool valve, acting against the spring
force of the valve.
2. When the fluid force has exceeded the spring force, the spool valve is moved against the
spring force, starting to close the passage.
3. The spring resists the valve closing thereby allowing enough oil to flow past the valve to
serve the secondary circuit at a desired pressure.
4. Pressure can be adjusted using an adjusting screw.
5. The pressure that is sensed by the valve is that at the outlet side.
6. As to point 5, the operation of a pressure-reducing valve is in the reverse of the operation
of a pressure relief valve.

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 7. Note that pressure reducing valves may be of the simple construction type or pilot
operated type similar to the pressure relief valve.

PRESSURE SEQUENCE VALVES

Pressure sequence valves are used to control the sequence of oil flow to various branches of a
circuit.

1. Usually, the valves will allow flow to a secondary function only after a first function has
been satisfied.
2. In its normal position, the sequence valve allows oil to flow to the primary circuit but close
the port to the secondary circuit.
3. When in operation, the valve opens allowing the oil to flow to the secondary circuit while
maintaining pressure of oil to the primary circuit.
4. The sequence valve will open the oil passage to the secondary circuit only after pressure
in the primary circuit has reached a preset value.
5. One use of the sequence valve is to regulate the operating sequence of two separate
cylinders.
6. The second cylinder begins its stroke when the first cylinder has completed its stroke. The
sequence valve maintains pressure in the first cylinder during the operation of the second
cylinder.
7. Some sequence valves have check valves in their assembly which allow a free reverse
flow from the secondary circuit to the primary circuit, but the sequencing action only occurs
when flow is from primary to secondary circuit.

FIG 5.7N
UNLOADING VALVES

The unloading valves are used to reduce the return pressure that should flow from the pump to the
reservoir.
The valve may be located in the pumps outlet line with a tee junction.
When the hydraulic actuator is not in operation or is in its neutral position, oil pressure from the
pump may be too high for its return to the reservoir; as a result hydraulic energy could be wasted
as heat.

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 1. The unloading valve does reduce the pressure of the returning oil.
2. The oil pressure returning to the reservoir is less the system pressure as would be the
case when returning through the relief valve.

FIG 5.7O

In figure the check valve is used to trap oil in the working circuit so that it does not flow back to the
reservoir.

CHECK VALVES
1. Check valves are simple one-way valves.
2. They open to allow oil to flow in one direction only preventing flow in the opposite direction.
3. Check valves may be designed as part of other types of valves such as a sequence or
pressure-reducing valve or may operate independent.
4. A check valve may also be used in the circuit to the cylinder to prevent leakage under load
when the cylinder is held for a longer time. They are also used to prevent pressure surges,
which may occur during hydraulic operation.
5. In some check valves, the spring is designed so that the valve opens at a specific pressure
range. This type of check valve is known as a check valve with a back pressure spring.

FIG 5.7P

SPOOL DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

The sliding spool valve is a true directional control valve.

1. It directs oil to start and stop the operation of an actuator.
2. It consists of a spool, which fits in to a housing which has oil passages.
3. The spool has lands and narrow portions formed on its body.

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 4. The narrow portions allow the oil to pass through the valve to the ports while the lands seal
off connections between ports.

FIG 5.7Q
OPERATION
1. The unloading valve is kept in its closed position by a spring force, which pushes it against
a sensing line oil pressure.
2. The unloading valve closes the outlet to the reservoir.
3. When the sensing pressure of the pump rises, it overcomes the force of the spring behind
the valve; the passage to the reservoir is opened. The pump oil output is now returned to
the reservoir at a reduced pressure.
4. Unloading valves are usually used in accumulator circuits. They help to unload the pump
after the charging of the accumulator is completed. The valve is closed while the pump is
charging the accumulator and opens after the charging is over.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

FIG 5.7R
OPERATION OF R.D.C.V

Directional control valves direct the flow of oil in a hydraulic system. There are three types of
directional control valves;
1. Check valves.
2. Spool valves.
3. Rotary valves.

Each type uses a different valve element in its operation.

1. A check valve uses a steel ball or plunger, which seats and unseats.
LECTURER: PATRICK MANDONA MOBILE HYDRAULICS Page 65
 2. A spool valve uses a sliding spool, which moves back and forth to open and close oil
routes.
3. A rotary valve uses a rotary spool, which turns to open and close oil passages.

There are different designs of spool valves. Some valves have spools that have two lands; some
four etc. the figure shows a two land spool valve.
The spool valve is hardened and ground to produce a smooth, accurate and durable surface. It
may be chrome plated to resist wear, rust and corrosion.
4. Moving the spool to the left permits the oil to flow from the pump to cylinder port number one.
5. Moving the spool to the right makes the oil to flow from the pump to cylinder port number two.
6. The lands on the spool close some ports and open others when the spool is moved.

FIG 5.7S

CLASSIFICATION OF SPOOL VALVES

Two methods are used to classify spool valves;

1. According to the number of ports the valve has and the operating positions.
2. According to the path taken by the oil when the valve is in neutral position; that is open or
closed centre systems.

NUMBER OF PORTS AND OPERATING POSITIONS

The classification identifies a spool valve by the number of ports it has and the number of positions
a spool is shifted when actuating the hydraulic system.
1. The valve shown above is a three position-four way valve and is identified as 4/3 spool
valve. It is shifted in three positions; neutral, left, and right.
2. The valve connects the circuit in four ways or through four ports connecting it to the
2.1. Pump
2.2. Reservoir
2.3. Cylinder port 1
2.4. Cylinder port 2

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 FIG 5.7T
OPERATION

1. When the spool is moved to the left;

1.1. Oil from the pump will be directed to the left side of the cylinder moving the piston to
the right.
1.2. The spool opens a passage which allows the oil from the opposite end of the cylinder
to return to the reservoir.
2. When the spool is moved to the right;
2.1. The flow is reversed operating the cylinder in the opposite direction
3. In neutral position, the lands on the spool valve seal off both ports of the cylinder. Oil in the
circuit will be trapped holding the cylinder in a hold position.

Some spool valves have only two operating positions thus; the actuating and the neutral positions,
and have only three ports;
1. The pump port
2. The actuator supply line
3. The line that directs the oil back to the reservoir.
Such a valve is identified as a 3/2 way spool valve.

OPEN AND CLOSED CENTRE SPOOL VALVE SYSTEM

Spool valves may be classified as open or closed centre system.

1. OPEN CENTRE SYSTEM

In the open centre system the spool valve is designed in such a way that its lands allow
the oil from the pump to flow back to the reservoir, passing through the valve when in
neutral.

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 FIG 5.7U
2. CLOSED CENTRE SYSTEMS
In the closed centre system the spool is so designed that when the system is in neutral, its
land blocks oil passage from the pump, thus dead ending the flow.
In the closed centre system the pump is capable of taking a break when the system is in
neutral. For this reason the closed centre system is actually used in systems that use
variable displacement type hydraulic pumps though some closed centre spool valves are
used in systems that use the fixed displacement pumps.

FIG 5.7V
The third type of hydraulic system in terms of spool directional valve is the Tandem Centre. In this
type the oil returns to the reservoir just as it approaches the spool in the valve when in neutral.
Spool valve are;
1. Controlled either manually, electrically or pilot operated.
2. Pilot operation is provided through either electrical solenoids or hydraulic means.
3. Detent mechanisms are sometimes used to hold the valve in position during each
operation.

SPOOL VALVE ASSEMBLIES

An assembly of spool valves having several sections of spool valves is called a Valve Stack.

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 FIG 5.7W
An assembly of the spool valve having a number of valves in one body is called a uni-body Valve.
Valve stacks allow extra valves to be added easily by inserting another section in the package.
Unibody valves are more permanent, and, if one valve is damaged it may mean replacing the
whole valve housing.
Both types of valve assembly normally use one common oil inlet and outlet for the system. Either
assembly can be designed to operate as an open or closed centre system.

FIG 5.7X

FLOW VOLUME CONTROL VALVES

The volume flow valves control the volume of oil that should flow in a circuit. Usually the control is
by throttling or diverting the flow.
In many hydraulic systems, the speed of the actuator, that is cylinder or motor need to be
regulated. The speed can be controlled by regulating the volume of oil flowing to the actuator.
If it is a fixed displacement pump that is used in the system, the normal way to regulate the speed
of the actuator is by using a flow control valve.
Volume control valves can be separated into two types;
1. Flow control valves which control volume flow, usually through a metering orifice.
2. Flow divider valves which control volume flow between two or more circuits.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Flow control valves can regulate flow by;

1. Restricting flow in or out of the actuator. The type of flow control valve used in this case is
none compensated.

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 2. Diverting flow away from the actuator. The valves used in this case are usually
compensated.

NON COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES

FIG 5.7Y
Non compensated valves do not compensate for pressure changes. As inlet flow changes so does
the flow through the valve. These valves are not generally used where accurate flow rate control is
needed.
The types of non-compensated valves include;
1. Simple needle valves.
2. None compensated volume control valves. These can be adjusted to meter oil flow.

The needle valve is a simple restrictor. When the pointed stem is screwed down into the orifice, the
flow is shut off. When screwed out, the stem allows more oil to pass through the valve.

COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Compensated valves maintain a constant flow even though there is a change in inlet flow. These
valves adjust the flow to make up for raises and drops in the inlet flow. They operate on the
principle that with a given sized orifice and with a controlled pressure drop across the orifice the
volume of oil flowing out of the valve will remain constant.

When there is an increase in oil in-flow, the pressure difference between the front and the inside of
the valve increases. This pressure difference compresses the spring and moves the valve to
restrict the flow at the outlet orifice figure. Pressure at the inlet of the valve will increase while flow
at the outlet orifice reduces.

Regardless of changes in the pressure of the working circuit or inlet pressure the spring will
maintain the same pressure drop and, the same flow through the fixed orifice. The compensated
flow control valve is used in closed centre systems where flow variations are controlled by the
pump.

The type of compensated flow control valve used in open centre hydraulic system is the bypass
flow regulator. This type of flow control valve allows the total pump output to be used in the function
circuit, passed onto another function circuit or returned to the reservoir. It also works on the
principles of the spring and fixed orifice to control flow.

PROPORTIONAL FLOW DIVIDER

Proportional flow divider oil flow to all circuits at all times. Though the delivery may be modified
such that there can be a 50-50 or to 90:10 ratio.

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Proportional flow dividers are suitably used in the power steering system of a dozer crawler. An
equal amount of oil is sent to both steering valves when moving straight ahead because the orifices
are of equal size. The spool is free floating balancing the flow.
On systems that have varied flow ratios, the variation is achieved by proportioning the size of the
orifices.

NON-RETURN VALVES

Non-return valves (check valves) block the flow in one direction and permit free-flow in the opposite
direction.
Non-return valves are always of the poppet design. The poppet is pressed on its seat by the oil
flow in the non-flow side. It is opened by the volume of oil in the flow direction, the poppet being
lifted from the seat.

A non-return valve provides proper sealing for the passage than the spool valve.
The spool valve (sliding valve), for the directional control valve is installed in a bore with a certain
amount of clearance.

The clearance results in continuous leakage which causes losses in volumetric flow rate at the
valve.

To prevent the spool valve being pressed against the side of the bore, the land of the spool is
provided with circular grooves.
During shifting, the oil takes up the friction. The pressure is balanced around the groove
circumference.

TASK: OVERHAUL HYDRAULIC VALVES.

OBJECTIVES: Given three hydraulic valves, the student will be able to disassemble, inspect and
assemble valves within four (4) hours while observing safety precautions.

TOOLS/EQUIPMENT:
1. Assorted spanners
2. Socket box
3. Directional control valves
4. Pressure control valves
5. And flow control valves

DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
1. Clean hydraulic valve housing.
2. Dismantle valve block (if several valves are involved on one).
3. Withdraw valve assembly.
4. Disassemble valve assembly (e.g. Spool, spring, piston or poppet).

INSPECTION
1. Clean all valve internal parts.
2. Inspect the following:-
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 3. Condition of valves (distortion, damage)
4. Condition of housing (cracks)
5. Condition of seals (cuts, damage)
6. Condition of bores/passages (wear)
7. Identify parts arrangement and oil flow through the valves.

Fig.5.7Z. Schematic view of directional control valve

REASSEMBLY
1. Lubricate all valves internal parts.
2. Reassemble valves in reverse order to disassembly.

6. HYDRAULIC SEALS

i. Sealing, in its broadest term, refers to anything done to keep the hydraulic oil from flowing
between certain passages; to hold pressure, and keep foreign material from getting into the
hydraulic passage. When there is need to completely prevent leakage, positive method of
sealing is used.
ii. The other method of sealing is called non-positive. This method allows some leakage to occur
for the purpose of lubrication and is the one existing between a valve and its bore. In most of
hydraulic components, non-positive sealing is usually accomplished by fitting the parts closely
together. The strength of the film of oil that the parts slide against provides an effective seal.
iii. Positive sealing requires an actual sealing part or material. It is in this area where the term seal
is applied and includes: any Gasket, Seal ring, Packing or other part designed specifically for
sealing.

TYPES OF SEAL APPLICATIONS:

Sealing applications are usually classified as either static or dynamic, depending on whether the
parts being sealed move in relation to one another.

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 1. Static seals:

A static seal is placed between parts that do not move in relation to each other. Mounting gaskets
and seals including seals used in making connections between components are in the class of
static seals. Static seals also include; pipe thread seals, seal rings used with tube fittings, valve-
end cap seals and many other seals on non-moving parts.

FIG 6A

2. Dynamic seals:

In a dynamic sealing application, there is either reciprocating or rotary motion between the two
parts being sealed; for example, the piston-to-barrel seal in a hydraulic cylinder and the
driveshaft seal in a pump or motor. Dynamic seals are many and require specialized skill to
handle.

3. O-ring:

FIG 6B
i. O-rings are used in both static and dynamic applications. In recent days, the O-ring is replacing the
applications of gaskets on earthmoving equipment.
ii. An O-ring is a positive seal. In installation, it is squeezed at the top and bottom in its groove and
against the mating part. It is capable of sealing very high pressure. Pressure forces the seal

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 against the side of its groove and packs it into a corner. In this way, positive sealing occurs on
three sides.

4. Back-up rings:
A back-up ring may be used with an O-ring to prevent its being extruded into the space between
the mating parts. A combination of high pressure and clearance between the parts often calls for a
back-up ring. Back-up rings are usually made of stiff nylon or Teflon.

5. Lip seal:
A lip seal is a dynamic seal, used particularly on rotating shafts. There is probably more of lip seals
used as shaft seals than all other kinds of seals.
The sealing lip provides a positive seal against low pressure. The lip is installed toward the
pressure source. Pressure against the lip expands it out to aid sealing. Very high pressure,
however, can get past this kind of seal, because it doesn’t have the back-up support that an O-ring
has.

6. Double Lip Seal:

This type of lip seal is often used on shafts for reversible pumps or motors. A reversing unit can
give alternating pressure and vacuum conditions in the chamber adjacent to the seal. A double lip
seal then prevents oil from getting out or air and dirt from getting in.

7. Cup Seals:
Cup seals are similar with lip seals except they do not necessarily have lips and are commonly
used on hydraulic cylinder pistons. A cup seal is normally backed-up, so that it can withstand high
pressure.

8. Piston Rings:

FIG 6C
Piston rings are metallic, similar to the piston ring in the piston for an internal combustion engine
and are used the same way in hydraulic systems; i.e. to seal pressure at the end of a reciprocating
piston. They are particularly useful where friction must be kept to a minimum in a hydraulic
cylinder. They offer less resistance to movement than cup seals. Piston rings are also used in
many complex components and systems, such as automatic transmissions, to seal fluid passages
leading to the hollow rotating shafts.

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 A piston ring is good for handling high pressure, but it is not necessarily a positive seal because
the installation must allow leakage for lubrication.

9. Packing:
A packing is simply some type of twisted or woven fiber or soft metal strands “packed” between the
two parts being sealed. A packing gland is a part used to support and back-up the packing.
Compression packings are usually placed in coils or layers in a bore and compressed by tightening
a flanged member.

FIG 6D
Molded packings are molded into a precise cross-sectional form, such as U or V hence called U or
V packing. Several such packings can be used together, with a back-up that is spring loaded to
compensate for wear.
Packing can be either static or dynamic. They are used as rotating shaft seals, reciprocating piston
rod seals and as gaskets in many static applications.

10. CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT SEAL LIFE:

Controlling operating conditions can be very important to seal life. A shaft seal or piston rod seal
exposed to the atmosphere will have its life shortened if the atmosphere contains moisture, salt,
dirt, or any other abrasive contaminant.
i. Chemical compatibility: with the fluid to be sealed is an important consideration. Some of
the fluid will attack the seal material and disintegrate the seal.
ii. System maintenance: System oil maintenance will prolong seal life. Good system
maintenance prevents deposits of impurities and circulation of ingredients that may cause
damage to dynamic seals.
iii. Temperature: most sealing materials have temperature limits. Excessively high
temperatures will harden, soften, or swell the seal. Excessively low temperatures will cause
seals to become brittle.
iv. Pressures: Note that lip seals are not designed for excessive pressures. High pressure
chambers are always separated from low pressure chambers by seals. Internal leakages
that occur between these two chambers must be provided with a drain passage. If
connection to this drain passage is denied or forgotten to be connected, leak through the
seal will result.
Loads handled by the equipment must be kept within recommended limits to prevent leakage
caused by excessive pressures.

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 v. Lubrication: lubrication can be critical to oil seal life in dynamic seal applications. No seal
should ever be installed dry. Always coat the seal in clean recommended oil before
installation.
vi. Installation: most seals fail because of wrong installation. Vibration or stresses resulting
from incorrectly installed hose or pipe can shake connections loose resulting in leakages
passed the seal. Care is also essential in assembly of units to avoid pinching, cocking or
incorrectly installing the seals. When special tools are recommended by the manufacturer
for installing seals, they should be used.

SELECTION OF SEALS
The designer of a hydraulic system has many factors to consider when choosing a seal. Some of
these are: -
i. Pressure resistance
ii. Heat resistance
iii. Wear resistance
iv. Reactivity strength to different types of oils
v. Static or dynamic applications
vi. Type of materials used on component parts. Some materials are damaged by hard or
metal seals i.e. scored.
MAINTENANCE OF OTHER SEALS
Modern seals use rubber, leather, plastics and other materials which require special handling.

CHECKING SEALS FOR LEAKAGE

i. Before disassembling a component, check out the causes of leakage. This may save a
return job, caused by problems other than the oil seals.
ii. Before cleaning the area around the seal, find the path of leakage. Sometimes the leakage
may be from sources other than the seal. Leakage could be from worn gaskets, loose
bolts, crack housings, or loose line connections.
iii. Inspect the outside sealing area of the seal to see if it is wet or dry. If wet, see whether the
oil is running out or is merely a lubricating film.

7. HOSES, PIPES AND FITTINGS

TASK: Inspect and or replace hoses, pipes and fittings.

OBJECTIVE: At the end of the lesson learners will be able to inspect, remove and replace
hydraulic hoses, pipes and fittings on heavy duty equipment whilst observing all safety procedures.

LEARNING ELEMENT: - Inspect and replace hydraulic hoses, pipes and fittings on hydraulic
equipment.

INTRODUCTION: - The functions of hoses, pipes and fittings:-

a. Flexible hoses: - line connections which are used between mobile hydraulic devices or in
places where there is only limited space. They are also used to suppress noise and
vibration especially on moving parts.

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 b. Pipes: - line connections which are used between stationary hydraulic components where
there is no possibility of vibration or movements.
c. Fittings: - These are connectors used to connect hoses and/or pipes together or to various
hydraulic devices/components.
TOOLS/EQUIPMENTS: - Various open ended wrenches and hydraulic equipment.

REMOVING HOSES, PIPES AND FITTINGS

PROCEDURE
i. Pack machine on a clear place, lower down all implements and secure it.
ii. Thoroughly clean the equipment using steam cleaner.
iii. Relief hydraulic pressure from the system by pressing on the service brakes several times
or actuating the control valve whilst the machine is off several times until pressure is
relieved.
iv. Drain oil from the reservoir if the hoses or pipes are directly connected to the reservoir.
v. Using the correct size of open ended wrench, slowly undo the nut of the hose or pipe and
remove it from the equipment.
vi. Plug the port.
SELECTING HOSES
When deciding on flexible hoses, it is necessary to take into consideration their function and certain
other factors.
i. Ensure maximum permissible operating pressure of the hose much with that of the
equipment system.
ii. Ensure that the rated bursting pressure of the hose is to standard with equipment.
iii. Ensure that the operating pressure much with the equipment’s specification.
iv. Use the correct size, fitting angle and length of hose.
v. Check the specified bending radius of the hoses for that application.
vi. Ensure that the operating temperature stamped on the hose is as specified by the
equipment manufacturer.
HOSE INSTALLATION GUIDE
i. Avoid twisting the assembly. Where moving parts can cause twisting, take care to avoid
this by correct installation.
ii. Use proper fittings to avoid tight bend radii.
iii. Avoid contact with objects that can cause abrasion or damage. On moving applications,
pay particular attention when specifying hose length to avoid tensile stress or abrasion.

8. HYDRAULIC SYMBOLS
DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL
Restrictor
Working line compensated for
viscosity

Pilot line Pressure Gauge

●

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Drain pipe Thermometer
●

Flexible pipe Flow meter

Electric line Pressure switch •

• •
●

Mechanical Test point plugged

Pipe line connected ● ● Quick Coupler

Pipe crossing not Quick coupler self

connected sealing

Flow direction Reservoir

Rotation Reservoir
Pressurized
Variable Or Accumulator Gas
Adjustable Charged
Accumulator
Hydraulic Energy ▲ ▼ ◄ Hydraulically
Direction charged
Accumulator spring
Spring loaded
Restrictor
uncompensated Filter

D.C.V. 2/2 Pressure

Cooler Operated Spring
Return
D.C.V. 3/2 Pressure
Heater Operated In Both
Directions

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 D.C.V. 4/3 solenoid
Temperature operated spring
controller centered

Basic valve
envelope for Push button
pressure and flow
control
Basic Envelope for
valve with two Pedal
positions
Basic envelope for
valve with three Lever
positions
Basic envelope for
valve with two Plunger or tracer ʘ
positions and one
intermediate
transistor position.

One flow path Roller

Two closed ports Solenoid

Two flow paths Hydraulic pressure

Two flow paths one Electro-hydraulics

closed port

One flow path two Non Return valve

closed ports
Directional control
valve (D.C.V) 2 way Non Return valve
2 position hand spring loaded
operated

Non Return Valve Restrictor Valve

pilot operated to
open

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 Restrictor Valve
Non Return Valve Viscosity
with Restrictor • • compensated

Flow Control Valve

Shuttle valve pressure & viscosity
compensated
Pressure Relief Flow Control valve
valve pressure & viscosity
compensated with
by-pass to tank

Sequence Valve
with free return Deceleration Valve
• •

Pressure relief valve

with automatic Flow Dividing valve
control port •

Unloading valve Cylinder single

Remote pilot acting
operated

Breather Cylinder spring

return

Pressure reducing Cylinder double

valve acting

Pressure reducing
valve with relief Cylinder double rod
feature

Pressure relief valve cylinder Differential

with proportional type
solenoid control

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Cylinder single fixed Pressure Gauge
cushion

Cylinder double Detent

fixed cushion

Cylinder single Pump fixed

adjustable cushion capacity, one
direction of flow.
Uni-direction
Pump fixed
Cylinder double capacity, two
adjustable cushion direction of flow
Bi-directional
Pump variable
Telescopic cylinder capacity, one
single acting direction of flow.
Uni-directional.
Pump variable
Telescopic cylinder capacity. Two
double acting directions of flow.
Bi-Directional

Pressure intensifier Motor fixed capacity.

air to oil One direction of
flow.

Pressure intensifier Motor fixed capacity.

oil to oil Two direction of
flow.
Motor variable
On off cock capacity.
normally open One direction of
flow.
Motor variable
On off cock capacity.
Normally closed Two directions flow.
Pump motor fixed
Electric motor capacity. Reversal
of direction of flow.
Pump motor
Heat engine Variable capacity.
Reverse directions
of flow.

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Pump motor fixed Temperature
capacity. Two controller
directions of flow

Pump motor variable Flow control

capacity. Two adjustable
Directions of flow. (Temperature and
pressure
compensated)

Rotary Actuator Two position two

way valve

Two position four

way valve
Two position in
transition valve Three position four
way valve

Valves capable of
infinite positioning
(Horizontal bars
indicate infinite
positioning ability)

9. HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS

1. OPEN CENTRE CIRCUIT

FIG 7A

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 2. CLOSED CENTRE CIRCUIT

FIG 7B

TASK:
1. State the type of circuit in the diagram
2. Identify the labeled components
3. Explain the power flow through the circuit

FIG 7C

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10. MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
A hydraulic system is fairly easy to maintain, the fluid provides a lubricant and protects against
overload. But like any other mechanism, it must be operated properly. You can damage a hydraulic
system by too much speed, too much heat, too much pressure, or too much contamination.
Proper maintenance will reduce your hydraulic troubles. By caring for the system using a regular
maintenance program, you can eliminate common problems and anticipate special ones. These
problems can then be corrected before a breakdown occurs.

COMMON KEY MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS

1. Not enough oil in the reservoir
2. Clogged or dirty oil filters
3. Loose intake lines
4. Incorrect grade of oil in the system
MAINTENANCE OF THE WHOLE SYSTEM

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF CLEANLINESS

 Keep dirty and other contaminants out of the system. Small particles can score
valves, seize pumps, clog orifices and so cause expensive repair jobs.
REMEDIES
i. Keep the oil clean
ii. Keep the system clean
iii. Keep your work area clean
iv. Be careful when you change old oil

2. IMPORTANCE OF OIL AND FILTER CHANGES

 Contaminants get into the system at any time during the machine working life.
These contaminants get suspended in oil. The system filters can absorb only a
limited amount of dirty particles and other contaminants from the oil. After that the
filters stop working.
 At this point, clean the filters or replace them with new ones so the cleaning
process can be maintained.

3. DRAINIG SYSTEM

 Periodical draining of the entire hydraulic system is very important. This is the only
positive way to completely remove contaminants oxidized fluid, and other injurious
substances from the system.
 The frequency of draining depends on such things as the temperature of operation
and the severity of working conditions.
 The drain schedule recommended by the manufacturer of the equipment should
be maintained.

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 4. CLEANING AND FLUSHING THE SYSTEM

a. The nature and amount of deposits in a particular system may vary widely.
Inspection may show any condition between a sticky, oily film and a hard, solid
deposit which completely chokes small oil passages.
b. If the system is drained frequently enough, the formation of gum and lacquer will
be reduced.
c. When no gum or lacquer formation is suspended, clean the system as follows:

i. After draining the system, clean any sediment from the reservoir, and clean or
replace the filter elements.
ii. It is advisable to flush out the old oil remaining in the system after draining,
particularly if the oil is badly contaminated. For this flushing, use the hydraulic fluid
recommended for the system involved.
iii. Operate the equipment to cycle the flushing oil through the system. It is important that
the valves be manipulated so that the new oil goes through all lines.
iv. The time necessary to clean the system will vary depending on the condition of the
system. Run the oil through the system until inspection shows the equipment to be in
satisfactory condition, or until it is obvious that the system will have to be
disassembled and cleaned manually.
v. Drain out the flushing oil and refill the system with clean hydraulic oil of the
recommended type. Be sure to clean or replace the system filters before refilling the
system.
NOTE:
a. Most solvents and chemical cleaners on the market today are NOT recommended for use
in flushing hydraulic system. They are poor lubricants, resulting in damage to moving
parts, especially the pump.
b. They are difficult to remove completely from the system. Just a trace of some of the
commercial chlorinated solvents may be enough to break down the oxidation resistance of
even the best hydraulic oils.
c. In the presence of a small amount of water, some of these solvents will corrode steel and
copper
CAUTION

a. Before disconnecting parts of the system, relieve all hydraulic pressure by cycling the
control levers.
b. Discharge the accumulator, if used.

5. FILLING THE SYSTEM

a. Before filling the system, be sure the area around the filler cap is clean.
b. Fill the reservoir to the specified level with recommended hydraulic oil.
c. Use clean oil and funnels or containers and be sure to replace the filler cap before
operating the equipment.
d. Start the engine and warm up the hydraulic system. Then run the equipment
through its working cycle at least four times to bleed air from the system

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 IMPORTANT: - always check the oil level after any repairs have been made on the
system.

6. PREVENTING LEAKS

 Leakages are caused by two basic types:

i. INTERNAL LEAKAGE
a. CAUSES
 Normal wear of parts.
 Too low a viscosity because this oil thins faster at high temperature.
 High pressures also force more oil out leaking points in the system
b. TESTS
 Check for signs of sluggish, or creeping and drifting operation.
ii. EXTERNAL LEAKAGE
a. CAUSES
 Loose connections.
 Damaged seals and gaskets.
 Rapture of any hydraulic components e.g. Hoses and pipes.
After stopping leaks in a system, be sure to sure to warm up the system and cycle the equipment,
then recheck the trouble sports to be sure the leaks are stopped. Recheck the system oil level and
replace any oil lost through leaks or broken connections.

7. PREVENTING OVRHEATING
Heat causes hydraulic oil to break down faster and lose its effectiveness. This is why cooling of
the oil is needed.
b. Effects of overheating:
a. Break down the oil properties.
b. Damage the seals.
c. Coat parts with varnish deposits.
d. Cause extra leakage past working parts.
e. Reduce the out of the system.
In many systems, enough heat is dissipated through the lines, the components, and the reservoir
to keep the oil fairly cool. But on high pressure, high speed circuits, oil coolers are needed to
dissipate the extra heat.

PREVENTION
i. Keep the oil at the proper level.
ii. Clean dirty and mud from lines, reservoirs and coolers.
iii. Check for dented kinked lines.
iv. Keep relief valves adjusted properly.
v. Machine should never be overloaded.
vi. Control valves should never be held in power position too long.

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 8. PREVENTING AIR IN OIL PROBLEMS
a. Effects of air in hydraulic system:
i. Spongy action of equipment.
ii. Chattering in the system.
iii. A noisy pump.
iv. A pump not operating.
b. Causes
i. Too low oil level in the reservoir.
ii. Leaks in the suction line.
iii. After repair of oil lines.
iv. After flushing the system.
c. Solution
i. Be sure the oil in the reservoir is taken at the correct level.
ii. Replace any leaking sections of the suction line.
iii. Tighten any connections that are leaking.
iv. After making any repairs and refilling system, cycle the equipment at least four
times to bleed all air from the system.
 Be sure to recheck reservoir oil level after cycling.
 Bleeding may also improve the operation of new machines after a few
hours of use.

9. CHECKING THE SYSTEM BEFORE OPERATION

i. After repair on the system, check the whole circuit for leaks, proper oil level,
overheating.
ii. For accurate check, warm up the system and cycle the hydraulic equipment.
a. Check reservoir and oil.
b. Check cooler, lines and connections.
c. Check valves.
d. Check cylinders.
e. Check pumps.
f. Check motors.

11. DIAGNOSIS

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

c. Seven basic steps:
1. Know the system: - read equipment operator’s and maintenance manual.
2. Ask the operator: - get equipment working history.
3. Operate the machine: - test-run the equipment.
4. Inspect the machine: - take a visual look at the entire equipment.
5. List the possible causes: -have a check list or note as you go round equipment.
6. Reach a conclusion: - analyze the possible causes and find remedies.
7. Test your conclusions: - use gauges and manual to prove your conclusions.

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 i. HYDRAULIC OIL CONDITION

No FAULTY POSSIBLE CAUSE

1 oil milky or dirty  Water in oil [milky]
 Filter failures [dirty]
 Metal particles [mechanical failures]
2 Oil discoloured or has  Kinked pipes
burned odour  Plugged oil cooler
 Wrong oil viscosity
 Internal leaks

ii. SYSTEM IN-OPERATIVE

No POSSIBLE CAUSES REMEDIES

1 No oil in system  Fill to full mark, check system for leaks

2 Oil low in reservoir  Check level and fill to full mark
 Check system for leaks
3 Oil of wrong viscosity  Refer to workshop manual
4 Filter dirty or plugged  Drain oil and replace filter, try to find source of
contamination.
5 Restriction in system  Oil lines could be dirty or have inner walls that are
collapsing to cut-off oil supply.
 Clean or replace lines.
 Clean orifices.
6 Air leaks in pump suction line  Repair or replace lines
7 Dirty in pump  Clean and repair pump, if necessary, drain and flush
hydraulic system
 Try to find source of contaminated.
8 Badly worn components  Repair or replace pump
 Check for problems causing pump wear such as
misalignment or contaminated oil.

No POSSIBLE CAUSES REMEDIES

9 Badly worn components  Examine and test valves, motors, cylinders etc for external
and internal leaks. If wear is abnormal, try to locate the cause.
10 Oil leak in pressure line  Tighten fittings or replace defective lines. Examine mating
surfaces on couplers for irregularities.
11 Components not properly adjusted  Refer to workshop manual for proper adjustments.
12 Relief valve defective  Test relief valves to make sure they are opening at their rated
pressure.
 Examine seals for damage that could cause leaks
 Clean relief valves and check for broken spring etc.
13 Pump rotating in wrong direction  Reverse to prevent damage.
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14 Operating system under excessive  Check specifications of unit for load limits.
load
15 Hoses attached improperly  Attach properly and tighten securely.
16 Slipping or broken pump drive  Replace couplers or belts if necessary
 Align them and adjust tension.
17 Pump not operating  Check for shut-off device on pump or pump drive.

iii. SYSTEM OPERATES ERRADICALLY

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Air in system  Examine suction side of system for leaks

 Make sure oil level is correct.
2 Cold oil  Allow oil warm-up.
3 Components sticking or binding  Check for dirty or gummy deposits
 Check for worn or bent parts.
4 Pump damaged  Check for broken or worn parts
 Determine cause of pump damage.
5 Dirty in relief valves  Clean relief valves.
6 Restriction in filter or suction line  Clean or replace suction line
 Check filter line for restriction.

vi. SYSTEM OPERATES SLOWLY

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Cold oil  Allow oil to warm-up.

2 Oil viscosity too heavy  Use recommended oil.
3 Insufficient engine speed  Adjustments needed.
No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

4 Low oil supply  Check reservoir and add oil if necessary

 Check system for leaks that could cause loss of oil.
5 Adjustable orifice restricted too  Back out orifice and adjust it as recommended
much
6 Air in system  Check suction line of the system for leaks
7 Badly worn pump  Repair or replace pump
 Check for problems causing pump wear such as
misalignment or contaminated oil.
8 Restriction in suction line or filter  Suction line could be dirty or have inner walls that are
collapsing to cut-off oil supply
 Clean or replace suction line
 Examine filter for plugging.
9 Relief valves not properly set or  Test relief valves to make sure they are opening at their
leaking rated pressure
 Examine valves for damaged seats that could leak
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10 Badly worn components  Examine and test valves, motors, cylinders etc for external
and internal leaks
 If wear is abnormal, try to locate the cause.
11 Valves or regulators plugged  Clean dirty from components
 Clean orifices
 Check source of dirty and correct.
12 Oil leak in pressure lines  Tighten fittings or replace defective lines
 Examine mating surfaces on couplers for irregularities.
13 Components not properly adjusted  Refer to technical manual.

vii. SYSTEM OPERATES TOO FAST

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Adjustable orifice installed  Install orifice parts correctly and adjust.

2 Obstruction or dirty under seat  Remove foreign material
or orifice  Readjust orifice.

viii. OVERHEATING OF OIL IN SYSTEM

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Operator holds control valves in  Return control lever to neutral position when not in
power position too long, causing use.
relief valve to open
2 Using incorrect oil  Be sure oil viscosity is correct.
3 Low oil level  Fill reservoir, check for leaks.
4 Dirty oil  Drain and refill with clean oil
 Look for source of contamination.
5 Engine running too fast  Reset governor or reduce throttle.
6 Incorrect relief valve pressure  Check pressure and clean or replace relief valves.
7 Internal component oil leakage  Examine and test valves, cylinders, motors etc for
external and internal leaks.
 If wear is abnormal, try to locate cause.
8 Restriction in pump suction line  Clean or replace.
9 Dented, obstructed or under  Replace defective or undersized oil lines
sized oil lines  Remove obstructions.
10 Oil cooler malfunctioning  Clean or repair.
11 Control valve stuck in partially or  Free all spools so that they return to neutral position.

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 fully open position
12 Heat not radiating properly  Clean dirty and mud from reservoir, oil lines, coolers
and other components.
13 Automatic unloading control in-  Repair valve.
operated [if equipped]

ix. FORMING OF OIL IN SYSTEM

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Low oil level  Fill reservoir, check for leaks.

2 Water in oil  Drain and replace oil.
3 Wrong kind of oil being used  Use recommended oil.
4 Air leak in line from reservoir to  Tighten or replace suction line.
pump
5 Kink or dent in oil lines [restricts  Replace oil lines.
oil flow]
6 Worn seal around pump shaft  Clean sealing area and replace seal
 Check oil for contamination or pump for
misalignment.

x. PUMP MAKES NOISE

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Low oil level  Fill reservoir

 Check system for leaks.
2 Oil viscosity too high  Change to lighter oil
3 Pump speed too fast  Operate pump at recommended speed.
4 Suction line plugged or pinched  Clean or replace line between reservoir and pump.
5 Sludge and dirty in pump  Disassemble and inspect pump and lines
 Clean hydraulic system
 Determine cause of dirty.
6 Reservoir air vent plugged  Remove breather cap, flush and clean air vent.
7 Air in oil  Tighten or replace suction line
 Check system for leaks
 Replace pump shaft seal.
8 Worn or scored pump bearings  Replace worn parts or complete pump if parts are
or shafts badly worn or scored
 Determine cause of scoring.
9 Inlet screen plugged  Clean screen.
10 Broken or damaged pump parts  Repair binding parts
 Clean parts and change oil if necessary.

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 xi. PUMPS LEAKS OIL

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Damaged seal around drive shaft  Tighten packing or replace seals

 Check the pump drive shaft
 Check pump for misalignment
 Check pump for damage.
2 Loose or broken pump parts  Make sure all bolts and fittings are tight
 Check gaskets
 Examine pump castings for cracks.

xii. CONTROL VALVE STICKS OR WORKS HARD

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Misalignment or seizing of control 

Correct misalignment
linkage 
Lubricate linkage joints
2 The bolts too loose[on valve stacks] 
Adjust as recommended
3 Valve broken or scored internally 
Repair broken or scored parts

Locate source of contamination that caused
scoring
xiii. LOAD DROPS WITH CONTROL VALVE IN NEUTRAL POSIITON

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Leaking or broken oil lines from control  Check for leaks

valve to cylinder  Tighten or replace lines
 Examine mating surfaces on couplers for
irregularities.
2 Oil leaking past cylinder packings or ‘O’  Replace worn parts
Rings  Clean hydraulic system and determine source
of contamination
3 Oil leaking past control valve or relief  Clean or replace valves
valves  Clean system and determine source of
contamination.
4 Control lever not centering when  Check linkage for binding
released  Adjust valve as recommended
 Check for broken or binding parts.

xiv. CONTROL VALVE LEAKS OIL

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 The bolts too loose [on valve stacks]  Adjust as recommended

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2 Worn or damaged ‘O’ Rings  Replace ‘O’ Rings
 Clean system and look for source of
contamination.
3 Broken valve parts  Look for a cause of damage i.e. too much
pressure or hoses that are attached
incorrectly.

xv. CYLINDERS LEAK OIL

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Damaged cylinder barrel  Replaced cylinder barrel

 Correct cause of barrel damage.
2 Rod seal leaking  Replace seal and look for cause
 Check piston rod for scratches or
misalignment.
3 Loose parts  Tighten parts until leakage has stopped.
4 Piston rod damaged  Check rod for nicks or scratches that could
cause seal damage or allow oil leakage
 Replace defective rods.

xvi. CYLINDER LOWERS WHEN CONTROL VALVE IS IN ‘SLOW RAISE’ POSITION

No POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY

1 Damaged check valve in lift circuit  Repair or replace check valve.

2 Leaking cylinder packing  Replace packing
 Check oil for contamination that could cause
wear
 Check alignment of cylinder.
3 Leaking lines or fittings to cylinder  Check and tighten
 Examine mating surfaces on couplers for
irregularities.

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