Learning Outcome

 Takes a closer look at the IBM personal computers.

 Intel 8086 family.
 Introduces the registers and mention some of their
special functions.
 Ideas of segmented memory is discussed.
 Overall structure of the IBM PC is explored.
 Memory organization, I/O parts, and the DOS and BIOS
routines.

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 The Intel 8086 Family of
Microprocessors
 Family consists of the IBM PC, PC XT, PC AT, PS/l, and
PS/2 models.
 Based on the Intel 8086 family
 Includes the 8086, 8088, 80186, 80188, 80286, 80386,
80386SX, 80486, and 80486SX.
Family Use for IBM PCs
8088 PC and PC XT
80286 PC AT and PS/1
80186 PC-compatible laptop models
8086, 80286, 80386, or 80486 PS/2 models
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 8086 and 8088 Microprocessors
8086 8088
 Intel introduced in 1978  Intel introduced in 1979
 It has a 16-bit data bus  It has a 8-bit data bus
 It has a faster clock rate,  It was less expensive to
and thus has better build a computer
performance.

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80186 and 80188 Microprocessors
 80186 and 80188 are enhanced versions of the 8086
and 8088, respectively.
 Incorporate all the functions of the 8086 and 8088
microprocessors
 Execute some new instructions called the extended
i11struction set.
 These processors offered no significant advantage over
the 8086 and 8088 and hence develop the 80286.

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80286 Microprocessor
 Introduced in 1981 and is also 16 bit microprocessor.
 Offers the following important advances over its
predecessors
 Two modes of operations
 Real address mode and protected virtual address mode

 More addressable memory.

 In protected mode can address 16 megabytes of physical
memory (as opposed to 1 megabyte for the 8086 and 8088)
 Virtual memory in protected mode.
 Treat external storage (that is, a disk) as if it were physical
memory, and therefore execute programs that are too large to
be contained in physical memory.
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80386 and 80386SX Microprocessors
 First 32-bit microprocessor,
 The 80386 (or 386) introduced in 1985.
 Much faster than the 80286
 Address 4 gigabytes of physical memory, and 64
terabyte (246 bytes) of virtual memory.
 386SX has essentially the same internal structure as
the 386, but it has only a 16-bit data bus.

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80486 and 80486SX Microprocessors
 Another 32-bit microprocessor.
 Introduced in 1989.
 Fastest and most powerful processor in the family.
 Performs floating-point number operations, and an 8-
KB cache memory that serves as a fast memory area to
buffer data coming from the slower memory unit.
 486SX is similar to the 486 but without the floating-
point processor.

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Organization of the 8086/8088
Microprocessors
 Registers
 Information inside the microprocessor is stored in
registers.
 Classify according to the functions they perform.
 Data registers hold data for an operation.
 Address resisters hold the address of an instruction or data.
 A status registers keeps the current status of the processor.
 There are fourteen 16-bit registers.

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 Data
Registers

Address
Registers

Status
Registers
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Figure: 8086 Registers
Data Registers: AX, BX, CX,DX
 Available to the programmer for general data
manipulation.
 Instruction is faster (requires fewer clock cycles) if the
data are stored in registers.
 Modern processors
 High and low bytes of the data registers can be
accessed separately.
 These four registers are to being general-purpose
registers.

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Data Registers: AX, BX, CX,DX (2)
 AX (Accumulator Register)
 Prefers to use in arithmetic, logic, and transfer
instructions
 In multiplication and division operations, one of the
numbers involved must be in AX or AL.
 Input and output operations also require the use of AL
and AX.

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Data Registers: AX, BX, CX,DX (3)
 BX (Base Register)
 Serves as an address register; an example is a table look-
up . Instruction called XLAT (translate).
 Locates a byte entry in a table in memory, using the
contents of the AL register as a table index,
 Copies the contents of the table entry back into the AL
register.

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Data Registers: AX, BX, CX,DX (4)
 CX (Count Register)
 Program loop constructions are facilitated.
 Serves as a loop counter.
 Controls a special class of instructions called string
operations.
 Shift and rotate bits.
 DX (Data Register)
 DX is used in multiplication and division. It is also used
in I/O operations.

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES
 Address registers store addresses of instructions and
data in memory.
 Memory is a collection of bytes. Each memory byte has
an address, starting with 0.
 8086 processor assigns a 20-bit physical address to its
memory locations.
 It is possible to address 220 = 1,048,576 bytes (one
megabyte) of memory.
 Introduce the idea of memory segments.
 A direct consequence of using a 20-bit address in a 16-bit
processor.
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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (2)
 Memory Segment
 A block of 216 (or 64 K) consecutive memory bytes.
 A segment number is 16 bits, so the highest segment
number is FFFFh.
 A memory location is specified by giving an offset.
 The number of bytes from the beginning of the segment.
 The first byte in a segment has offset 0 and the last offset in a
segment is FFFFh

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (3)
 Segment: Offset Address
 A memory location may be specified by providing a
segment number and an offset
 the form of segment:offset that is known as a logical address.
 For example, A4FB:4872h means offset 4872h within
segment A4FBh.
 To obtain a 20-bit physical address.
 The 8086 microprocessor first shifts the segment
address 4 bits to the left (this is equivalent to multiplying
by 10h), and then adds the offset.

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (4)
 Thus the physical address for A4FB:4872 is

 Find the 20 bit physical address for B5EC:3654

 THE ANSWER IS: B9514

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (4)
 Location -of Segments
 the layout of the segments in memory.
 segment 0 start at address 0000:0000 = 00000h
and ends at 0000: FFFF = 0FFFFh
 Segment 1 starts at address 0001:0000 = 00010h and ends
at 0001 : FFFF = 1000Fh

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Location of Memory Segments

The segments
start every 10h=
16 bytes and
the starting
address of a
segment always
ends with a hex
digit 0

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (5)
 Example: For the memory location whose physical
address is specified by 1256Ah, give the address in
segment:offset form for segments 1256h and 1240h.

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Segment Registers: CS, DS, SS, ES (6)
 Example: A memory location has physical address
80FD2h. In what segment does it have offset BFD2h?

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 Pointer and Index Registers:
SP, BP SI, DI
 SP, BP, SI, and DI normally point to (contain the offset
addresses of) memory locations.
 Use in arithmetic and other operation.
 SP (Stack Pointer)
 The SP (stack pointer) register is used in conjunction with SS
for accessing the stack segment.
 BP (Base Pointer)
 The BP (base pointer) register is used primarily to access
data on the stack.
 Unlike SP

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 Pointer and Index Registers:
SP, BP SI, DI (2)
 SI (Source Index)
 The SI (source index) register is used to point to memory
locations in the data segment addressed by DS.
 DI (Destination Index)
 The DI (destination index) register performs the same
functions as SI.
 Instruction Pointer: IP
 To access the instructions, the 8086 uses the registers CS and
IP
 CS register contains the segment number of the next
instruction, and the IP contains the offset.

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Pointer and Index Registers:
SP, BP SI, DI (3)
 FLAGS Register
 To indicate the status of the microprocessor.
 There are two kinds of flags:
 Status flags
 Control flags
 Reflects the result of an instruction executed by the
processor, for instance, Zero Flag
 Enable or disable certain operations of the processor, for
instance, interrupt flag

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Organization of the PC
 The Operating System
 The most important piece of software for a computer is
the operating system.
 To coordinate the operations of all the devices that make
up the computer system.
 Some of the operating system functions are:
 Reading and executing the commands typed by the user
 Performing I/0 operations.
 Generating error messages ·
 Managing memory and other resources.
 DOS

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Organization of the PC (2)
 There are several versions of DOS, with each new
version having more capabilities.
 DOS is not just one program; it consists of a number of
service routines.
 supports a Graphical User Interface (GUI), allowing the
use of a mouse.
 There are two types of user commands, internal and
external
 Routines loaded into memory
 Routines that not loaded into memory

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BIOS
 System routines stored in ROM that are not destroyed
when the power is off.
 BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) routines
 Performs I/O operations for the PC
 Routines are machine specific.
 Different hardware configuration has it own BIOS
routines

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