ELEC 2400 Electronic Circuits

Chapter 4: AC Steady-State Analysis

Course Website: https://canvas.ust.hk

HKUST, 2023-24 Spring

 Chapter 4: AC Steady-State Analysis
4.1 Capacitors and Inductors
4.1.1 Capacitors
4.1.2 Inductors
4.1.3 Transformer Basics
4.2 Sinusoidal Excitation
4.2.1 Driving Capacitor with AC Source
4.2.2 Driving Inductor with AC Source
4.2.3 Driving RC Circuit with AC Source
4.2.4 Steady-State and Transient Responses (Appendix)
4.3 Phasor Analysis
4.3.1 Complex Number and Operations
4.3.2 Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials
4.3.3 Complex Sinusoidal as Excitation
4.3.4 Phasors
4.3.5 Impedance and Admittance
4.3.6 Phasor Analysis
4.3.7 AC Power
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with AC Source – Complete Solution
4-2
 4.1.1 Capacitor
Charge can be stored on the surface of a conductor that is
surrounded by insulator. The circuit element that is used to store
charge is the capacitor. A capacitor can be formed by using two
metal plates separated by a dielectric material (insulator) (parallel
plate capacitor).

Positive Charge (+Q)

V E Dielectric Metal Plates
Negative Charge (–Q)

The amount of charge stored is proportional to voltage, and is

given by
Q = CV
with "Q" understood as having +Q on the positive plate and –Q
on the negative plate, and C is the capacitance, and the unit is
farad (F), with the dimension of [coulomb/volt].
4-3
 Capacitance
The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor can be derived from:
• Q = EA (Gauss’s Law)
• E = V/d
• Q = CV
Result is: A k  o A
C 
where d d
C = capacitance (in farad, F)
Q = charge (in coulomb, C)
V = voltage (in volt, V)
E = electric field (in V/m)
o = permittivity of free space (vacuum) Michael Faraday
1791 - 1867
= 8.85410–12 F/m
 = ko = permittivity of dielectric material
k = dielectric constant (relative permittivity)
d = distance between plates
A = cross-sectional area of plates
Example 4-1: Mica capacitor has k = 5. If A = 0.5 cm0.5 cm, d
= 100 m, then C = 58.8510–120.0050.005/10010–6 = 11 pF.
4-4
 Capacitor Voltage and Current Relationship

+ vc(t) –
Fundamental equation q(t) -q(t)

q(t) = Cvc(t)
ic(t) ic(t)
C
Current is the change in charge over time, and the differential
form gives the (time domain) ic(t), vc(t) relationship of the
capacitor:
dq(t) dv (t)
ic(t)  C c
dt dt

Integrating once, we get:

1t
v c(t)  v c(0)   ic()d
C0
4-5
 Capacitor Blocks DC, Passes AC?

The capacitor dielectric, which is an

+ vc(t) –
insulator, allows no moving charges
to pass through it. A capacitor C
therefore passes no electric current ic(t) ic(t)
whatsoever: DC, AC or transient.

However, modeled as a black box and viewed from external, the

capacitor does give an illusion that an electric current passes
through it, which could be a useful way of reasoning.

A capacitor eventually blocks a DC current because the capacitor

voltage cannot increase forever. For a DC circuit, the capacitor is
charged to a max. voltage set by the circuit. After which current
stops and the capacitor behaves like an open circuit.

4-6
 Energy Stored in Capacitor
The energy stored in a capacitor is dependent on its charge 𝑄,
voltage 𝑉 , and capacitance 𝐶 .

To move an infinitesimal charge 𝑑𝑞 from the negative plate to the

positive plate (from a lower to a higher potential), the amount of
work 𝑑𝑊 that must be done on 𝑑𝑞 is 𝑑𝑊 𝑣𝑑𝑞 .

This work becomes the energy stored in the electric field of the
capacitor. In order to charge the capacitor to a charge from 0 to
𝑄, the total work required is

𝑞 1𝑄
𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝑣𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐶 2 𝐶

Hence the energy stored in a capacitor is

1𝑄 1 1
𝐸 𝑄𝑉 𝐶𝑉
2 𝐶 2 2
4-7
 Example 4-2

Example 4-2: Given vc(t) across C as shown, find i(t) and i(1 s).

+ i(t)
vc(t) C=2 F
Soln. For t < 2 s:
–
dv c(t) vc(t)
i(t) C
dt 20
10 +20 –20
20
 2 0 t/s
1 -10
2 4 6 8

 40A -20
i(t)
Similarly, for 2 s < t < 4 s: 40
i(t)  40A 20
0 t/s
and 1 3 5 7
-20
i(1s)  40A
-40

4-8
 Examples 4-3, 4-4

Example: 4-3: Given vc(t) across C as shown, find i(t).

i(t) +
C=2 F vc(t) = 2t V
–

Soln:
i(t) = 2 F2 V/s = 4 A

Example: 4-4: Given vc(t) across C as shown, find i(t).

+
C=2 F vc(t) = 2sin(t) V
–
i(t)

Soln:
d(2 sin(t))
i(t) = 2   2  2 cos(t)
dt
= –4cos(t) A
4-9
 Examples 4-5, 4-6

Example: 4-5: Find the energy stored in the capacitor below.

+
C=2F Vc = 2 V
–
Soln:
1 1
Ec = CVc 2   2  22
2 2
=4J

Example: 4-6: For C = 2 F, find vc(1 s) given that Vc(0) = –20 V

and ic(t) = 40 A.
Soln: 1t
v c(t)  v c(0)   ic()d
C0
11
 20   40d
20
 20  20  0V 4-10
 4.1.2 Inductor
When an electric current passes through a medium, magnetic flux
, and the unit is weber (Wb), is produced that bears the relation
(t) = L  i(t)
where L is the inductance, and the unit is henry (H). The circuit
element that stores magnetic flux (magnetic energy) is the
inductor. An inductor can be formed by wrapping a coil around a
ferromagnetic material.

Faraday's Law of Induction: iℓ(t)

d(t)
v (t)  +
dt L vℓ(t)
and –
d(t) di
v (t)  
di dt
di
v (t)  L
dt
1t
Integrating once, i(t)  i(0)   v ()d
L0 4-11
 Inductance

Let the coil has N turns. When the current iℓ(t) passes through
the coil, the magnetic field inside is increased by N times, and the
magnetic flux thus produced is also increased by N times. The
inductance L of a coil inductor can be shown to be l = 2r

N2A
L 
l

where N = number of turns

A = cross-section area of magnetic flux (= a2) A = a2
l = length of magnetic path (= 2r)
 = permeability of material (H/m)
o = permeability of free space = 410–7 H/m

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance
4-12
 Energy Stored in Inductor
Suppose that an inductor of inductance 𝐿 is connected to a
variable DC voltage supply. The supply is adjusted so as to
increase the current flowing through the inductor from zero to
some final value 𝐼 . As the current through the inductor is ramped
up, a voltage 𝑣 𝐿 appears across the inductor, which acts to
oppose the increase in the current. Clearly, work must be done
against this voltage by the voltage supply in order to establish the
current in the inductor. This work becomes the energy stored in
the magnetic field of the inductor. The work done by the voltage
supply during a time interval 𝑑𝑡 is
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑊 𝑃𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
The total work required is
1
𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝐿𝐼
2
Hence the energy stored in an inductor is
1 1 1𝛷
𝐸 𝐿𝐼 𝛷𝐼
2 2 2 𝐿 4-13
 Examples 4-7

Example: 4-7: Find (t), vℓ(t) and Eℓ(t) of the inductor below.

iℓ(t)
=2t A
+
L=2 H vℓ(t)
–

Soln:
(t) = Liℓ(t) = 22t = 4t Wb

di (t)
v (t) L  2  2  4V
dt
1 1
E(t)  Li(t)2   2  (2t)2  4t 2 J
2 2
4-14
 Examples 4-8

Example 4-8: Given iℓ(t) through L as shown, find vℓ(t) and

vℓ(1.5s). iℓ(t)
+
L=0.5H vℓ(t)
Soln. For t < 2 s: –
di(t)
v (t)  L
dt
iℓ(t)
20
 0.5  20
1 10 +20 –20
 10V 0 t/s
2 4 6 8
-10
-20

4-15
4.1.3 Transformer Basics
The primary and secondary
coils are inductively coupled
via a ferromagnetic core. For
an ideal transformer, all the
magnetic flux goes through
both coils.
𝑑Φ 𝑑Φ
𝑉 𝑁 𝑉 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑁
𝑉 𝑁
The magnetomotive forces of
the primary and secondary
coils cancel each other
𝑁 𝐼 𝑁𝐼
𝑉 ,𝑉,𝐼 ,𝐼: 𝐼 𝑁
Instantaneous 𝐼 𝑁
voltages and
Hence the power balance
currents
𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝐼
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer 4-16
 Chapter 4: AC Steady-State Analysis
4.1 Capacitors and Inductors
4.1.1 Capacitors
4.1.2 Inductors
4.1.3 Transformer Basics
4.2 Sinusoidal Excitation
4.2.1 Driving Capacitor with AC Source
4.2.2 Driving Inductor with AC Source
4.2.3 Driving RC Circuit with AC Source
4.2.4 Steady-State and Transient Responses (Appendix)
4.3 Phasor Analysis
4.3.1 Complex Number and Operations
4.3.2 Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials
4.3.3 Complex Sinusoidal as Excitation
4.3.4 Phasors
4.3.5 Impedance and Admittance
4.3.6 Phasor Analysis
4.3.7 AC Power
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with AC Source – Complete Solution
4-17
 4.2 Sinusoidal Excitation
In DC analysis, the driving forces are DC voltages/currents.
In many other cases, the driving term is a sinusoid, such as the
AC (alternating current) voltage obtainable from the wall socket,
and we are interested in the sinusoidal (AC) steady-state
response. The steady state is the state of the circuit after a long
time has elapsed since the application of the sinusoidal source.
A sinusoid wave is characterized by its oscillation frequency,
magnitude and phase.
A vs1(t) vs2(t)
B
t t

T T
–B
–A

vs1(t) = Asin(1t) vs2(t) = Bsin(2t+)

=2f (angular frequency in radian/sec), f (frequency in hertz), T
= 1/f (period in sec),  (phase in radian or degree).
4-18
 4.2.1 Driving Capacitor with Vscos(t)

Consider driving a capacitor C with a sinusoidal voltage source:

v s(t)  Vs cos(t)
+ ic(t)
vs(t) =
dv s(t) Vscos(t) – C
 ic(t) C  CVs sin(t)
dt
Recall trigonometric identities:
Vs
sin(+) = sincos + cossin vs(t)
cos(+) = coscos – sinsin t
Hence,
ic(t)  CVs cos(t  /2) –Vs

The argument of ic(t) is +/2 radian CVs

earlier than vc(t), and the capacitor ic(t)
current leads the capacitor voltage t
/2
by /2 radian (90o). –CVs

4-19
 4.2.2 Driving Inductor with Vscos(t)

Consider driving an inductor L with a sinusoidal voltage source:

v s(t)  Vs cos(t)
+ iℓ(t)
1 v s(t) =
i(t)   v s(t ')dt ' Vscos(t) – L
 L
1
  Vs sin(t) + constant*
L Vs
1 vs(t)
 i(t)   Vs cos(t  /2)
L t

The argument of iℓ(t) is /2 radian –Vs

later than vℓ(t), and the inductor
current lags the inductor voltage by
/2 radian (90o). Vs/L iℓ(t)
t
* DC component ignored /2
for AC analysis –Vs/L

4-20
 Example 4-9

Example 4-9: Given an AC voltage source vs(t) = Vscos(t) with

amplitude 10 V. Compute the current passing through a
capacitor of 10 F if the frequency is (a) 1 kHz; (b) 10 kHz;
and (c) 100 kHz.

Soln.:
dv s(t) d(10 cos(2ft))
ic(t) C  10 
dt dt
 10  10  2f  sin(2ft)

(a) ic(t)  0.628 sin(21kt) A

(b) ic(t)  6.28 sin(210kt) A
(c) ic(t)  62.8 sin(2100kt) A

Note that a capacitor serves as an open circuit at low frequency

and short circuit at high frequency.
4-21
 Example 4-10

Example 4-10: Given an AC voltage source vs(t) = Vscos(t) with

amplitude 10 V. Compute the current passing through a
inductor of 10 H if the frequency is (a) 1 kHz; (b) 10 kHz;
and (c) 100 kHz.

1 1
Soln.: iℓ t v t dt 10 cos 2πft dt
L 10μ
10
sin 2πft
10μ 2πf

(a) i(t)  159 sin(21kt) A

(b) i(t)  15.9 sin(210kt) A
(c) i(t)  1.59 sin(2100kt) A

Note that an inductor serves as a short circuit at low frequency

and open circuit at high frequency.
4-22
 4.2.3 Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t)
Consider driving an RC circuit with vs(t) = Vscos(t). KVL gives
R
v s(t)  Ri(t)  v o(t) +
+ i(t)
 dv (t) v s(t) =
vo(t)
Vs cos(t)  RC o  v o(t) Vscos(t) – C
dt
–
 dv o(t) 1 V
 v o(t)  s cos(t) ,  = RC
dt  
To solve the above equation, we need to assume that vo(t) takes
the form of vo(t) = Acos(t) + Bsin(t), and we have to deal with
both cos(t) and sin(t). The computation is very tedious (refer
to Appendix). The solution contains both a transient response and
a steady-state AC response, only the latter is covered in this
chapter.

Qn. Do we have a more efficient way to arrive at the answer,

especially one that does not need to solve differential
equations?
Ans. Yes, we do. But we need to use complex numbers. 4-23
 Chapter 4: AC Steady-State Analysis
4.1 Capacitors and Inductors
4.1.1 Capacitors
4.1.2 Inductors
4.1.3 Transformer Basics
4.2 Sinusoidal Excitation
4.2.1 Driving Capacitor with AC Source
4.2.2 Driving Inductor with AC Source
4.2.3 Driving RC Circuit with AC Source
4.2.4 Steady-State and Transient Responses (Appendix)
4.3 Phasor Analysis
4.3.1 Complex Number and Operations
4.3.2 Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials
4.3.3 Complex Sinusoidal as Excitation
4.3.4 Phasors
4.3.5 Impedance and Admittance
4.3.6 Phasor Analysis
4.3.7 AC Power
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with AC Source – Complete Solution
4-24
 4.3 Phasor Analysis

Im
 (Phase)

V1 t1 V1 (Magnitude)

Re
t=0 0 t

Phasor Representation Sinusoidal Waveform

4-25
 4.3.1 Complex Number and Operations

The simplest example of an imaginary number is the solution to

x2  1  0
and
x   1

The number 1 is not an integer, nor a real number, and it is

regarded as an "imaginary" number in the olden days, and the
name passes down to present time.
In computation, we could just treat 1 as an authentic number,
and remember that 1  1  1 . As this number occurs very
often in mathematics, it is assigned the symbol "i". However, in
electrical/electronic engineering, "i" is reserved for current, and
we use the symbol "j" instead:
j  1
and
j  j  1

4-26
 Complex Number: x + jy

Consider the quadratic equation:

x2  x  1  0
The roots are
x1,2 b  b2  4ac  1  1  4 1
 j
3

2a 2 2 2
The number –1/2 + j 3/2 consists of a real part (–1/2) and an
imaginary part (j 3 /2), and is called a complex number. The
usual symbol for complex number is "z":
z  x  jy
where x and y are real numbers, and
Re(z) x
Im(z) y

4-27
 Complex Number: Addition and Subtraction

Consider two complex numbers z1 and z2:

z1  a  jb
z2  c  jd

Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers:

z1  z2  (a  c)  j(b  d)

Example 4-11: Given z1 = –3 + j7 and z2 = –j12,

compute (a) z1 + z2, and (b) z2 – z1.

Soln.:
(a) (–3 + j7) + (0 + –j12) = (–3 + 0) + j(7 – 12) = –3 – j5
(b) (0 + –j12) – (–3 + j7) = (0 + 3) + j(–12 – 7) = +3 – j19

4-28
 Complex Number: Multiplication

Multiplication of Complex Numbers:

z1  z2 = (a + jb)  (c + jd)
= ac + jad + jbc – bd
= (ac – bd) + j(ad + bc)

Example 4-12: Compute (–3 + j7)  (8 + j4).

Soln.:
z1  z2 = (–3 + j7)  (8 + j4)
= –38 + j(–34) + j(78) – 74
= –52 + j44

4-29
 Complex Conjugate and Modulus

Before discussing division of complex number, let us introduce the

complex conjugate of z, denoted as z*, first. For
z = a + jb
z* = a – jb
A complex number z when multiplied with its complex conjugate
z* gives a real number:
z  z* = (a + jb)  (a – jb) = a2 – jab + jab + b2
= a2 + b2
The modulus of a complex number z, denoted as |z|, is defined as
| z |2 = zz* = a2 + b2

|z| = a2  b 2 0

4-30
 Complex Number: Division

Division of Complex Numbers:

z1 a  jb a  jb c  jd
  
z2 c  jd c  jd c  jd
(ac  bd)  j(bc  ad) ac  bd bc  ad
   j 
c 2  d2 c 2  d2 c 2  d2

Example 4-13: Compute (–3 + j7) / (8 + j4).

Soln.:
3  j7 3  j7 8  j4
 
8  j4 8  j4 8  j4
(24  28)  j(56  12) 4  j68
 
82  4 2 80
 0.05  j0.85

4-31
 Complex Plane, Rectangular and Polar Forms
Complex numbers are conveniently drawn on the complex plane
(z-plane). The x-axis is the real axis (Re-axis), and the y-axis is
the imaginary axis (Im-axis).
Im z-plane
a+jb
jb
r  a2  b2 0
r rsin b
tan  
 a
Re
0 rcos a
On the z-plane, complex numbers can be expressed as
z = a + jb rectangular form
or z = rcos + jrsin
with r | z | a2  b2 0
  tan1(b / a)
Re(z)  a  r cos 
Im(z)  b  r sin 
4-32
4.3.2 Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials
From study of calculus (using Taylor and
Maclaurin series expansions), we learn:
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 1 𝑥 ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
Euler
𝑥 𝑥
sin 𝑥 𝑥 ⋯
3! 5!
𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝑥 1 ⋯
2! 4!
Define
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 Leonhard Euler
𝑒 ≡1 𝑧 ⋯ 1707 – 1783
2! 3! 4! 5!
For z 𝑗𝜃
𝑗𝜃 𝑗𝜃 𝑗𝜃 𝑗𝜃
𝑒 1 𝑗𝜃 ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
1 ⋯ 𝑗 𝜃 ⋯
2! 4! 3! 5!
cos 𝜃 𝑗 sin 𝜃 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler 4-33
Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials (cont.)

Euler's equation:
𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑗 sin 𝜃

The complex exponential function 𝑒 can be viewed as more

fundamental than the sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 functions, which are both
derivable from 𝑒 :
cos 𝜃 ℛℯ 𝑒 , sin 𝜃 ℐ𝓂 𝑒

In particular
𝑒 1 0
The Most Beautiful Formula in Mathematics

Compared with Einstein’s equation

𝐸 𝑚𝑐
The Most Famous Equation in Physics
4-34
 Complex Numbers on Unit Circle

Example 4-14: Common complex numbers on the unit circle.

e j0  e0  1 Im
j /2 unit circle
+j e
e j /6  cos 30 o  j sin 30o
e j /4  145o
3 1
j 45o e j /6  130 o
2 2
e j
e j /4  cos 45o  j sin 45o Re
–1 30o +1
1 1
 j
2 2
o o e j /2
e j /2  cos 90  j sin 90  j
–j 1270o  1  90o
e j  cos180 o  j sin180 o  1

e j3 /2  cos 270 o  j sin 270 o  j ∠𝜃 ≡ 𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑗 sin 𝜃

4-35
 Polar Form

A complex number z in polar form can be written as

z  re j r0

In electrical/electronic engineering, the polar form is usually

written as
z  r r  0 and ∠𝜃 ≡ 𝑒

The modulus r is better known as the magnitude of the complex

number, and  as the phase.

4-36
 Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Multiplication in polar form:

z3  z1  z2  r1e j1  r2e j2
 r1r2e j(1 2)
or z3  r11  r22
 r1r2(1  2)

Division in polar form:

j1
z3 z r e
  j2
1 1
z2 r2e
 (r1 / r2)e j(1 2)
r 
or z3  1 1
r22
 (r1 / r2)(1  2)

4-37
 Example 4-15

Example 4-15: Given z1 = 2 + j6 and z2 = –4 – j3. (a) Write the

polar form of z1 and z2; (b) compute z1z2 in polar form and
convert the answer into rectangular form; and (c) compute z1/z2
in polar form and convert the answer into rectangular form.

Soln.:
(a) r1  22  62  6.325 Im
6 z1
1  tan1  71.57 o
2 5j
z1  6.32571.57 o
r2  4 2  32  5 Re
–5 5
1 3 o
2  tan  216.87 z2
4 –5j
z2  5216.87 o (NOT 5∠36.87°)
Special care is needed in converting the complex number in
quadrants 2, 3, and 4.
4-38
 Example 4-15 (cont.)

(b) z1  z2  (6.325  5)(71.57 o  216.87o)

 31.63288.4 o  31.6  71.6o
 31.63  (cos(288.4 o)  j sin(288.4 o))
 9.98  j  30.0

(c) z1 6.325
 (71.57o  216.87o)
z2 5
 1.265  145.3o  1.26  145.3o
 1.265  (cos(145.3o)  j sin(145.3o))
 1.04  j  0.72

Note that usually answers with 3 significant digits are good

enough, and we should use 4-digit accuracy for computing
intermediate results.
4-39
 4.3.3 Complex Sinusoid as Excitation

Qn. What is the connection between complex number and

circuit analysis?

Ans. The ingenuity is to replace the real sinusoidal source

Vscos(t) by the complex sinusoidal source Vsejt.

Let complex voltages and currents be expressed as {v(t)}C

and {i(t)}C:
vs(t) = Vscos(t)  {vs(t)}C = Vsejt
Use {vs(t)}C to compute the capacitor current:

{ic (t)} C
C
d{ v s (t)} C
dt
C
d
dt

Vs e jt  + {ic(t)}C
{vs(t)}C C
jt
 jCVse =Vsejt –

 jC  { v s (t)} C

4-40
Re({ic(t)}C)=ic(t) and 1/jC Resembles Resistance

Two observations are in place.

(1) The real part of {ic (t)}C is the correct response to the original
real source:
{ic (t)} C  jCVs(cos(t)  j sin(t))
 CVs sin(t)  jCVs cos(t)
Re({ic (t)} C )  ic(t)  CVs sin(t)

(2) The ratio of complex voltage to complex current resembles a

"resistance":
{ v s (t)} C 1 + 1
{ic(t)}C
 {vs(t)}C
{ic (t)} C j C jC
–

The ultimate simplification is to use phasors.

4-41
 Rotating Vector

Consider x(t) = Acos(t), and let us represent it as a rotating

vector sweeping on a circle with an angular frequency .
Im Im
t2  
t2 t1
t1 t=0

Re Re
A t=0

t3 A
Acos(t) t3
Acos(t+)
Acos(t) Acos(t+)
0 t1 t


x(t) can be thought to rotate on the complex plane, with

{x(t)}C = Aejt. Each {x(ti)}C is a point on the circle with
radius A, and the real part is x(ti).
4-42
 4.3.4 Phasors

If x(t) has an initial phase, say, x(t) = Acos(t+), it can be

represented by the right figure of the previous page. Note that all
subsequent positions of the vector are known once the initial
phase is determined, as the angular frequency  is given.

We can represent two functions, a(t) = Acos(t+) and b(t) =

Bcos(t+), having the same  on the same diagram, specifying
only the initial positions. Im
j jt jt
C 
{a(t)} C
 Ae e  Ae
{b(t)} C  Be je jt  Be jt B A

We then define the phasors of a(t)  
Re
and b(t) as
A  Ae j  A
B  Be j  B
4-43
 Operations of Phasors

It is clear that the term phasor refers to a rotating vector

specified by its initial phase. For the time being, we use boldface
letters to indicate phasors. Now, real signals a(t) and b(t) are
represented as phasors A and B that are complex numbers:

A  A  a1  ja2

B  B  b1  jb2
Operations of phasors follow that of complex numbers. For addition:
C  A B  C  c1  jc 2
 (a1  b1)  j(a2  b2)
with 2 2
C  c1  c 2  (a1  b1 )2  (a2  b2 )2
c2 a2  b2
  tan1  tan1
c1 a1  b1

4-44
 Example 4-16

Example 4-16:
Let a(t) = 10cos(30t+50o)
b(t) = 5cos(30t+125o)
Find c(t) = a(t) + b(t) using phasor method.
Evaluate c(t) at t = 0.1 s.
Soln.:

a(t) = 10cos(30t+50o)  A  1050 o  6.428  j7.660

b(t) = 5cos(30t+125o)  B  5125o  2.868  j4.096
C  A B  3.560  j11.756 = 12.2873.15o
 c(t) = 12.28cos(30t+73.15o) c(t)
a(t)
c(0.1) = 12.28cos(3 rad +73.15o)
= 12.28cos(3 + 73.15o/180o) 0 t
b(t)
= 12.28cos(4.277) = 5.18
4-45
 Examples 4-17, 4-18
Example 4-17: Let a(t) = 10cos(30t+50o) and d(t) =
5sin(30t+125o), find e(t) = a(t) + d(t).
Soln.:
Note that sin() lags cos() by 90o. By writing sin() = cos( – 90o),
we can express d(t) = 5cos(30t+35o). The phasors of a(t) and d(t)
are now compatible. Hence,
D  535o  4.096  j2.868
E  A D  10.524  j10.528  14.945.0o
 e(t)  14.9 cos(30t  45.0 o)
Here we can’t use sin() = cos(90o – ) as d(t) would be 5cos(–30t
–35o) then, resulting in a vector rotating in the opposite direction.

Example 4-18: Let a(t) = 10sin(30t+50o) and f(t) =

5sin(45t+125o), find g(t) = a(t) + f(t).
Soln.:
a(t) and f(t) have different frequencies and cannot be added
together using phasors, and g(t) remains
g(t) = 10sin(30t+50o) + 5sin(45t+125o) 4-46
 Example 4-19
Example 4-19: Let m(t) = 10sin(30t+50o) and n(t) =
5sin(30t+125o), find k(t) = m(t) + n(t).
Soln.:
Method 1:
m(t) = 10sin(30t+50o) = 10cos(30t40o)  M = 1040o
n(t) = 5sin(30t+125o) = 5cos(30t+35o)  N = 535o
K = M + N = 1040o + 535o = 7.660  j6.428 + 4.096 + j2.868
= 11.756  j3.560 = 12.316.8o
 k(t) = 12.3cos(30t16.8o) = 12.3sin(30t+73.2o)

Method 2:
Note that m(t) and n(t) are just a(t) and b(t) replaced with the
sine function (or offset by –90o). We may simply add A and B to
obtain C as in Example 4-16, but remember to put the answer
with reference to sine, that is,

k(t)  12.3 sin(30t  73.2o)

4-47
 d/dt  j and d  1/j

For
{a(t)} C  Ae jt
we have
d{a(t)} C 
d
dt
Ae jt  
 j Ae jt 
dt
which looks as if the differential operator d/dt is replaced by j:
d
 j
dt
Likewise, the integral operator d is replaced by 1/j:
t
1
 d 
j
By using phasors, differential equations are turned to algebraic
equations that are much easier to solve.
4-48
 4.3.5 Impedance and Admittance

Differentiation and integration are due to the presence of

capacitors and inductors. Let us reconsider driving a capacitor C
with a voltage source vs(t) = Vscos(t+) = vc(t), and
{ v c (t)} C  Vce jt
Now, the capacitor current (the response) due to the forced
oscillation must have the same frequency, that is,
{ic (t)} C  Ice jt
In fact,
d
{ic (t)} C C
dt

Vce jt   jCVce jt
giving
Vc 1
 zc(j) 
Ic jC
The ratio Vc/Ic = zc(j) is NOT a phasor, but is the impedance
(resembling resistance) of the capacitor C.

4-49
 Admittance of Capacitor

Time-domain analysis and phasor analysis can be summarized as

shown in the figures below, and from the phasor diagram, Ic
leads Vc by 90o is immediately observed.
Im
Ic
+ ic(t) Ic
vs(t) C Vs 1/jC
– Vc
Re
Time-domain analysis Phasor analysis

Rewrite the I-V characteristic of the capacitor as

Ic
 y c(j)  jC
Vc
and yc(j) is the admittance (resembling conductance) of C.
The capacitor current leads the source voltage by 90o is easily
observed by writing
Ic  jCVc
4-50
 Impedance and Admittance of Inductor

Consider driving an inductor L with vs(t) = Vscos(t+) = vℓ(t):

{ v  (t)} C  Ve jt
The inductor current will have the same frequency as vs(t):
{i (t)} C  I e jt
1t 1
and {i (t)} C
  Ve jd  Ve jt
L jL
V
  z(j)  jL
I
The impedance of the inductor is jL, and the admittance is
I 1
 y (j) 
V jL
1 j
 I  V  V
jL  L
The inductor current lags the inductor voltage by 90o.
4-51
 Phasor Analysis of Inductor

Time-domain analysis and phasor analysis of the inductor is

summarized in the figures below.

+ iℓ(t) Iℓ
vs(t) L Vs jL
–

Time-domain analysis Phasor analysis

From the phasor diagram, Iℓ lags Vℓ by 90o is immediately

observed: Im

Vℓ
Re

Iℓ
4-52
 Impedance and Admittance

Impedance and admittance are equivalent to resistance and

conductance in resistive networks, and they are not phasors.
They are collectively known as immittance.
In general, immittance are complex, instead of just being
imaginary as in the case of a capacitor or an inductor.

Impedance: Z = R + jX R is resistance, X is reactance

Admittance: Y = G + jB G is conductance, B is susceptance

Reactance of Capacitor and Inductor (Unit is )

1 1
Capacitor: Zc   jX c  Xc  
j C C

Inductor: Z  j L  jX   X   L

4-53
 4.3.6 Phasor Analysis

Procedure of Phasor Analysis

(1) Express all time-dependent terms as cosine functions and
then convert them to their phasor equivalents, for example,
Vscos(t+)  Vs (=Vs). Voltages and currents are no
longer functions of time, but are phasors. Moreover, the
symbol of sinusoidal source can be replaced by the symbol of
DC source.
(2) Substitute the capacitor C with 1/jC and the inductor L with
jL as the impedance, while the resistor R remains
unchanged. A phasor circuit is then obtained.
(3) Treat the phasor circuit as a resistive circuit, and apply the
same DC analysis methods, e.g., KCL, KVL, superposition, to
solve for the unknown parameters in terms of phasors.
(4) If time-domain solution is needed, convert the parameters in
phasors back to their time-domain equivalents.

4-54
 Common Practice in Phasor Analysis
As phasor analysis is the principal method in analyzing sinusoidal
steady state, engineers want to be more efficient in notations.

(1) Very often, phasors are not written in boldface. For

convenience, we may just use the time-domain symbol as
the phasor.

For example, for vs(t) = Vscos(t+), the phasor should be

Vs, but we may use Vs, or simply, Vs (if =0) to
represent the phasor instead.

(2) Capacitors and inductors are not represented by 1/jC and

jL, but are still represented by C and L, but understood to
use 1/jC and jL in actual computation.

Note: Real world signals must be expressed in cosine functions

and not sine functions before converting to phasors. We get back
to the real world by taking the real part, i.e., the cosine portion.
4-55
 Phasor Analysis of RC Circuit

Equipped with phasor analysis, let us reconsider the RC circuit in

p. 4-23.
R R
+ +
+ i(t) phasor circuit I
vs(t) = C vo(t) Vs C Vo
Vscos(t) –
– –

In the phasor domain, R and C (R and 1/jC) form a voltage

divider, and
1 / jC
Vo  Vs
R  1 / j C
1
 Vo  Vs
1  jCR
In symbolic form, the above is already the answer!

4-56
 Phasor Analysis of RC Circuit (cont.)
If numerical values are given for Vs, f, R and C, then we could
obtain the numerical value of Vo. Hence, we need to compute

1
V V
1 jωCR
1
V
1 ω C R ∠ϕ
V
∠ –ϕ
1 ω C R

where ϕ tan ωCR

If time-domain result is needed, then convert the Vo phasor back

to its time equivalent:
Vs
v o(t)  cos(t  )
2 2 2
1 C R
4-57
 Example 4-20

Example 4-20: Solve for vo(t) of the RC circuit below.

1 k
+
+ i(t)
10cos(21kt+25o) 1 F vo(t)
–
–

Soln.:
Although the source has an initial phase of 25o, we may still use
10 as the source (instead of 1025o), and just remember to
reference to +25o when we put down the final answer.
1 10
Vo   10 
1  j2  1k  1  1k 1  j6.283

 1.57  81o
v o(t)  1.57 cos(21kt  56 o)

4-58
 Example 4-21

Example 4-21: Solve for R and L of the circuit below, given

f=100 Hz.
i(t)=cos(t–10o) R
+
+
v(t)=cos(t+40o) L vo(t)
–
–

Soln.:
Clearly, when written in phasor notation we have
V 40 o o o o
 R  jL    50  cos 50  j sin50
I   10 o
 R  cos 50 o  0.643
o
L  sin50  0.766
0.766
L   1.22mH
2  100
4-59
 Example 4-22

Example 4-22: Compute the current i(t) and the output voltage
vo(t) of the following circuit.
i(t) L=5 mH
+
+
v(t)=100cos(1000t) vo(t)
– C=0.2 mF R=10 
–

Soln.:
One may choose to compute the impedance of the L and C first:

v(t)  1000 o
j L  j1000  5m  j5
1 1 1
   j5
j C j1000  0.2m j0.2

4-60
 Example 4-22 (cont.)

I j5 
Phasor circuit: +

1000o Z –j5  10  Vo

j5  10 j10 2  j
Z  j5  (j5 ||10)  j5   j5  
10  j5 2 j 2 j
10  j20
 j5   j5  2  j4  2  j  526.57o
4 1
V 100
I   o  20 5  26.57
o
 44.72  26.57 o
Z 526.57
i(t)  44.7 cos(1000t  26.6 o) (A)
Vo  I  (j5 ||10)  I  (2  j4)
 44.72  26.57 o  4.472  63.43o  200  90 o
v o(t)  200 cos(1000t  90 o) (V)
4-61
 Example 4-23

Example 4-23: (1) Find and plot all impedances on one z-plane;
and (2) find and plot the current i(t) and all voltages on a
second z-plane.
Impedance Diagram
+VR– +Vℓ–
i(t)
Im
+ 4 15.9 mH +
VC Zℓ=+j6 
v s(t)  12 2 cos(377t  90o) 1.33 mF
– –
Z=4+j4 

Soln.:
(1) Z   j L =j37715.9m  j6
R=4 
1 1 Re
ZC    j2 0
j C j377  1.33m
ZC=–j2 
1
Z  R  jL   4  j4
j C
4-62
 Example 4-23 (cont.)

(2)
Vs 12 290o 12 290o  345o (A)
I   
Z 4  j4 4 245o
VR  I  R  345o  4  1245o (V)
V  I  jL  345o  j6  18135o (V)
VC  I / jC  345o  j2  6  45o (V)

Im =377 rad/s
Vℓ
VR
18135o
I 1245o Phasor Diagram
345o
Re
0 6–45o
VC

4-63
 Example 4-24

Example 4-24: Find the unknown elements of Z if it consists of

two components in series.
i(t) 11.3cos(800t+140o) A

vs(t) +
283cos(800t+150o) V Z
–

Soln.
(1) Transform vs(t) and i(t) into phasors Vs and I:
Vs  283150 o
I  11.3140o
(2) Find z:
Vs 283150o
Z   o
 25.0410o
I 11.3140
 24.66  j4.348 
4-64
 Example 4-24 (cont.)

(3) Because z has real and imaginary parts, and the two
components are in series, and
R and L gives R + jL
R and C gives R + 1/jC = R  j/C
Hence,
Z = R + jL

(4) Equate
24.66 + j4.348 = R + j800L
we have
R  24.7
4.348
L   5.44mH
800
4-65
 Example 4-25

Example 4-25: Using the same figure as in Example 4-24, find Z if

it consists of two components in parallel.

Soln.
For the two components to be in parallel:
R  jL LR(L  jR)
R and L gives R || jL  
R  jL R 2  2L2
Solving this problem using impedance is quite tedious, but rather
straightforward if admittance is used.
I o
Y   0.03994   10  0.03933  j0.006936
Vs
1 1
 
R jL
 R  25.4
1
L   180mH
800  0.006936
4-66
 Example 4-26

Example 4-26 (Nodal Analysis): Find vx(t) and i1(t).

3 vx(t) 0.5mF

+ i1(t)
10 cos(1000t) 4mH 2i1(t)
–

Soln.:
Zℓ = jL = j10004m = j4 
Zc = 1/jC = –j/(10000.5m) = –j2 
3 j2
Vx
I1
o
100 V j4 2I1

4-67
 Example 4-26 (cont.)

KVL along the left branch yields

𝑉 10 3𝐼 (1)
Apply KCL to node Vx :
𝑉 𝑉 2𝐼
𝐼 0
j4 j2
10 3𝐼 10 5𝐼
𝐼 0
j4 j2
j4𝐼 10 3𝐼 20 10𝐼 0
10 10
𝐼 7 j4 1.0770 j0.6154 1.24∠29.7°
7 j4 65
From (1) 𝑉 10 3 1.0770 j0.6154 7.02∠ 15.3 °

 𝑖 𝑡 1.24cos 1000𝑡 29.7° A

𝑣 𝑡 7.02cos 1000𝑡 15.3° V
4-68
 Example 4-27

Example 4-27 (Superposition): Find vx(t) of the circuit below.

vx(t) 1H 2  0.25 F

+
i(t) v(t)
1
3cos(2t+30o) A – 6cos(3t) V

Soln. Note that the two sources have different frequencies, and
we must use superposition in combination of phasor
analysis to solve this problem.

(1) Find Vx due to I first ( = 2):

j2 2 j2
Vx

330o 1

4-69
 Example 4-27 (cont.)
The impedance of the inductor cancels that of the capacitor, and
Vx  330 o  (1 || 2)  230o
 v x(t) i(t)  2 cos(2t  30 o)

(2) Next, find Vx due to V ( = 3):

Vx

j3 2 j1.333
1 60 o

1 o 6 0 o
6 0 o

Vx  6 0  
1  2  j3  j1.333 3  j1.666 3.43229.06o
 1.75  29o
v x(t) v(t)  1.75 cos(3t  29o)

(3) v x(t)  v x(t) i(t)  v x(t) v(t)  2 cos(2t  30 o)  1.75 cos(3t  29o)
4-70
 Example 4-28
Example 4-28 (Norton's Equivalent ): Convert the circuit in the
dotted area into its Norton's equivalent circuit and find v(t).


+ 5mH
100 cos(1000t) V 0.2mF 10 v(t)
–

Soln.:
Zℓ = jL = j10005m = j5 
Zc = 1/jC = –j/(10000.2m) = –j5 
j5
100
Isc   j20A
j5
100V j5 Isc
j5  (j5)
Zeq   
j5  (j5)

4-71
 Example 4-28 (cont.)

Use the Norton circuit to compute v(t):

j20A 10 V

V  j20  10
 200  90 o
 v(t)  200 cos(1000t  90o) V

Note: The equivalent circuit is only good for one particular

frequency!!!

4-72
 Example 4-29

Example 4-29 (Source Transformation): Find vx(t).

j5  200o V
Vx

j2 A j15  j5  jA
j20 

Soln.: There are many ways to solve this problem, and let us work
out two Norton's equivalent circuits as shown.

(1) Norton's equivalent of the left circuit:

j5 
j15
Isc1  j2  j1.5
j15  j5 Isc1
j2 A j15 
Zeq1  j15  j5  j20

4-73
 Example 4-29 (cont.)

(2) Norton's equivalent of the right circuit:

200o V
20
Isc2  j  j  j4  j3
j5
Isc2 j5  jA
Zeq2  j5

(3) Equivalent circuits:

Vx Vx


j1.5 A j20  j20  j5  j3 A j1.5 A j5  j3 A

cancel

Vx  (j1.5  j3)  j5

 7.5V
4-74
 Example 4-30
Example 4-30: Find Thevenin's and Norton's equivalent circuits.
j4 j2

I
4V 
Vx Voc

2 V 
x

Soln.:
Find Voc: For the 2 resistor, we have I2 = –Vx  Vx = –2I
Next, apply KVL to find I:
Vx – Ij4 – (–4) + Vx = 0
4 1
 2(–2I) – Ij4 + 4 = 0  I   A
4  j4 245 o

 Voc  2I  4  2(45)  4
 (1  j)  4  3  j
 10(180  18.4)  10  161.6 V
4-75
 Example 4-30 (cont.)
Find Isc: Method 1 (Nodal Analysis) j4 Vy j2
First note that
Vy = –Vx – 4 (1) 4V
Vx Isc
Apply KCL at node Vy : 
2 Vx
Vx – Vy Vx Vy 
0
j4 2 j2
Vx – Vy j2Vx 2 Vy 0
Vy = –(1+j2)Vx (2)
From (1) and (2) Vx + 4 = (1+j2)Vx  Vx= – j2
From (1) Vy= –4 + j2
V
Hence  5  116.6 A
Isc = y = –1 – j2 =

Find Zeq:
Voc 10  161.6
Zeq    2  45  1  j
I sc 5  116.6
4-76
 Example 4-30 (Optional)
Find Isc: Method 2 (Mesh Analysis) j4 Vy j2
KVL on left mesh:
Vx – Ij4 – (–4) + Vx = 0 I
4V
 2Vx – Ij4 + 4 = 0 (1) Vx Isc

Next, KVL on right mesh: 2 Vx

Vx – (–4) + Isc(–j2) = 0
 Vx = Iscj2 – 4 (2)
Eliminate Vx from (1) and (2)
2Vx = Ij4 – 4 = 2(Iscj2 – 4) = Isc j4 – 8
 I = Isc + j (3)
Since Vx = (Isc – I)2 = –j2 Voltage across 2 
From (2) –j2 = Iscj2 – 4
  5  116.6 A
Isc = –1 – j2 = (4)
Find Zeq:
Voc 10  161.6
Zeq    2  45  1  j
I sc 5  116.6
Better use Nodal Analysis! 4-77
 4.3.7 AC Power
Root-Mean-Square Value
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Definition
The Square Root, of the Mean, of the Squared Value, of a Signal.

For example, if the signal is 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 , 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃

𝑉 0, then 𝑉
𝑉
𝑇
1 𝑡
𝑉 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
–𝑉

𝑉 1 Single-Phase AC Voltage in
1 cos 2𝜔𝑡 2𝜃 𝑑𝑡 Hong Kong:
𝑇 2 𝑉 : root-mean-square
0 value = 220 V.
𝑉 : peak value, amplitude,
𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 0.707𝑉 or magnitude = 311 V.
2𝑇 2 𝑉 : = 2𝑉 , peak-to-peak
value = 622 V.
4-78
 Average AC Power
I
DC Power
𝑃 𝑉𝐼
+

Average AC Power V

1 –
𝑃 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑉𝐼 1
cos 𝜃 𝜙 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝜃 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜙
𝑉𝐼
cos 𝜃 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇 +

𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝐼 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃
cos 𝜃 𝜙 cos 𝜙 𝜃
2 2
–
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝜙 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝜃

cos 𝜃 𝜙 =cos 𝜙 𝜃 = Power Factor

4-79
Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor Average AC Power
Resistor
𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 and 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 are in phase, i.e., 𝜃 𝜙.
𝑃 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝜃 𝑉 𝐼 cos 0°
𝑉 𝑉𝐼 𝐼 𝑅 𝑉
𝑉 𝐼 𝐼 𝑅
𝑅 2 2 2𝑅
Capacitor
Current 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 is leading voltage 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 by 90°,
i.e., 𝜙 𝜃 90°.
𝑃 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝜃 cos 90° 0
Inductor
Voltage 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 is leading current 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 by 90°,
i.e., 𝜃 𝜙 90°.
𝑃 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝜃 cos 90° 0
A capacitor or an inductor therefore consumes zero average
power. It stores electrical energy over one half of the period and
releases it over the other half. 4-80
 Complex Power
Define complex power in terms of the voltage and current phasors
(Remember our phasors represent peak values, not rms).
1 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑰 𝐼 ∠𝜙
𝑆 ≡ 𝑽𝑰 𝑉 ∠𝜃 𝐼 ∠𝜙 (* complex conjugate)
2 2
1 𝑉𝐼 +
𝑉 ∠𝜃 𝐼 ∠ 𝜙 ∠ 𝜃 𝜙
2 2
𝑽 𝑉 ∠𝜃
𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝐼
cos 𝜃 𝜙 𝑗 sin 𝜃 𝜙
2 2 –
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝜙 𝑗𝑉 𝐼 sin 𝜃 𝜙

Complex Real or Average Reactive or

Power Power Quadrature
Power
(VA, kVA) (watt, W, kW) (VA, kVA)
Alternative formula for average AC power (Re - real part):
1 1 ∗
𝑃 ℛ𝑒 𝑽𝑰∗ ℛ𝑒 𝑉 ∠𝜃 𝐼 ∠𝜙 4-81
2 2
 Example 4-31
(From Example 4-22)
Example 4-31: Compute the average AC power for each circuit
element in the following circuit.
i(t) L=5 mH
+
+
v(t)=100cos(1000t) vo(t)
– C=0.2 mF R=10 
–

Soln.:
We obtained the following results from Example 4-22:

I j5 
Phasor circuit: +

V=1000o Z –j5  10  Vo

4-82
 Example 4-31 (cont.)
Voltages and current values from Example 4-22:
𝑉 100∠0° V 𝑉 200∠ 90° V 𝐼 44.72∠ 26.57° A
The peak values are:
𝑉 100 V 𝑉 200 V 𝐼 44.72 A
Average AC Power:
(1) The inductor and capacitor consume zero average AC power.
(2) For the resistor
𝑉 200 𝑉
𝑃 2000 W
2 10 Ω 2 10 Ω
(3) For the voltage source
𝑉𝐼
𝑃 cos 0° 26.57°
2
100 𝑉 44.72 𝐴
cos 26.57° 2000 W
2
The voltage source is delivering AC power to the resistor.
Conservation of energy holds 
4-83
 Example 4-32
(From Example 4-30)
Example 4-32: Compute the average AC power for each circuit
element in the following circuit.
j4 j2

I
4V 
Vx Voc

2 V 
x

Soln.:
Voltages and current values from Example 4-30:
1
𝐼 ∠ 45° A 𝑉 2𝐼 2∠ 180° 𝐼 2∠135° V
2
The peak values are:
1
𝐼 A 𝑉 2V
2
4-84
 Example 4-22 (cont.)
j4 j2
Average AC Power:
I
(1) The inductor and capacitor 4V 
consume zero average AC Vx Voc

power. 2 V 
x
(2) For the resistor
𝑉 2𝑉
𝑃 0.5 W
2 2Ω 2 2Ω
(3) For the 4 4∠ 180° -V independent voltage source
4𝐼 4
𝑃 cos 180° 45° cos 225° 1W
2 2 2
(4) For the dependent voltage source
𝑉 𝐼 2
𝑃 cos 135° 45° cos 180° 0.5 W
2 2 2
The independent voltage source is delivering AC power to both
the resistor and the dependent voltage source. Again
conservation of energy holds  4-85
 Chapter 4: AC Steady-State Analysis
4.1 Capacitors and Inductors
4.1.1 Capacitors
4.1.2 Inductors
4.1.3 Transformer Basics
4.2 Sinusoidal Excitation
4.2.1 Driving Capacitor with AC Source
4.2.2 Driving Inductor with AC Source
4.2.3 Driving RC Circuit with AC Source
4.2.4 Steady-State and Transient Responses (Appendix)
4.3 Phasor Analysis
4.3.1 Complex Number and Operations
4.3.2 Euler's Equation of Complex Exponentials
4.3.3 Complex Sinusoidal as Excitation
4.3.4 Phasors
4.3.5 Impedance and Admittance
4.3.6 Phasor Analysis
4.3.7 AC Power
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with AC Source – Complete Solution
4-86
 Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t)
Consider driving an RC circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source,
and KVL gives R
+
v t 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 v t + i(t)
vs(t) =
𝑑v t C vo(t)
⇒ 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑅𝐶 v t Vscos(t) –
𝑑𝑡 –
𝑑v t 1 𝑉
⇒ v t cos 𝜔𝑡 , 𝜏 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
This is a first-order ordinary differential equation. The general
solution consists of two parts:
(1) A general solution to the homogeneous equation
𝑑v t 1
v t 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
Rearranging and integrating
𝑑v t 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑ln vo t , ln v t 𝐾′
v t 𝜏 𝜏
/
we obtain the Part 1 solution: v t 𝐾𝑒 4-87
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t) (2)

(2) A particular solution to the original differential equation

𝑑v t 1 𝑉
v t cos 𝜔𝑡 1
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
for which, an educated guess is
v t 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑v t
⇒ 𝐴 𝜔sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐵 𝜔cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Substituting back into (1) gives
𝐴 𝐵 𝑉
𝐴 𝜔sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐵 𝜔cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
This must be true for all 𝑡. As sin 𝜔𝑡 and cos 𝜔𝑡 are
linearly independent of each other, the only way this can
happen is when the coefficients of the sin 𝜔𝑡 terms are
equal on both sides of the equation. Same must also be true
for the cos 𝜔𝑡 terms.
4-88
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t) (3)

Matching the sin 𝜔𝑡 terms:

𝐵
𝐴𝜔 0 ⇒ 𝐵 𝐴𝜔𝜏
𝜏
Matching the cos 𝜔𝑡 terms:
𝐴 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉
𝐵𝜔 ⇒ 𝐴𝜔 𝜏
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
Giving
1 𝜔𝜏
𝐴 𝑉 and B 𝑉
1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏

The Part 2 solution is thus given by

1 𝜔𝜏
v t 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡
1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏

4-89
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t) (4)

However, we would like to turn vo t into a cosine function only so

that it can be compared to the input voltage 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 . The standard
intermediate procedure goes as follows:
1 𝜔𝜏
v t 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡
1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏
𝑉 1 𝑉 𝜔𝜏
cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡
1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏
𝑉 𝑉
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑡
1 𝜔 𝜏 1 𝜔 𝜏
𝑉
cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃
1 𝜔 𝜏
𝜔𝜏
where 𝜃 tan 𝜔𝜏
𝜃
1
This is the Part 2 solution in its final form!

4-90
Appendix: Driving RC Circuit with Vscos(t) (5)
Going back to the original problem
R
of driving an RC circuit with a +
sinusoidal voltage source, the + i(t)
vs(t) =
C vo(t)
general expression for the output Vscos(t) –
voltage is finally obtained by –
combining the two-part solutions
obtained earlier:
/
𝑉
v t 𝐾𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃
1 𝜔 𝜏
transient steady-state
response AC response
The first term is a transient response that decays exponentially with
time according to 𝜏 𝑅𝐶 time constant. The transient only lasts for
a few time constants. We will deal with transients in our later chapter.
The second term is the steady-state AC response. This is what we are
currently interested in.
The constant 𝐾 can be determined by the initial condition, i.e., v 0 .
4-91