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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Physics Your notes

Effects of Forces
Contents
Resultant Forces
Newton's First Law
Newton's Second Law
Investigating Force & Extension
Hooke's Law
Circular Motion
Friction

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Resultant Forces
Your notes
Effects of forces
A force is defined as:
A push or a pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object
Forces can have a variety of effects on an object
Forces can change an object's
speed
direction
shape
size

Effects of forces on different objects

A thrust force can cause a car to speed up, a gravitational force can cause a comet to change direction,
compression forces can cause a spring to change shape
The effects of forces on an object often depend on the type of force acting
The push force (thrust) of an engine can cause a car to speed up, whilst the force exerted by the
brakes (friction) can cause it to slow down

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The gravitational pull of the Sun on a comet causes the comet to change direction
When two opposing forces push on each end of a spring, the spring changes shape (it Your notes
compresses)
Resultant forces on a straight line
What is a resultant force?
A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating on a body
When multiple forces act on one object, the forces can be combined to produce one net force that
describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the net force experienced by the object

Balanced and unbalanced forces

The forces acting on an object can be described as balanced or unbalanced
Forces are balanced if multiple forces act in opposing directions with an equal magnitude in each
direction
The effects of the forces then cancel out
There is no resultant force in that plane of direction
Forces are unbalanced if the effects of the forces acting in each plane do not cancel out
There is a resultant force in one or more planes of direction
A book is a rest on a table
The gravitational pull of the Earth on the book (weight) acts in a downward direction
The push force of the table on the book (normal contact force) acts in the upward direction
The forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
The forces are therefore balanced
There is no resultant force acting on the book

Zero resultant force on a book resting on a table

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Your notes

A book resting on a table is an example of balanced forces

Calculating resultant force

Force is a vector quantity, it has both magnitude and direction
When adding forces together, it is important to assign positive and negative values to show the
direction in which the forces are acting
If a 5 N force acts to the right and a 5 N force acts to the left on an object, then we assign one of the
values as positive and one as negative
So the resultant force acting on the object is

resultant force = 5 + (−5)

resulotant force = 0 N
The forces acting on the object are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction; therefore they cancel
one another out
This is like two people pushing a box with equal force from opposite sides, the box doesn't move
If two people push the box from the same side in the same direction, one with a 3 N force and one with
a 7 N force, then the forces will add together and the box will move in the direction of the resultant force

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resultant force = 3 + 7
resultant force = 10 N Your notes
If two people push the box in opposite directions, one with a 7 N force to the left (negative) and one
with a 3 N force to the right (positive), then the forces will add together and the box will move in the
direction of the resultant force

resultant force = (−7) + 3

resultant force = − 4 N
Zero and non-zero resultant forces

Zero and non-zero resultant forces acting on three objects

Worked Example
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in the diagram below.

Answer:
Step 1: Assign a direction to the forces

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Forces acting to the right are positive

Forces acting to the left are negative
Step 2: Add together all the forces acting on the object Your notes

resultant force = (−14) + 4 + 8

resultant force = ( 14) + 12
resultant force = − 2 N
Step 3: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Mathematically, it doesn't matter which direction you assign to be positive or negative, as long as
you are consistent throughout your calculation.

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Newton's First Law

Your notes
Newton's first law
Newton's first law of motion states:
Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
Newton's first law means if the resultant force acting on an object is zero:
A stationary object will remain stationary
An object moving in a straight line at a constant speed will continue to move in a straight line at a
constant speed
When the resultant force is not zero
The speed of the object can change
The direction of the object can change
A simpler way to think about Newton's first law is for an object to change its motion, it requires a
resultant force to act upon it

Examples of Newton's first law

A mug on a table will remain stationary on the table unless acted upon by a resultant force
For example, if someone picks up the mug, or knocks into the table
A piece of space debris will continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by
a resultant force
For example, if it enters the gravitational field of a planet or collides with an asteroid
A car travelling in a straight line at a constant speed will continue to travel in a straight line at a constant
speed unless acted upon my a resultant force
For example, if the driver brakes or accelerates

Worked Example
A student did some online research and found out that the Moon orbits the Earth at a constant
speed of around 2000 mph.

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The student says that this is not an example of Newton's first law of motion. Is the student correct?
Explain your answer.
Your notes
Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant
velocity, unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Determine if the object in the question is at rest, or if it is moving with a constant velocity
The Moon, in this case, is not at rest
It is moving at a constant speed
But it is not moving in a constant direction - it continually orbits the Earth
Hence, it is not moving with a constant velocity, because velocity is a vector quantity
Step 3: State and explain whether the student is correct
The student is correct
The Moon moves with a constant speed, but always changes direction
So it is not moving with a constant velocity, and is not an example of Newton's first law of
motion

Worked Example
A car moves at a constant velocity. The driving force from the engine is 3 kN.

Determine the frictional force acting on the car.

Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant
velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Relate Newton's first law to the scenario
Since the car is moving at a constant velocity, there is no resultant force
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This means the driving and frictional forces are balanced

Step 3: State the value of the frictional force
Your notes
Frictional force, F = driving force = 3 kN

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Newton's Second Law

Your notes
Newton's second law
Newton's second law of motion states:
The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to the object's mass
Newton's second law of motion explains what happens when a non-zero resultant force acts on an
object
A resultant force occurs when the forces acting on an object are not balanced
A resultant force acting on an object will cause a change in the object's motion
This change in motion is an acceleration:
Speeding up
Slowing down
Changing direction
If the resultant force on an object is not zero, the object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant
force
The bigger this resultant force, the larger the acceleration
For a given force, the greater the object's mass, the smaller the acceleration experienced

Examples of Newton's second law

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Your notes

Objects like baseballs and lawnmowers accelerate when a resultant force is applied on them. The size
of the acceleration is proportional to the size of the resultant force

Calculations using Newton's second law

Extended tier only
Newton's second law can be expressed as an equation:

F = ma
Where:
F = resultant force on the object, measured in newtons (N)
m = mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration of the object, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)
The acceleration occurs in the same direction as the resultant force

Formula triangle for acceleration, mass and resultant force

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Your notes

To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the structure of the
equation is revealed
A more detailed explanation of how to use formula triangles is covered in the revision note Speed and
velocity

Worked Example
A car salesman says that their best car has a mass of 900 kg and can accelerate from 0 to 27 m/s in 3
seconds.
Calculate:
a) the acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.
b) the force required to produce this acceleration.
Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

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Initial velocity, v = 0 m/s

Final velocity, u = 27 m/s
Your notes
Time, t = 3 s
Step 2: State the equation for acceleration, in terms of change in velocity

v−u
a=
t
27 − 0
a=
3
a = 9 m/s2
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Mass of the car, m = 900 kg

Acceleration, a = 9 m/s2
Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's second law is
required:
F = ma
Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car

F = 900 × 9
F = 8100 N

Worked Example
Three shopping trolleys, A, B and C, are being pushed using the same force. This force causes each
trolley to accelerate.

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Your notes

State which trolley would have the smallest acceleration. Explain your answer.
Answer: C
Step 1: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force and acceleration, and the image shows trolleys of
different masses, so Newton's second law is required:
F = ma
Step 2: Re-arrange the equation to make acceleration the subject

F
a=
m
Step 3: Explain the inverse proportionality between acceleration and mass
Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass
This means that for the same amount of force, a large mass will experience a small acceleration
Therefore, trolley C will have the smallest acceleration because it has the largest mass

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Investigating Force & Extension

Your notes
Investigating springs
Aim of the experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and extension for a spring

Variables
Independent variable = Force, F

Dependent variable = Extension, x

Control variables:

Spring with spring constant, k

Equipment
Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Clamp stand, boss and clamp To apply an upward force on the spring

Ruler To measure the extension of the spring

Spring To measure the extension of

6 × 100 g masses To apply a downward force on the spring

100 g mass hanger To hold the additional masses

Pointer To accurately read the extension from the ruler

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ruler = 1 mm

Method
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Equipment for investigating the extension of a spring

Your notes

Fixing the ruler to the clamp stand will reduce movement in the ruler and, therefore, reduce errors in
measurement
1. Align the marker to a value on the ruler with no mass added to the spring, and record this initial length of
the spring
2. Add the 100 g mass hanger onto the spring
3. Record the mass (in kg) and position (in cm) from the ruler now that the spring has extended
4. Add another 100 g to the mass hanger
5. Record the new mass and position from the ruler now that the spring has extended further
6. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
7. The masses are then removed and the entire process is repeated again until it has been carried out a
total of three times, and an average length is calculated

Example results table

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Your notes

A suitable table of results must contain space for the calculations of force and extension

Analysis of results
The force, F added to the spring is the weight of the mass
The weight is calculated using the equation:

W = mg
Where:

W = weight, measured in newtons (N)

m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength, measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
Therefore, multiply each mass by gravitational field strength, g = 9.8 N/kg, to calculate the force, F
The extension of the spring is calculated using the equation:

extension = final length − original length

The final length is the length of the spring recorded from the ruler when the masses were added
The original length is the length of the spring when there were no masses
1. Plot a graph of the force against extension

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2. Draw a line of best fit

3. If the graph has a linear region (is a straight line), then the force is proportional to the extension in this Your notes
region
Example force-extension graph

The graph is a straight line that goes through the origin which shows that the extension of the spring is
directly proportional to the force applied (Hooke's Law)

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors
Make sure the measurements on the ruler are taken at eye level to avoid parallax error
Random errors
The precision of the experiment is improved with the use of a pointer at the bottom of the spring
Wait a few seconds for the mass to become stationary after it is added, before taking the readings for
its length
Check that the spring has not gone past its limit of proportionality otherwise, it has been stretched
too far and will no longer obey this relationship
Make sure the measurements are taken from the same point on the bottom of the spring every time

Safety considerations
Wear goggles during this experiment in case the spring snaps
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Stand up while carrying out the experiment making sure no feet are directly under the masses
Place a mat or a soft material below the masses to prevent any damage in case they fall Your notes
Use a G clamp to secure the clamp stand to the desk so that the clamp and masses do not fall over
As well as this, place each mass carefully on the hanger and do not pull the spring too hard that it
breaks or pulls the apparatus over

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember, the extension measures how much the object has stretched by and can be found by
subtracting the original length from each of the subsequent lengths.
A common mistake is to calculate the increase in length instead of the total extension. If each of your
extensions is roughly the same, then you might have made this mistake!
The proportional relationship between force and extension is known as Hooke's law. You do not
need to remember the name of the law for your exam, but you do need to remember the
relationship.

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Hooke's Law
Your notes
Hooke's law
Extended tier only
The relationship between the extension of an elastic object and the applied force is defined by
Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that:
The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied, up to the limit of
proportionality
Directly proportional means that as the force is increased, the extension increases
If the force is doubled, then the extension will double
If the force is halved, then the extension will also halve
The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which the relationship between force and extension is
no longer directly proportional
This limit varies according to the material

The extension of a spring due to an applied load

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Your notes

Hooke's Law states that a force applied to a spring will cause it to extend by an amount proportional to
the force
Hooke's law can be described by the following equation:

F = kx
Where:

F = force applied, measured in newtons (N)

k = the spring constant, measured in newtons per metre (N/m)
x = extension of spring, measured in metres (m)
The force applied to the spring is sometimes referred to as the load

Spring constant
The spring constant is defined as:
The force per unit extension
Therefore, the units are newtons per metre (N/m)

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The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is

Stiff springs have a high spring constant Your notes
Stretchy springs have a low spring constant
The spring constant can be applied to objects other than springs
The Hooke's law equation can be used to calculate the spring constant of a material
F
k=
x

The force-extension graph

Hooke’s law is a linear relationship
This is represented by a straight line on a force-extension, or load-extension graph
Any material beyond its limit of proportionality will have a non-linear relationship between force and
extension

Force-extension graph for a spring

Hooke's Law is associated with the linear region of a force-extension graph. Beyond the limit of
proportionality, Hooke's law no longer applies
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Important features of the force-extension graph

The linear portion of the graph Your notes
This represents the load or force under which the spring obeys Hooke's law
Force and extension are directly proportional
The gradient of the linear portion is equal to the spring constant for a force-extension graph

1
The gradient of the linear portion is equal to for an extension-force graph
k
The limit of proportionality
This is the point at which the graph begins to curve
Beyond this point, force and extension are no longer proportional
The curved portion of the graph
This is where the material does not obey Hooke's law
Force and extension are not proportional

Worked Example
The figure below shows the forces acting on a child who is balancing on a pogo stick. The child and
pogo stick are not moving.

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Your notes

The spring constant of the spring on the pogo stick is 4900 N/m. The weight of the child causes the
spring to compress elastically from a length of 40 cm to a new length of 33 cm.
Calculate the weight of the child.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Spring constant, k = 4900 N/m
Original length = 40 cm
Final length = 33 cm
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

F = kx
Step 3: Calculate the extension, x

x = final length − original length

x = 40 − 33 = 7 cm

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Step 4: Convert any units

Since the spring constant is given in N/m, x must be in metres (m) Your notes
7
x= = 0 . 07 m
100
Step 5: Substitute the values into the Hooke's Law equation

F = 4900 × 0 . 07
F = 343 N

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Circular Motion
Your notes
Circular motion
Extended tier only
Velocity is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
Therefore, the velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction
When an object travels in circular motion, its direction is always changing
Therefore, the velocity of an object in circular motion is always changing, even if its speed is
constant
Circular motion is a type of acceleration since acceleration is a change in velocity

Circular motion of the International Space Station

The International Space Station’s velocity is always changing - it whizzes around the Earth at a constant
speed of about 7660 m/s but is always changing direction

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When a force acts perpendicularly to an object’s direction of travel, the force will cause that object to Your notes
change direction

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the force
If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep changing its direction
(whilst remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a circle
This is what happens when a planet orbits a star, or when a satellite orbits a planet

Circular motion of the Moon around the Earth

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Your notes

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This causes it to travel in a
circular path
Therefore, for an object in circular motion, the force is always directed toward the centre of the circle
The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number of factors:
The mass of the object
A greater mass requires a greater force when the speed and radius are constant
The speed of the object
A faster-moving object requires a greater force when the mass and radius are constant
The radius of the circle
A smaller radius requires a greater force to keep the speed and radius constant

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Friction
Your notes
Friction in solids
Friction is a force that works in opposition to the motion of an object
Frictional forces slow down the motion of the object
When friction occurs, energy is transferred by heating
Friction causes an increase in temperature of the object and its surroundings
The work done against the frictional forces causes this rise in the temperature
Friction in solids is caused by imperfections in the surfaces of the objects moving over one another
Solid friction:
decreases the speed of the moving object
increases the temperature of the objects due to heating

Friction between surfaces

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The interface between the ground and the sledge is bumpy, causing the frictional force
Friction between solids can be reduced by: Your notes
lubricating the surfaces
smoothing the surfaces

Friction in fluids
Gases and liquids are known as fluids
Fluids are different to solids because the particles in fluids are free to move around
Friction acts on objects moving through gases and liquids as the particles collide with the object
This type of friction is called drag
Air resistance is a type of friction that slows the motion of an object moving through air
Air particles bump into the object as it moves through the air
Air resistance:
reduces the speed of the object
increases the temperature of the object and the air particles due to heating

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Your notes

The return module of a rocket heats up due to the work done by air resistance as it travels a distance
through the atmosphere
Air resistance is covered in greater depth in the revision note Free fall
Friction in fluids can be reduced by:
streamlining the shape of the object moving through the fluid

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