AI3021 IT IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

UNIT I
PRECISION FARMING
Precision agriculture and agricultural management – Ground based sensors, Remote sensing, GPS, GIS and
mapping software, Yield mapping systems, Crop production modeling.
1.1 PRECISION AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
I) PRECISION AGRICULTURE
 Precision agriculture involves using technology to monitor and manage crop production
on a microscale. It enables farmers to optimize field level management regarding crop
farming.
Precision Agriculture Cycle:

1. Data Collection and Sensing/Acquiring Data:

- Remote Sensing: Utilizing satellites, drones, or aircraft to gather data.
- On-farm Sensors: Installing sensors in the field to monitor soil moisture, nutrient levels etc.
2. Data Analysis/Access Data:
- Data Integration: Combining data from various sources such as GPS, remote sensing, weather
stations, and historical farm records.
- Analytics: Applying statistical analysis, machine learning algorithms, and geographic
information systems (GIS) to interpret data and generate actionable insights.
3.Decision Support Systems (DSS):
-Using software tools to provide farmers with recommendations on planting schedules, irrigation
timing and fertilizer application rates based on analyzed data.
4. Precision Application/Taking Action:
- Variable Rate Application (VRA): Adjusting the application of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides,
and water based on site-specific data and recommendations.
- Precision Planting: Ensuring optimal seed placement and spacing to maximize yield potential.
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- Precision Irrigation: Applying water precisely where and when needed, based on soil moisture
levels and crop requirements.
5. Feedback and Iteration:
- Learning and Improvement: Incorporating insights gained from data analysis and performance
evaluation into future decision-making processes.
- Continuous Optimization: Iteratively refining farming practices to enhance efficiency,
productivity, sustainability, and profitability over successive growing seasons.
Technologies:
1. GPS and GNSS: These technologies allow for precise mapping and navigation of farm
equipment, ensuring accurate planting, fertilization, and harvesting.
2. Remote Sensing: Utilizes drones, satellites, and other aerial imagery tools to monitor crop
health, soil conditions, and moisture levels.
3. IoT (Internet of Things): Sensors placed in fields collect data on soil moisture,
temperature, and nutrient levels.
4. Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Allows farmers to apply inputs (e.g., fertilizers,
pesticides) at varying rates across a field based on specific needs.
5. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Helps in mapping and analyzing spatial data to
make informed decisions.
Benefits:
 Increased Yields: Optimizing planting and input application boosts productivity.
 Cost Efficiency: Reduces waste of resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
 Environmental Sustainability: Minimizes the ecological footprint of farming by
reducing runoff and soil erosion.
 Data Driven Decisions: Realtime data and analytics enable informed decision making.
Challenges:
 High Initial Costs: Investment in technology can be expensive.
 Data Management: Handling and interpreting large volumes of data can be complex.
 Technical Skills: Requires farmers to be trained in using advanced technologies.
Components Of Precision Agriculture:
1. GIS & GPS: The combination of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) allows farmers to precisely orient their equipment and collect real-time data for
accurate field management1.
2. Auto-Steer: Automated steering systems help maintain straight rows during planting, reducing
overlap and optimizing resource use.

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3. Variable Rate Technology (VRT): VRT adjusts the application of treatments (seeds, chemicals,
irrigation) based on specific field conditions, maximizing efficiency.

4. Remote Sensing: Sensors and drones capture data on crop health, soil moisture, and other
variables, enabling informed decisions.

5. Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI algorithms analyze data to provide insights and

recommendations for optimal farming practices.

6. Data Collection and Analytics: Collecting and analyzing data from various sources (sensors,
satellites) informs precision farming decisions.

7. Yield Monitors: These track crop yields during harvesting, helping farmers assess performance
and adjust practices.

Applications:
1. Variable Rate Application (VRA):
- Fertilization: Applying fertilizers in varying amounts based on soil nutrient
- Irrigation: Adjusting water application rates based on soil moisture sensors
2. Precision Planting:
- Using GPS-guided machinery to precisely place seeds at optimal spacing and depth, improving
crop emergence and uniformity.
- Planting different seed varieties or hybrids in specific zones based on soil characteristics
3. Remote Sensing and Imaging:

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- Satellite Imagery: Monitoring crop health, growth stages, and identifying areas of stress from
space.
- Aerial Drones: Collecting high-resolution images and data on field conditions, enabling quick
assessments of crop health or irrigation issues.
4. Soil Monitoring and Management:
- Deploying ground-based sensors to monitor soil moisture, temperature, nutrient levels,
and .pH, allowing for precise management of irrigation and fertilization.
- Conducting soil sampling and analysis with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to create
soil maps for targeted management practices.
5. Data Analytics and Decision Support Systems:
- Integrating data from sensors, satellites, and other sources into decision support tools that
provide farmers with insights on optimal planting times, input rates, and harvesting schedules.
- Using predictive models and algorithms to forecast yields, identify potential crop diseases, or
optimize resource allocation.
6. Livestock Management:
- Monitoring animal health and behavior using sensors and GPS technology, improving feed
efficiency, and optimizing grazing patterns.
- Implementing precision feeding systems that deliver customized diets based on individual
animal needs and performance data.
7. Environmental Monitoring and Sustainability:
- Assessing environmental impacts such as soil erosion, nutrient runoff, and greenhouse gas
emissions.
- Implementing conservation practices and precision farming techniques to minimize
environmental footprint while maximizing productivity.
8. Supply Chain Management and Traceability:
- Using block chain technology and data analytics to track and trace produce from farm to
consumer, ensuring food safety and quality standards.
- Optimizing logistics and transportation routes to reduce costs and environmental impact.
II)AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
 Agricultural management encompasses a broader scope, involving the planning,
implementation, and supervision of all farming activities to ensure efficient production.
Key Aspects:
1. Crop Management: Involves selecting suitable crops, monitoring growth, pest
management, and harvesting.

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2. Soil Management: Ensures soil health through practices like crop rotation, cover
cropping, and soil testing.
3. Water Management: Involves irrigation planning and ensuring optimal water usage.
4. Financial Management: Budgeting, financial planning, and securing funding for farm
operations.
5. Labor Management: Hiring, training, and managing farm workers.
6. Supply Chain Management: Overseeing the logistics of getting products from the farm
to the market.
Benefits:
 Enhanced Productivity: Efficient management practices lead to higher crop yields and
quality.
 Resource Optimization: Effective use of inputs (water, fertilizers, labor) reduces waste.
 Risk Management: Better preparedness for market fluctuations, weather events, and pest
outbreaks.
 Sustainability: Encourages practices that protect and enhance environmental health.
Challenges:
 Market Volatility: Prices for agricultural products can be unpredictable.
 Climate Change: Increasingly unpredictable weather patterns affect crop production.
 Regulatory Compliance: Navigating the complexities of agricultural policies and
regulations.
 Access to Capital: Securing funding for new technologies and expansions can be difficult.
III)Integration of Precision Agriculture in Agricultural Management
1. Data Integration: Combining data from precision agriculture tools with traditional
management practices for a holistic approach.
2. Decision Support Systems: Using technology to develop models and simulations that
support strategic planning.
3. Sustainable Practices: Precision technology enhances traditional sustainable practices,
making them more efficient and impactful.
4. Market Responsiveness: Data driven insights enable quicker adaptation to market
changes and demands.
Future Trends:
 Automation and Robotics: Increasing use of autonomous machinery for planting,
harvesting, and monitoring.
 AI and Machine Learning: Advanced analytics for predicting trends and optimizing
resource use.
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 Blockchain: For transparent and secure supply chain management.

 Climate Smart Agriculture: Practices and technologies specifically designed to mitigate
and adapt to climate change impacts.
SENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES
 Sensor-based technologies are process of data collection and analysis.
Sensors may collect data on:
 Yields
 Rainfall and irrigation
 Atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, and light levels
 Soil properties such as moisture, pH, nutrient levels, and temperature
 Vegetation cover (as an indication of crop health).
 Sensors may be ground-based, attached to tractors or harvesters, or remote (such as drones or
satellites).
Sensors Classification
1. Low-tech such as taking readings using hand-held optical sensors to collect data on crop growth
and development
2. High-tech such as analysing satellite images.

1.2 GROUND BASED SENSORS

 Ground-based sensors may be static or mobile, such as static sensors in the ground collecting data
on soil properties and mobile sensors attached to equipment such as harvesters and sprayers.
1. Soil Sensors/Soil Moisture Sensors: These measure various soil properties such as moisture
content, temperature, pH levels, and nutrient levels. This data helps farmers manage irrigation,
fertilization, reduce crop damage.
2. Weather Stations: Ground-based weather stations collect data on temperature, humidity,
wind speed, precipitation, and solar radiation. Helps to monitoring microclimates and making
decisions related to planting, pest management, and irrigation scheduling.
3. Crop Health Sensors: These sensors can detect early signs of diseases, pests, or nutrient
deficiencies in crops. They use various techniques such as spectral imaging (NDVI -
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) to assess crop health.
4. Precision Irrigation Sensors: Sensors like tensiometers or capacitance probes measure soil
moisture levels at different depths. This data helps farmers apply water precisely where and
when it's needed, reducing water waste and optimizing crop growth.

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5. Nutrient Management Sensors: Sensors for monitoring nutrient levels in soil or plant
tissues help farmers apply fertilizers more efficiently, ensuring optimal nutrient uptake by crops
and minimizing environmental impact.
6. Crop Growth Sensors: These sensors monitor plant growth such as height, biomass, or
canopy cover. They provide insights into crop development and help farmers adjust
management practices accordingly.
7. Equipment and Machinery Sensors: Sensors installed on agricultural machinery can
monitor performance metrics like fuel efficiency, soil compaction, or seed placement accuracy.
This data supports better operational decisions and maintenance scheduling.
8. Data Integration Platforms: These are not sensors but they integrate data from various
ground-based sensors and other sources (like satellite imagery or drones) into unified platforms.
This integration enables analysis and decision-making in precision agriculture.
9. GPS Technology: GPS enables precise positioning in the field, allowing farmers to monitor
soil characteristics on a detailed grid and automate agricultural machinery
10.Soil Mapping and Remote Sensing:
 Soil Mapping: Soil mapping involves identifying different soil types, recording their
properties, and creating maps to show their spatial distribution. These maps are used for land
evaluation, planning, and environmental protection.
 Digital Soil Mapping (DSM): Digital soil mapping, use statistical, data mining, and GIS
tools to create detailed and accurate soil maps.

 Remote Sensing: Remote sensing uses electromagnetic radiation to image land, oceans, and
the atmosphere. It helps identify crops, estimate yields, and monitor land and crop
conditions. Precision farming leverages remote sensing data in geographical information
systems (GIS) for crop management decisions.

1.3 REMOTE SENSING

 Remote sensing has been found to be a valuable tool in evaluation, monitoring and
management of land, water and crop resources.
 The launching of the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) has enhanced the capabilities
for better utilization of this technology and significant progress has been made in
 Soil and land cover mapping,
 Land degradation studies, • Monitoring of waste land,
 Assessment of crop conditions and
 Production estimates

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History of Remote Sensing

 “Remote sensing” was first used in 1961 • when U.S. Naval project on the study of Aerial
photographs was renamed as “remote sensing”.
Features:
 It provides electromagnetic information about the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
 Efficient site specific management and precision horticulture.
 Used for crop identification, crop area, biomass and yield estimation.
 Exploited for soil and nutrient management.
 Assessing damage by biotic and a biotic stress.
Important aspects of remote sensing in precision agriculture:
1. Crop Health Monitoring:
- NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index): Satellite imagery or drones, calculate
NDVI to assess vegetation health. This index helps farmers identify areas of stress, disease
outbreaks, or nutrient deficiencies.
- Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging: These technologies provide detailed information
beyond visible light, capturing spectral bands that indicate specific crop conditions such as
chlorophyll content, moisture levels, and disease signatures.
2. Field Mapping and Monitoring:
- GIS (Geographic Information Systems): Detailed spatial mapping of fields, enabling farmers
to analyse variability in soil types, topography, and drainage patterns. This information supports
decision-making related to planting, irrigation, and soil management practices.
- Land Use and Land Cover Classification: Remote sensing can differentiate between various
land uses and crop types, helping farmers monitor crop rotations, assess crop growth stages, and
plan harvest schedules.
3. Precision Irrigation and Water Management:
- Remote sensing data, such as thermal imaging from satellites or drones, can indicate
variations in soil moisture levels across fields. This information guides farmers in optimizing
irrigation schedules, reducing water usage, and minimizing water stress on crops.
- Monitoring water bodies and reservoirs remotely helps in managing water resources more
efficiently
4. Yield Prediction and Crop Monitoring:
- Remote sensing combined with machine learning algorithms enables predictive modelling
of crop yields. By analysing historical data, weather patterns, and current crop conditions from
satellite imagery, farmers can estimate potential yields and make informed decisions about
marketing and logistics.
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- Continuous monitoring of crop growth and development helps in identifying areas where
adjustments in management practices may be needed to maximize productivity.
5. Environmental Monitoring and Sustainability:
- Assessing the environmental impact of agricultural practices, such as monitoring soil erosion,
nutrient runoff, and vegetation cover changes over time.
- By tracking changes in land use and vegetation dynamics, remote sensing supports sustainable
land management practices and biodiversity conservation efforts.
6. Operational Efficiency and Decision Support:
- Provide timely and accurate data on field conditions over large areas, reducing the need for
manual inspections and enabling more efficient deployment of resources.
- Decision support systems integrate remote sensing data with other agricultural data sources,
helping farmers optimize inputs, manage risks, and improve overall farm profitability.
Remote Sensing Processes :
 Remote Sensing Processes deals with the inventory, monitoring and assessment of natural
resources through the analysis of data obtained by observations from a remote platform .
 Remote sensing is currently used more commonly to denote identification of earth features
by detecting the characteristic of electromagnetic radiation that is reflected, emitted by the
earth surface.
 The electromagnetic radiation extending from the ultraviolet to the far infra-red and
microwave regions provides the greatest potential in the context of earth resources survey
 For collection of remotely sensed data the basic requirements are a platform and a sensor
A) Energy source or illumination- An energy source which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
B) Radiation and the atmosphere- As the EMR travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact and interact with the atmosphere. This interaction may take place as the energy
travels from the target to the sensor.
C) Interaction with the target- once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
D) Recording of energy by the sensor- after the energy has been emitted from the target, a
sensor is required to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
E) Transmission and processing- the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted,
often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into
an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

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F) Interpretation and analysis- the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
G) Application – the final element of the remote sensing process is application i.e. after
extracting the information from the image to solve a particular problem.
Types of Remote Sensing :
1. Passive remote sensing
2. Active remote sensing
1. Passive remote sensing
 When remote sensing work is carried out with the help of electromagnetic radiation
(signals) reflected by a natural body (sun and the earth). eg. visible, near infra red and
microwave remote sensing. Passive remote sensing
2.Active remote sensing
 When remote sensing work is carried out with a man made source of radiations which is
used to illuminate a body and to defect the signal reflected form • eg. Radar and lidar
remote sensing Active remote sensing SKRAU, Bikaner
Remote sensing applications:
 Remote sensing- provide data that help identify and monitor crops.
 Data are organized in a Geographical Information System along with other types of data.
 India has its own satellites like Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) series - Resourcesat,
Cartosat, Oceansat etc which provide required data for carrying out various projects.

Remote Sensing in Horticulture:

 Remote Sensing is directly connected with satellite. By the help of this technique find out
the monsoon. Ozone Layer, Depletion, Smog etc.
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 Horticulture Remote sensing is directly connected with satellite. By the help of this
technique find out the Monsoon, Ozone layer Depletion, Smog etc.
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) System:
 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system was appointed with the launch of IRS-
1A, in 1988.
 The data is used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban
development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, drought and flood forecasting,
ocean resources and disaster management.
 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites sensors
 Linear Imaging Self-Scanning System (LISS) I, II, III, IV
 Wide Field Sensors (WiFS)
 Panchromatic Camera (PAN)
Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System:
 The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic
communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational
communication satellites placed in Geo-stationary orbit.

1.4 GPS
 In GPS all the position data should be stored and distributed from only one system,
installed at a central vehicle (e.g. the tractor), for any task.
 It allows farmers to:
 Locate their position accurately.
 Monitor soil characteristics on a detailed grid.
 Automate agricultural machinery.
 Real-time data collection helps farmers:
 Target fertilizer and pesticide application only where needed.
 Automate tractors for efficient field work.
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 Goal is to improve agricultural production and efficiency.

 Precision agriculture requires the use of a global positioning system, or GPS, to locate a
position on the earth combined with the information about the single point to become more
productive.
 The use of production, fertility, soil, and moisture data about specific locations on the earth
can improve the efficiency and productivity for farmers.
 Commercially available GPS devices Garmin, Trimble.
 The future of precision agriculture includes innovations like driver-less tractors

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System of Satellites
 24 satellites surrounding the earth
 Use triangulation to determine the location

Error & Its Correction in GPS:

 Errors causes due to following reasons.
 Due to atmosphere
 Due to multi path DGPS System
Advantages :
 Reduce chemical application costs
 Saving time
 Reduce fertilizer costs
 Reduce pollution through poor use of chemicals.
 Provide better farm records essential for sale and succession

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 GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog,
and darkness.

Applications of GPS:
1. Precision Guidance:
 GPS allows farmers to precisely navigate their equipment (tractors, sprayers, harvesters)
across the fields.
 This ensures that every pass is consistent, minimizing overlaps and gaps, thus
optimizing the use of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides.
2.Mapping and Surveying:
 GPS technology helps create detailed maps of fields, showing variations in soil
characteristics, topography, and yield potential.
 This data is used for creating variable rate application maps, where inputs like
fertilizers and water can be applied at rates tailored to specific areas of the field.

3.Yield Monitoring:
 GPS-enabled harvesters and combines track yield variations across the field.
 By correlating GPS data with yield data, farmers can identify underperforming areas
and adjust their practices accordingly.

4. Variable Rate Application (VRA):

 VRA uses GPS data to apply inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides at
different rates across the field according to the specific needs of different areas.
 It maximizes crop yields while minimizing costs and environmental impact.
5. Remote Sensing and Monitoring:

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 Drones and satellites equipped with GPS can collect real-time data on crop health,
moisture levels, and pest infestations.
 It helps farmers make timely decisions about irrigation, pest control, and nutrient
management.
6. Labor and Equipment Management:
 GPS tracking helps optimize the use of farm machinery and labor.
 Farmers can monitor the location and performance of their equipment, ensuring
efficient deployment and maintenance.
7. Boundary Mapping:
 GPS technology is used to accurately map field boundaries and monitor
encroachments, ensuring compliance with land use regulations and property lines.

8. Data Integration and Analysis:

 GPS data can be integrated with other agricultural data sources to provide
comprehensive insights through data analytics and predictive modelling.

1.5 GIS AND MAPPING SOFTWARE

GIS (Geographic Information System):
 GIS is a framework for gathering, managing, and analysing spatial and geographic data. It
allows users to visualize, interpret, and understand patterns and relationships in data
through maps and 3D scenes.
Features:
1. Data Capture: Acquiring spatial data from various sources such as GPS, satellite
imagery, and surveys.
2. Data Management: Storing, organizing, and managing spatial data in databases.
3. Analysis: Performing spatial analysis operations such as overlay, proximity analysis, and
terrain analysis.
4. Visualization: Creating maps, graphs, and other visualizations to represent geospatial
data.
5. Modeling: Building models to simulate real-world scenarios and predict outcomes.

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Popular GIS software includes:

 ESRI ArcGIS: A comprehensive suite widely used in industries ranging from

environmental science to urban planning.
 QGIS: An open-source alternative with a large community and extensive plugin support.
 Google Earth Engine: A platform for planetary-scale environmental data analysis.
 GRASS GIS: Known for environmental planning, GRASS GIS is a powerful tool for geospatial data
manipulation and analysis.

 SAGA GIS: This software specializes in geoscientific methods and offers a range of tools for spatial
data processing.

 gvSIG: A desktop, 3D, and mobile GIS platform, gvSIG is another popular choice for mapping and
analysis.
 Whitebox GAT providing advanced analysis tools for topographic data. It was developed with the
intention of providing a user-friendly platform that can perform complex geospatial data analysis
without a steep learning curve.
 Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS):It is a versatile open-source
GIS software that combines remote sensing and conventional GIS functionalities. It’s a
comprehensive tool offering a broad range of features, including data import/export in numerous
formats, digitizing, editing, analysis, and output.
 uDig:a user-friendly desktop GIS software with a focus on user interaction and ensuring the
flexibility to work with data from various sources.
 MapWindow GIS: It is a free, open-source GIS software.It is a user-friendly platform supports a
wide range of geospatial data formats, and allows for easy visualization and manipulation of this
data.
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 OpenJump:It is another open-source GIS software to consider. It’s particularly well-suited for
vector data analysis and editing. With a multitude of tools and plugins, it supports a wide variety
of geospatial data formats, offering flexibility in data manipulation and analysis.
 MapServer:It is another powerful open-source server-side software that enables users to develop
spatially-enabled internet applications.
 GeoServer: It is an open-source server software that allows users to share, process, and edit
geospatial data. Designed for interoperability, GeoServer publishes data from any back-end data
source using open standards.
 GeoDA:It is a free and open source software that offers tools for exploratory spatial data analysis. It
enable users to explore spatial autocorrelation and spatial regression.
 Diva GIS:It is a free, open source GIS software tailored for biologists, but can be effectively used
across various disciplines. It supports a wide array of geospatial data formats, making it a flexible
choice for geospatial data analysis and mapping.
Factors To Consider GIS Software
1. Functionality: Assess the software’s capabilities, including data management, analysis
tools, visualization options, and support for different data formats.
2. User-Friendliness: Consider the software’s ease of use, intuitive interface, and
availability of documentation and tutorials.
3. Community Support: Check if the software has an active user community, forums, and
online resources for assistance and troubleshooting.
4. Compatibility: Ensure the software is compatible with your operating system and can
integrate with other tools or platforms you might be using.
5. Customization: Evaluate the software’s flexibility and ability to adapt to specific
workflows or industry requirements.
MAPPING SOFTWARE
Mapping software focuses on creating maps and visual representations of geographic data. While
some mapping tools are part of GIS software, others specialize in mapping alone. Key features
include:
1. Map Creation: Designing and producing maps for various purposes, from navigation to
thematic analysis.
2. Customization: Tailoring maps with specific styles, layers, and annotations.
3. Integration: Combining different data sources into a single map.
4. Interactivity: Enabling users to interact with maps through zooming, panning, and layer
manipulation.

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Popular mapping software includes:

 Google Maps: A widely used web mapping service offering detailed maps and route
planning.
 Mapbox: Provides tools for developers to create custom maps with advanced styling and
data layers.
 Carto: Focuses on location intelligence, offering tools for spatial analysis and data
visualization.
Geocoding:
 The tabular and geographic find tool can identify locations anywhere on earth

 Robust and flexible pin-mapping tools support geocoding by address, postal code,
city/town, join, coordinate, longitude/latitude, by any populated place in the world (village,
town, city), and also manually
 Custom geocodable indexes can be created to pin-map based on external datasets.

 Geotagged images from smart phones, tablets, or GPS-enabled devices can be mapped

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GIS Mapping Tools and Geographic Analysis:

 Geographic analysis tools are the most valuable component of GIS software because they let you
analyse the geographic components of your data.
 Below are some of the geographic analysis tools that are standard in Maptitude:
 Territory Building Tools
 Buffers
 Facility Location
 Geographic Overlay
 Hot spots
 Weighted Center
 Shortest Path
 Drive-time Bands
 Drive-time Territories
 Clustering
 Balancing
 Routing Deliveries & Pickups
 Measuring Tools
 Desire Lines
 Surface Analysis
 Data Classification
 Area of Influence
 GPS Support
 Spatial Queries
 Statistical Analysis
 Internet Mapping
 Market Share(Huff Model)
 Land Use Analysis
Imagery:
 Image layer and aerial photo tools include registration, a manager/librarian, contrast
control, smoothing and interpolation .
 The image servers supported are Google Earth and OGC Web Map Services (WMS)
Database:
 The Maptitude GIS program has a powerful proprietary relational database
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 Support is provided for over 50 file types and more than 100 GIS and CAD formats, some
natively including Excel, MS Access, ODBC, dBase, CSV, ASCII, ArcGIS platform
formats (Esri Shapefile and Personal Geodatabase), MapInfo TAB, Oracle Spatial, and SQL
Server Spatial

 Table tools include the ability to transpose, group/aggregate, identify duplicates, calculate
statistics, convert longitude/latitude to XY coordinates, print mailing labels, copy/paste
values, and perform undo/redo of edits

 Table field tools include the ability to hide, show, filter, lock, format, multi-field sort, create
live expression/formula fields, and perform multi-cell fills

 Database modify tools include the ability to add/delete records/fields, delete filtered
records, set aggregation rules, apply look-up table coding, and define field header balloon
pop-up text

 Database joins can be aggregate/non-aggregate and as one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-

to-one joins
 Multiple filters per layer or database can be created using SQL type queries, spatial queries
and data classification methods
 Topological/non-topological spatial databases can be created for points, lines, areas, or
grids
 Any record can be linked to multiple files including photos, documents, web pages, and
slide-shows
Maptitude Processing:
 Maptitude is one of the most popular GIS software packages, and has extensive
functionality.
 Maptitude supports the latest Windows operating systems, file types, and common design
elements. Maptitude runs as a 64-bit application on 64-bit Windows.
Advantages of a 64-bit Maptitude include:
 Save to much higher resolution images
 Use more memory than the previous 4GB 32-bit limit
 Open/import files via 64-bit Microsoft Office (e.g. Excel and Access).
Benefits:
 Show hidden data in geographically.
 Perform geospatial analysis such as 3-D maps, heat maps, hot-spots, charts.
 Import, analyse, segment, and report on data in almost any format
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 Use location intelligence to filter and categorize data.

 Print, export, manage, share, and use location-based results.

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1.6 YIELD MAPPING SYSTEMS

 A yield mapping and monitoring system is a fantastic precision agriculture tool for
farmers who want to make better farm decisions, especially for product marketing.
 It's easy to track your field's progress throughout the season, allowing you to know your
yield estimates and value and improve your efficiency and planning.
1. Yield Monitoring: This system collects real-time data during crop harvesting. It includes several
components:
 Grain Flow Sensor: Measures the volume of grain harvested.
 Grain Moisture Sensor: Compensates for grain moisture variability.
 Clean Grain Elevator Speed Sensor: Improves accuracy of grain flow
measurements.
 GPS Antenna: Receives satellite signals for georeferencing.
 Yield Monitor Display with GPS Receiver: Records data and provides location
information.
 Header Position Sensor: Distinguishes measurements during turns.
 Travel Speed Sensor: Determines combine distance during logging intervals.
2. Yield Mapping: This process correlates yield data to specific field locations. Here’s how it works:
 Raw data is collected during harvesting, but it needs adjustments due to grain
flow delays.
 Points corresponding to header up position are removed.
 Start and end pass delays (when grain flow stabilizes or declines) are also
eliminated.
 The processed data creates yield maps that help farmers make informed decisions
based on spatially variable yield goals.
Components and Operation:
1. Data Collection:
 Combine Harvesters with Yield Monitors: Modern combines are equipped with yield
monitors that measure and record crop yield data as the harvester moves through the field.
 Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS technology tracks the precise location of the
combine in the field, enabling georeferenced data collection.
2. Data Integration and Storage:
 On the Go Data Logging: Yield data, along with GPS coordinates and often moisture
content, is collected in real-time and stored digitally.
 Compatibility with GIS: Data is integrated with Geographic Information System (GIS)
software for spatial analysis and visualization.
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3. Spatial Analysis and Mapping:

 Yield Data Overlay: Yield data is overlaid onto field maps within GIS software, creating
spatially explicit yield maps.
 Spatial Variability Analysis: These maps reveal variations in crop yields across the field,
highlighting areas of high and low productivity.
4. Visualization and Reporting:
 Visual Representation: Yield maps visually represent spatial patterns and variability in
crop yields, facilitating easy interpretation.
 Graphical Analysis: Graphs and charts accompany yield maps to illustrate trends and
provide statistical summaries.
Benefits:
1. Data Driven Decision Making:
 Optimized Input Management: Farmers can make informed decisions regarding seed
varieties, fertilizer application rates, and irrigation schedules based on spatial yield
variability.
 Precision Farming Practices: Enables the implementation of Variable Rate Applications
(VRA) where inputs are tailored to specific zones within the field based on yield potential.
2. Improved Efficiency and Productivity:
 Resource Optimization: Helps minimize input wastage by allocating needed resources
 Early Problem Detection: Identifies issues such as soil variability, drainage problems, or
pest infestations that affect yield, allows corrective actions.
3. Field Performance Evaluation:
 Agronomic Insights: Facilitates evaluation of agronomic practices and their impact on
yield, supporting continuous improvement and adaptive management strategies.
 Long Term Trend Analysis: Enables comparison of yield data over multiple seasons to
identify trends and patterns, aiding in long-term farm planning.

Examples of Yield Mapping Systems:

 John Deere Operations Center: Provides comprehensive yield mapping capabilities
integrated with their precision agriculture solutions.
 Trimble Ag Software: Offers solutions for data collection, mapping, and analysis tailored
for precision agriculture applications.
 Climate Field View: Offers digital farming tools including yield mapping, enabling
farmers to analyze and manage field variability.

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Yield History Evaluation:

 Evaluating the temporal (year-to-year) variation of yield distribution within the field with potentially
high and low yields.
 Several approaches can be used to evaluate temporal effects on yield.
 One approach is to calculate the relative (normalized) yield for each point or grid cell.
Normalized yield=field average/actual yield
 When growing conditions in a field vary such as irrigated and dryland areas or different crops or
varieties grown in different areas, normalization should be done separately for those areas, with the
resulting relative yields recombined into one data file for the whole field.
 The following figure shows a relative yield history for a field with corn (soybean in the southern half
in 2000) grown using furrow-irrigation (until 2001) and center-pivot irrigation (in 2002).

1.7 CROP PRODUCTION MODELING

 Crop production modeling involves using mathematical and computational models to
simulate and predict crop growth, yield, and responses to various factors.
 These models integrate data from multiple sources includes soil properties, weather
conditions, crop genetics, and management practices, to provide insights for optimizing
agricultural decision-making.
Components of Crop Production Modeling:
1. Input Data Integration:
 Soil Characteristics: Information on soil type, texture, fertility, pH, and moisture content.
 Weather Data: Historical and real-time weather information including temperature,
precipitation, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed.
 Crop Genetics: Data on crop variety characteristics, growth stages, and genetic responses
to environmental factors.
 Management Practices: Inputs such as planting dates, irrigation schedules, fertilizer
applications, and pest control measures.
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2. Model Selection:
 Types of Models: Various types of models are used, including empirical, process based
(physiological), statistical, and machine learning models.
 Model Calibration: Models are calibrated using observed data to ensure accuracy and
reliability in predictions.
 Spatial Considerations: Some models account for spatial variability within fields to
provide more localized predictions.
3. Simulation and Prediction:
 Crop Growth: Models simulate the growth stages of crops based on input data and
environmental conditions.
 Yield Prediction: Predictions of crop yield are generated based on simulated crop growth
and yield formation processes.
 Sensitivity Analysis: Assessing how changes in inputs (e.g., weather, soil nutrients) affect
crop growth and yield predictions.
4. Decision Support and Optimization:
 Precision Farming: Models optimize resource allocation through variable rate applications
tailored to spatial variability within fields.
 Risk Assessment: Predicting risks such as crop diseases, pests, and weather-related stresses
to implement timely management strategies.
 Scenario Analysis: Evaluating different management scenarios (e.g., changing planting
dates, adjusting irrigation) to identify optimal strategies for maximizing yield and
profitability.
Benefits of Crop Production Modeling:
1. Improved Decision Making:
 Enables farmers to make data driven decisions regarding planting, irrigation,
fertilization, and pest management.
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 Provides insights into how different management practices impact crop growth, yield,
and quality.
2. Resource Efficiency:
 Optimizes the use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticides) by applying them where and
when they are most needed, reducing waste and environmental impact.
3. Risk Management:
 Predicts and mitigates risks associated with weather variability, pests, diseases, and
other factors affecting crop production.
4. Long-term Planning:
 Supports long-term farm planning by analyzing trends over multiple seasons and
predicting future outcomes under different scenarios.
Crop Production Modeling Tools:
 DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer): A widely used
crop modeling system that simulates the growth, development, and yield of agricultural
crops.
 APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator): A modular modeling
framework for simulating biophysical processes in agricultural systems.
 CropSyst: Models crop growth, water use, and nutrient dynamics in response to
management practices and environmental conditions.
The Future of Agronomics Using Crop Modeling:
 Crop modeling in agriculture has the potential to provide valuable insights and solutions for
ag professionals.
 With improved agronomic data collection, predictive modeling using multiple datasets will
allow researchers and farmers to better understand the parameters and management
practices that are most influential on crop growth.

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