Engineering Materials and Processes

Jan Kośny

PCM-Enhanced
Building
Components
by Finite Element and
An Application of Phase Change
Soft Computing
Materials Methods
in Building Envelopes and
Internal Structures
Engineering Materials and Processes

Series editor
Brian Derby, Manchester, UK
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4604
Jan Kośny

PCM-Enhanced Building
Components
An Application of Phase Change
Materials in Building Envelopes
and Internal Structures

123
Jan Kośny
Fraunhofer Center for Sustainable Energy
Systems CSE
Boston, MA
USA

ISSN 1619-0181
Engineering Materials and Processes
ISBN 978-3-319-14285-2 ISBN 978-3-319-14286-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015934911

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Preface

Thermal mass plays an important role in building energy conservation and in

control of internal thermal comfort. It has been observed that it can be also greatly
assisted by the incorporation of building components with latent heat storage
capabilities. Phase change materials (PCMs) are one of the thermal control means
used today in building envelopes and in internal construction components. PCMs in
buildings can be utilized for many different purposes including reduction of space
conditioning energy consumption, thermal peak load shaving and shifting, local
temperature control in building envelope components, or improvement of overall
system durability. The scope of this book is to summarize and explain the most
important basics of PCM applications in building structures. Despite wide interest
in PCM-enhanced building technologies by researchers from industry and acade-
mia, engineers, architects, building developers, energy policy makers, code offi-
cials, and home owners, there is still a shortage of publications supporting design
and analysis in this field. In addition, the industry lacks sufficient technical data and
performance information for performance comparisons and development of new
technologies. At the same time, industry and government code bodies call for
adequate performance testing and rating standards.
Note that there are a large number of engineering and research publications focus
on PCMs as a major topic. However, even though PCM-enhanced building mate-
rials represent today the major market share for the PCM industry, there is still very
little engineering literature dedicated to this subject. Most recent publications treat
PCM-enhanced building components more from the material perspective (i.e., PCM
types, PCM packaging and encapsulation, PCM manufacturing processes, and
experimental analysis of PCMs from the chemical and thermal engineering points
of view), rather than focusing on the building component scale. As a result, analysis
of the PCM-enhanced building components is most often based on the very basic
material scale (only the PCM’s performance is examined), or a relatively inaccurate
whole building scale analysis is performed without taking into consideration that
PCM-enhanced envelopes are distinct building systems with their own properties
and performance characteristics.

v
vi Preface

This work is almost exclusively focused on PCM applications as parts of

building envelopes and internal building fabric components. A variety of PCM
building products and applications are presented here, followed by subsequent
thermal and energy performance data. This publication also presents state-of-the-art
testing methods to enable thermal performance analysis of building envelope sys-
tems containing PCMs. In addition, numerical methods for dynamic thermal
analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes and whole buildings containing
PCM building envelope components are presented here.
This work was motivated by my desire to further the evolution and widespread
application of PCM-based building technologies. Since my goal was to reach a
wide audience, I organized this book so that it could be easily understood by
advanced undergraduate mechanical engineering students and first-year graduate
students of architecture and different engineering disciplines with sufficient thermal/
energy analysis and material engineering backgrounds. However, this publication
also offers an inclusive collection of references leading to more detailed technology
descriptions, performance data, and advanced analytical methods, which may be
helpful in research work. In my opinion, this publication is mainly intended for:
• Architects, building designers, home owners, and architectural students, who
I trust, will benefit from learning about the history of PCM applications in building
envelopes and will be able to study most common material configurations, and
PCM locations within a building.
• Building materials and systems developers, engineers, and researchers will find in
this book an overview of different types of PCMs, their physical characteristics,
commonly used PCM carriers, and a selection of commercially available building
products containing PCMs. This group of potential readers may also benefit from
the patent list associated with PCM-enhanced building products.
• Researchers, engineers, and code officials will learn from information presented
here about performance characteristics of the PCM-based building technologies
and descriptions of experimental methods used worldwide for testing of PCMs
and PCM-enhanced building products.
• Students, engineers, researchers, product developers, designers, home owners,
and finally, energy policy government officials should find the field performance
data generated during various whole-system and whole-building field experi-
ments worldwide very helpful.
• Lastly, students, engineers, researchers, and energy modelers should find useful
the chapter dedicated to numerical performance analysis of the PCM-enhanced
building envelopes and whole buildings utilizing these technologies.
Please bear in mind that publications of this type inevitably reflect the opinions
and prejudices of their authors. Hence, some readers may inevitably disagree
with my opinions, book structure, and of course the choice of presented material.
Preface vii

In my opinion, such disagreements usually represent healthy reflections coming

from the diversity of technology under discussion and are essential for its evolution.
Nevertheless, I hope that all future readers will find something of interest here.

Boston Jan Kośny

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes . . . . . . 21

2.1 PCM for Building Applications—Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 First PCM Application for Passive Solar Heating . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 PCM Solar Thermal Storage Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Impregnated Concrete Blocks and Ceramic Masonry . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Interior
Plaster Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Use of PCM-Enhanced Wall Cavity Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 PCM-Enhanced Floors and Ceiling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.8 PCM Used in Roofs and Attics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.9 PCM-Enhanced Windows and Window
Attachment Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 49
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 53

3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building

Envelopes—Packaging Methods, Encapsulation,
and Thermal Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 PCM Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2.1 Introduction—Phase-Change Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2 Organic PCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.3 Inorganic PCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.4 Eutectics and PCM Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3 Long-Term Durability of PCMs in Building Envelopes . . . . . . 84
3.4 PCM Packaging and Encapsulation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5 Enhancement Methods for Improved Thermal
Conductivity of PCMs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 96
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 98

ix
x Contents

4 Laboratory Thermal Testing of PCM-Enhanced Building

Products and Envelope Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 107
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 107
4.2 Scale of Thermal Performance Analysis
and Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 108
4.3 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
(Material-Scale Testing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 111
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
Material-Scale Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.1 Power Compensation DSC (PC-DSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4.2 Heat-Flux DSC (HF-DSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.3 Different Modes of DSC Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4.4 DSC Accuracy Studies for Dynamic PCM Testing . . . 122
4.5 T-history Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.6 Dynamic Heat Flow Meter Apparatus (DHFMA)
Testing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 127
4.7 Dynamic Hot-Box Testing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 131
4.8 A Need for Development of Testing Standards
for Dynamic Thermal Analysis of PCM-Enhanced
Building Materials and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 138
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 139

5 Examples of Full-Scale Field Experiments—Test Huts

and Whole Buildings Containing PCM-Enhanced
Building Envelope Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
5.2 Test Hut Field Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
5.2.1 Test Huts Built by the Alberta Research
Council Inc., Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
5.2.2 University of Kansas Test Huts, Lawrence,
KS, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146
5.2.3 University of Auckland Test Huts—New Zealand . . .. 147
5.2.4 Tianjin University Test Huts—Tianjin, China . . . . . .. 148
5.2.5 University of Lleida Test Huts (Cubicles)—Lleida,
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
5.2.6 Oak Ridge National Laboratory Roofing Testing
Facility—Oak Ridge, TN, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
5.2.7 Arizona State University Test Huts—Tempe,
AZ, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
5.2.8 University of Twente Test Boxes—Enschede,
Overijssel, The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
5.2.9 PCM Roof Testing at Kuwait University—Safat,
Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
Contents xi

5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

5.3.1 BASF 3-L PCM House—Ludwigshafen, Germany . . . 153
5.3.2 BASF 3-L House—Kyonggi, Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3.3 Haus der Gegenwart—Munich, Germany . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3.4 BASF House—Nottingham, England. . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3.5 Kingspan Lighthouse—Watford, Hertfordshire, UK. . . 156
5.3.6 Crossway Eco-House—Staplehurst in Kent, UK . . . . . 158
5.3.7 Academic Office Building, Charles Sturt
University—New South Wales, Victoria, Australia . . . 159
5.3.8 SARL Busipolis Company Building—Metz, France. . . 161
5.3.9 Oak Ridge PCM House—Oak Ridge, TN, USA . . . . . 162
5.3.10 TrekHaus—Portland, OR, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6 Thermal and Energy Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building

Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167
6.2 Heat Transfer Through a Building Envelope Assembly
Containing PCM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
6.2.1 Heat Transfer Model for PCM-Enhanced Porous
Materials and Thermal Insulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
6.2.2 Thermal Balance for a Wall Containing
PCM-Enhanced Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 174
6.2.3 Time Constant of a Building Assembly
Containing PCM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced
Opaque Building Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
6.3.1 An Overview of Numerical Models’ Developments . .. 178
6.3.2 Numerical Research Studies of PCM-Enhanced
Building Products: Historical Outline. . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
6.4.1 PCM Simulations with the Use of Finite-Difference
and Finite-Element Computer Codes . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191
6.4.2 PCM Simulations with the Use
of MATLAB/Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
6.4.3 PCM Simulations with the Use of ANSYS Fluent
and Other CFD Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.5.1 TRNSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.5.2 ESP-r—University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK. . . . . 204
6.5.3 EnergyPlus—Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA, USA . . . . . . . . .. 206
6.5.4 RADCOOL—Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA, USA . . . . . . . . .. 209
xii Contents

6.5.5 CoDyBa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

6.5.6 BSim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.5.7 PCM Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.5.8 WUFI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes—Future
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 216
6.6.1 Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 217
6.6.2 Understanding of Long-Term Performance
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 219
6.6.3 Validation of Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 220
6.6.4 Required Quality and Complexity of System-Scale
and Whole-Building Computer Models . . . . . . . . ... 222
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 223

7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM

and Related Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 235
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 235
7.2 PCM–Concrete Blends and Ready Plaster Blends
Containing PCM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.1 Weber.Mur Clima® Plaster Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.2.2 Maxit-Clima Gypsum Plaster Mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.2.3 Klima 544 TYNK Cement–Lime Plaster Mix . . . . . . . 239
7.2.4 ENERCIEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.3 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Panel Products . . . . . . . . 240
7.3.1 Knauf PCM Smartboard® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.3.2 National Gypsum ThermalCORE® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.3.3 Alba®Balance Plaster Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.4.1 Wood Fiber-Based Board Products
Containing PCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 243
7.4.2 RACUS® PCM Wallboard—A Multi-layer
Composite Sandwich System Containing PCM . ..... 244
7.4.3 ThermaCool® Wallboards and Mineral Ceiling
Tiles—Manufactured by Datum Phase
Change Ltd., UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 246
7.4.4 CoolZone—PCM-Enhanced Metal Ceiling
Tiles Manufactured by Armstrong, UK . . . . . . ..... 248
7.4.5 Ecco Building Boards (EBBs)—Unfired Clay
Building Boards Containing Microencapsulated
PCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 248
7.4.6 PCM-Enhanced Composite Energain® Boards
Manufactured by DuPont™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 249
7.4.7 EcoCore Floor Panels Containing PCM . . . . . . ..... 250
7.4.8 Dynamic Ecom4 Floor Tiles Containing PCM . ..... 251
Contents xiii

7.4.9 DELTA®-COOL 21—Floor Application

of Composite Containers with Inorganic PCM . . . . .. 251
7.5 PCM-Enhanced Mats, Membranes, and Arrays of PCM
Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
7.5.1 BioPCmat™—Foil-Based Array
of PCM Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 252
7.5.2 DELTA®-COOL 24—Foil-Based Array of PCM
Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
7.5.3 Infinite R—A Triple-Layer Plastic Membrane
Containing an Array of PCM Containers . . . . . . . . .. 254
7.6 PCM-Enhanced Building Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255
7.6.1 PCM-Enhanced Cellulose Fiber Insulation
from Advanced Fiber Technologies (AFT),
Bucyrus, OH, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255
7.7 PCM-Enhanced Window Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
7.7.1 GLASSX Façade System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
7.7.2 Delta Cool 28 Translucent Heat Storage Containers
for Building Fenestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 258
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building
Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 259
7.8.1 Early PCM Encapsulation and Micro-packaging
Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 259
7.8.2 Early Patens Describing PCM Integration
with Building Products or Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261
7.8.3 Patens Associated with PCM-Enhanced Thermal
Insulations and Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 263
7.8.4 Patens Associated with PCM-Enhanced Building
Envelope Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 270
About the author

Dr. Jan Kośny is a leading building envelope

researcher with over 30 years experiences in the
building sciences. Dr. Kośny leads Building Enclosure
Research Program at Fraunhofer Center for Sustainable
Energy Systems (CSE) in Boston, MA, USA. The main
objectives of this R&D program are Building Physics,
High Performance Thermal Control Materials, and
Building Integrated PV Technologies. Dr. Kośny holds
a Ph.D. degree in Building Physics from the Polish
Academy of Sciences. His doctoral research was in the area of passive solar systems.
Prior to joining Fraunhofer CSE, Dr. Kośny spent 18 years at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory where he developed several high-performance building envelope and
BIPV concepts. Since 1981, he has held a number of faculty positions in Europe and
North America and has published more than 120 technical papers and numerous
patents related to advanced building concepts. Dr. Kośny actively works for the
ASTM C16, ASHRAE TC 4.4 and TC 4.7 committees. He has been representing
the United States at many international organizations and standards bodies including
the International Energy Agency. Dr. Kośny, is a winner of the 2009 R&D 100
Award for the development of novel phase-change materials.

xv
Chapter 1
Introduction

Thermal storage plays an important role in energy conservation, which is greatly

assisted by the incorporation of latent heat storage in different products. It has been
observed that building components, which store heat during peak power operation,
can reduce at the same time space-conditioning energy consumption. Phase-change
materials (PCMs) are one of the thermal control devices used today in building
envelopes. PCMs have been tested as a thermal mass component in buildings for at
least six decades. A key goal in low-energy building research is to find ways to
manage differences in time between energy sources and energy consumption (i.e.,
building loads). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) Annex 24/42
Energy Conservation through Energy Storage/Solar Heating Cooling, thermal
energy storage, including PCM technologies, is essential for energy efficiency.1
PCMs are emerging materials with the potential to dramatically reduce cooling
energy consumption and peak cooling demand in buildings, when applied properly.
Published research data have shown that PCMs can notably enhance building
energy performance. A large variety of research studies demonstrated that an
application of thermal mass in well-insulated structures could generate heating and
cooling energy savings between 5 and 30 % in residential buildings (Feustel 1995;
Tomlinson et al. 1992; Yamaha 2006; Schossig et al. 2005; Castellón et al. 2007;
Kośny et al. 2006, 2012a, b). Considering that new PCM-enhanced building
envelope components could be installed in about 10 % of both new and existing US
residential homes, the potential for energy savings would be between 0.6 × 1011 and
1.5 × 1011 KWh/year (Kośny et al. 2008).
There is large number of engineering publications focused on PCM as a major
subject. However, even though building envelopes represent major PCM applica-
tions, there is very little literature dedicated to this topic. Most of recent publica-
tions give overviews of PCMs performance, manufacturing processes, and testing
from chemical and thermal engineering points of view. Building applications are
usually presented more generally as a combination of wall applications,
1
http://www.iea-eces.org/files/annex_24_extension_work_plan_v6_20120917.pdf.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 1

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_1
2 1 Introduction

space-conditioning systems containing PCMs, active solar heating systems, and the
large-scale whole building seasonal thermal storage applications. This publication is
focused almost exclusively on PCM applications in building envelope components.
A variety of PCM-based building products and PCM blends with building materials
and insulations are presented here. Performance data for most major PCM building
envelope applications are also described here. Furthermore, this publication pre-
sents state-of-the-art testing methods enabling thermal performance analysis of
building envelope systems containing PCMs. In addition, numerical methods for
dynamic thermal analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes and whole build-
ings containing PCM building envelope components are discussed here.
PCMs in building envelopes can be used for many different purposes including
reduction of space-conditioning energy consumption, thermal peak load shaving
and shifting, local temperature control in building envelope components, or
improvement of overall system durability. This publication mainly discusses sev-
eral strategies for mitigation of thermal loads generated in residential and com-
mercial buildings. Reduction of the space-conditioning energy consumption can be
achieved either by improvements in building thermal shell components (i.e.,
through increasing the thickness of the insulation), or by adding PCM to the walls,
roof, attic floor insulation, floors and ceilings, and fenestration components.
In a traditional, simplified understanding, the thermal performance of insulation
is directly proportional to the insulation thickness, when isolating the exterior
surface from the rest of the building. However, reported results of field testing,
energy simulations, and cost analysis demonstrated that conventional thermal
insulations, due to relatively high-cost and diminishing energy benefits, cannot be
considered as the only means to achieve improved thermal performance of a
building shell in low-energy buildings (Kośny et al. 2012a, b). From the whole
system perspective, the impact of thermal insulation thickness on overall energy
efficiency is significantly more complex. Thermal analysis becomes more difficult
when adding the effects of structural members, local thermal bridging caused by
imperfections in insulation installation, air leakage, moisture content impact,
deterioration of material properties caused by aging, etc. This shows that taking into
account only thickness and thermal conductivity of insulation is not sufficient while
analyzing the overall thermal performance of building envelopes. Several alterna-
tive building envelope systems have been developed during last decades to assist
thermal insulation with control of building thermal loads and in the reduction of the
building space-conditioning energy consumption. These systems can be grouped
into the following basic areas:
• Exterior radiation control technologies—cool-roof and cool wall coatings
(Miller et al. 2008);
• Radiant barriers and foil-faced insulations (Medina 2012);
• Conventional thermal mass and building components utilizing thermal inertia
for whole building energy consumption mitigation (Kośny et al. 1998; Kossecka
and Kośny 2002);
• Phase-change materials (Mehling and Cabeza 2008);
1 Introduction 3

• Airspaces and naturally ventilated cavities (Sedlbauer and Künzel 1999; Miller
et al. 2010);
• Roofs with above the deck inclined airspaces (Miller et al. 2007).
Listed above, recent improvements in building envelope technologies suggest
that in the near future, residences can be routinely constructed to operate with very
low heating and cooling loads. Optimized design of building envelopes using
PCMs can be one of the engineering means to meet low-energy consumption
targets in the future. It may result in notable savings in energy consumption,
reductions in peak-hour power loads, shifting of building thermal loads, and
sometimes, in long-term system durability improvements. An application of PCM
thermal mass in buildings has been a main building research topic for the last
60 years. Although the information is quantitatively enormous, it is also spread
widely in the literature, and not easy to come across. In general, a material that uses
its phase-changing ability for the purposes of heating, cooling, or temperature
stabilization is defined as a PCM. PCMs have found applications in many fields,
including thermal energy storage, building energy efficiency, cooling of food
products, packaging and transportation, spacecraft thermal systems, solar power
plants, microelectronics, thermal protection of military installations, waste heat
recovery, etc. In most current building applications, PCMs continue to absorb heat
without a significant rise in temperature until all the material is transformed into the
liquid phase. When PCMs reach the phase transition temperature, they absorb large
amounts of heat at an almost constant temperature. Then, when the ambient tem-
perature around a liquid material falls, the PCMs solidify releasing stored latent
heat.
Concepts of latent heat and specific heat were discovered by Scottish scientist
Joseph Black in the mid-eighteenth century. He was a professor of Medicine and
Chemistry at University of Glasgow, UK. Prof. Black assisted James Watt in the
development of the steam engine. They also collaborated in a project to manu-
facture sodium hydroxide.
Ice is the best-known PCM used by humans for food preparation, food condi-
tioning, cold drinks, and space cooling. The knowledge of preserving snow for
cooling drinks and preserving food during the summer in warm countries has
endured since ancient times. Greeks and Romans bought snow and ice transported
on donkey trains from mountains. Most urban residents bought it at snow shops,
although few could afford private ice houses. Roman refrigeration techniques
involved digging deep pits that were then filled with snow and covered with straw.
Ice was also preserved for similar purposes in the northern regions of the world.
For generations, inhabitants of northern arctic regions have been using ice for
thermal stabilization of their dwellings. Igloos are the first-known application of the
phase-change latent heat in building structures. Derived from “igdlu,” the Inuit
word for “house,” igloos have been the traditional dwellings of the natives of the
frozen northern reaches of Europe, Canada, and Greenland for thousands of years
(Fig. 1.1). The igloo is an ingenious invention, very effective in keeping arctic
people warm. Igloos are relatively easy to construct and made from materials found
4 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Igloo—a first human construction utilizing PCM—erection details

in abundance: snow and ice which serve simultaneously as building structural

components, thermal insulation, thermal radiation shield, and energy storage.
Blocks of ice are formed into the dome shape, joined together by snow. To prevent
excessive amount of snow and cold wind from coming in, a sunken entrance is
typically constructed, along with a raised sleeping platform covered with fur for
comfort and warmth.2 According to González-Espada et al. (2001), internal igloo
temperature circulates between 9 and 15 °C, when occupied, even during harsh
arctic winters where outside temperatures can drop to −45 °C.
Since the mid-twentieth century, latent heat of ice and a large group of materials
with capability of storing heat through the phase transition have been successfully
used in buildings. The first documented use of a PCM was by Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) researcher Dr. Maria Telkes in 1948 in a house
located in Dover, Massachusetts, USA. In this building, Dr. Telkes followed pas-
sive solar wall design, which was first explored by Edward S. Morse and patented
by him in 1881.3 In her house, metal drums filled with Glauber’s salt were used as a
part of a passive solar heating system. The five-room 135-m2 house comprised of
two bedrooms. Solar energy was collected by the galvanized steel absorber plates,
painted black and placed behind the double glazing. Heat generated by this passive
solar system passed along a duct via a fan to three heat storage bins situated inside
the rooms (see Frysinger and Sliwkowski 1987).
During two and a half winters, in the Northern US coastal climate of Massa-
chusetts, the Dover house was exclusively heated by the sun, before the experiment

2
http://www.dspace.library.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/125/2/Igloo.pdf.
3
http://www.dailykos.com/story/2007/05/17/335503/-Old-Solar-1881#.
1 Introduction 5

Passive Solar Room PCM House

Summer
shading

Solar v
radiation
Air circulation
Glazing

Air space

Steel Steel drums

absorber with PCM
plates

Fig. 1.2 PCM house built in Dover, Massachusetts, USA, by Dr. Maria Telkes and schematic of
its passive solar heating operation

ended.4 On cloudy days, when no solar energy was entering the system, a fan
system blew heat from the PCM storage, recrystallizing the salt. Dr. Telkes had
analyzed climatic data from the National Weather Bureau and found that, for a
period of 65 years, Boston had not gone more than nine days without the sun. She
estimated that 21 tons of salt would be enough to heat her house through a 10-day
sunless period (see Telkes 1978, 1980) (Fig. 1.2).
A large number of similar residential houses were designed and built in the
1950–1980s worldwide using similar solar design principals to Dr. Maria Telkes
approach. One of the first follow-up houses built by Lawrence Gardshire in New
Mexico, USA, consisted of a two-story 102-m2 floor area with collector glazing
located in the roof structure (see Ghoneim and Klein 1991). Unlike Telkes’ design,
comprising of steel barrels with PCM located at the ground floor level; smaller
5-gallon steel storage cans were located within the roof space. The major difference
in configuration of the PCM containers was the addition of Borex to the Gluaber’s
Salts to act as a nucleation enhancing agent. In the 1980s, a large number of solar
houses using PCM were built in the USA following very promising field testing
results—such as performance data published by Balcomb and McFarland (1978) of
Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, USA, followed with numerous
publications describing design principles of passive solar houses using thermal mass
components (see Collier and Grimmer 1979; Wilson 1979; Cook 1980; Balcomb
et al. 1983; Garg et al. 1985; Neeper 1986), etc. In that time, in experimental passive
solar buildings utilizing PCM, different types of hydrated salts were often used for
heat storage (see Balcomb and McFarland 1978; Farouk and Guceri 1979; Ghoneim
et al. 1991; Crosbie 1997). For example, in late 1970s, Bordeau tested a passive solar
collector containing CaCl2 × 6H2O, finding that a 8.1-cm-thick PCM wall had an
appreciable thermal accumulation (see Bordeau 1980). Unfortunately, these sub-
stances frequently created serious durability and corrosion problems, which later
affected a number of similar constructions.

4
http://www.doverhistoricalsociety.org/documents/DoverDays_new/bicentennial/fifties.html.
6 1 Introduction

Metal roof
Summer
shading

Solar
radiation
Heat
conduction Air
South & circulation
facing radiation
glazing

Air cavity

Solar
absorber
Air vent Beeswax metal container

Fig. 1.3 Metal container with beeswax used as PCM heat storage in the test Trombe Wall—
Technical University of Rzeszow, Poland (Kośny and Starakiewicz 1987)

In Europe, during the second half of the twentieth century, PCM applications in
buildings naturally evolved from a rich tradition of building thermal mass applica-
tions, combined with new findings in area of passive solar architecture. Generations
of building thermal designers and solar architects often followed an early idea of
passive solar walls, which were the developments of French engineer Félix Trombe
and architect Jacques Michel http://solarhousehistory.com/book/. Figure 1.3 shows
one of the first applications of the bio-based PCM used as a thermal storage in the
passive solar Trombe wall. This field experiment was performed in the early 1980s
by the Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow, Poland (see Kośny and Star-
akiewicz 1987). A solar wall contained double glazing and about a 6-cm layer of
beeswax packed into the metal container, serving also as a solar absorber. In 1980s,
however, PCMs were most often incorporated into more conventional construction
materials including PCMs mixed with structural concrete, gypsum, or stucco. New
manufacturing techniques had been developed for impregnating concrete, gypsum,
or ceramic masonry with PCM. It is important to mention that in early applications, a
great variety of PCMs had been tried, including inorganic salt hydrates, organic fatty
acids and eutectic mixtures, fatty alcohols, neopentyl glycol, and paraffinic hydro-
carbons. An overview of the main PCMs is given by Feldman et al. (1989), Hawes
et al. (1993), and Demirbas (2006), whereas other reviews on PCMs may be found in
works by Hasnain (1998), Farid et al. (2004), Khudhair and Farid (2007), Mehling
and Cabeza (2008), and by Baetens et al. (2010). Most of these studies found that
PCMs improved building energy performance by reducing peak-hour cooling loads
and by shifting peak-demand time.
In the 1980s, a wide application of organic paraffinic PCMs in gypsum boards
took place based on pioneering work of Shapiro et al. (1987) from Concordia
University, Canada, Salyer and Sircar (1989) of University of Dayton, USA, and
Tomlinson et al. (1992) of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA. In Europe, similar
work was initiated by development of encapsulated paraffinic PCM products. PCM
blends with building structural and board materials have been studied by several
researchers (see Banu et al. 1998; Hawlader et al. 2003; Zalba et al. 2003;
1 Introduction 7

Cabeza et al. 2007), and new PCM building products were developed by large
chemical companies5 (Schossig et al. 2003; Fitz et al. 2006). Similar developments
took place in Asiatic countries (Sharma and Sagara 2005; Pasupathy et al. 2008)
and in Australia and New Zealand (see Khudhair and Farid 2004). Various paraf-
finic PCM products are commercially available today, but flammability issues
combined with a low thermal conductivity (Farid et al. 2004) and a volume change
during phase transition (Hasnain 1998) limit their building application.
In large number of demonstration projects worldwide, paraffinic hydrocarbon
PCMs generally performed well, which made them a number one line of the PCM
building products today. Kissock et al. (1998) reported that wallboard including a
paraffin mixture made up mostly of n-octadecane, which has a mean melting
temperature of 24 °C and a latent heat of fusion of 143 kJ/kg, “was easy to handle
and did not possess a waxy or slick surface. Limited surface discoloration was
observed. Its unpainted color changed from white to gray. The dry wall with PCM
required no special surface preparation for painting.” Even though gypsum boards
were just impregnated by liquid PCM (no micro-encapsulation was used), the PCM
leakage was not a major issue at that time. Salyer and Sircar (1989) reported that
during testing of 1.22 × 2.44 m wallboard with PCM, there was an insignificant loss
of PCM after 3 months of exposure to continuously cycled 37 °C air. The capability
of PCMs to reduce peak loads is also well documented. For example, Kissock et al.
(1998) measured peak temperature reductions of up to 10 °C in side-by-side testing
of unconditioned experimental houses with and without paraffinic PCM wallboard.
Similarly, Zhang et al. (2005) found peak cooling load reductions of 35–40 % in
side-by-side testing of conditioned small houses with and without paraffinic PCM
inside the walls.
During first decade of the twenty-first century, several PCM blends with thermal
insulations were introduced by different research centers. They were mostly used as
wall cavity insulation or attic floor insulation, providing reductions in overall
cooling loads, shaving and shifting of peak-hour cooling loads, or just local tem-
perature control.6 In 2003, the first wall assembly utilizing PCM-enhanced foam
was designed and constructed by the author. In 2004, the first dynamic hot-box test
was performed on a wall containing two types of PCM-impregnated foam by the
research team from Guardian, USA (insulation manufacture), Outlast, USA (man-
ufacture of PCM-enhanced fabrics and foams), and Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) (Kośny et al. 2007; see Figs. 1.4a and 1.5c). In the following years, a
similar wall assembly containing PCM and reflective insulation was analyzed as a
retrofit solution for concrete masonry walls (Kośny et al. 2010a; see Fig. 1.4b).
In 2004, the author and the research team from ORNL and Advanced Fiber
Technologies (AFT), USA, introduced the first PCM-enhanced fiber insulation by
mixing cellulose fibers with micro-encapsulated PCM (see Fig. 1.5a). For the 25 %
PCM blend, Kośny et al. (2006) and Kośny (2008) reported that PCM-enhanced

5
http://www.basf.com/group/pressrelease/P-09-390.
6
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/AWT/HotboxTest/PCMCellulose/index.htm.
8 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.4 Wall application of PCM-impregnated foam. a Fabrication of the PCM-enhanced foam
and reflective insulation assembly for the test wall, b Masonry wall retrofits with PCM-enhanced
foam and reflective insulation—Oak Ridge, TN, USA

Fig. 1.5 Electron microscope images of thermal insulations mixed with microencapsulated
organic PCM. a PCM mixed with cellulose fiber insulation. b Fiberglass and a photo of PCM
mixed with blown fiberglass in the corner. c PCM mixed with polyurethane foam

cellulose insulation can reduce wall-generated peak-hour cooling loads by about

40 %. In former applications, the chosen locations for flammable paraffinic PCMs
were the interior surfaces of walls, ceilings, or floors. In the following works,
however, the PCM-enhanced were positioned inside the wall cavity or installed as a
part of the attic insulation system. Placement in these locations is expected to sig-
nificantly reduce flammability issues that were common in earlier applications of the
technology. Also, detailed optimizations performed for PCM applications showed a
significant reduction of initial costs with a corresponding reduction in payback time.
In 2008, the same research team, in collaboration with Johns Manville (US insu-
lation manufacture), developed a PCM blend with blown fiberglass insulation, as
presented in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6. This new dynamic insulation was field tested as an
attic floor insulation reducing peak-hour cooling loads generated by the attic by
about 70 % (Kośny et al. 2010b). In addition, field application tests took place and a
dynamic hot-box test was performed on the wood-framed wall insulated with PCM-
enhanced fiberglass. Following these developments, PCM micro-pellets were suc-
cessfully blended with polyurethane foam for building applications (see Fig. 1.4c).
1 Introduction 9

Fig. 1.6 Microencapsulated PCM blended with fiberglass insulation: installation on the test wall
—left, view of the attic with installed PCM-enhanced fiberglass—right

Since a significant amount of the solar heat gain in buildings comes through the
windows, one of the most effective ways to control it is to either use windows
containing PCM or conventional thermal storage, or to install exterior shading
devices, such as window shutters with incorporated PCM. 7, 8
In conventional applications, thermal performance of windows can be improved
by the use of absorbing gases filling the gap between the glass sheets, radiation
controlling glass surface treatments, and by the application of thermally broken
window frames. The other thermal improvement options may incorporate translu-
cent filling materials such as silica aerogel or a semi-transparent PCM. Though,
both of these options require serious consideration of optical properties and window
functionality. The objective of using PCM in the window glazing or window
attachments is to utilize its high latent heat of fusion to reduce the cooling loads by
absorbing the solar-generated heat wave before it reaches the indoor space.
Starting from 2010, the European Union (EU) took the lead in the development of
a new generation of PCM-enhanced building insulations including PCM-enhanced
plastic foams and PCM blends with nano-insulations. The “New Advanced Insu-
lation Phase Change Materials” project is one out of six funded research topics in the
FP7-2010-NMP-EeB research program launched by the EU E2B-PPP initiative—
see: http://www.e2b-ei.eu/default.php. This research is expected to bring a new
innovative and highly technical solution to increase in a cost-effective manner the
thermal inertia of the building’s envelope without increasing building mass or space.
It is anticipated that through the incorporation of new PCM building technologies,
improved with the use of nano-materials, the new building envelopes will be pro-
vided in the future with an extra thermal storage capacity based on latent heat.
Similarly, starting from 2010 in the USA, Fraunhofer CSE has been involved in
several projects focused on development of nano-pore insulations, radiant barriers,

7
http://www.mendeley.com/catalog/comparison-between-pcm-filled-glass-windows-absorbing-
gas-filled-windows/.
8
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778811006190.
10 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.7 PCM-enhanced aerogel blanket (left), aerogel insulation laminated with different types of
foil (center and right)

and reflective insulations, all thermally enhanced with PCM. Figure 1.7 shows
photos of newly developed aerogel insulation products, which were tested during
one of the projects funded by the US Department of Defense in collaboration with
Aspen Aerogels.
The addition of different forms of PCMs to walls, floors, roofs, or attic floor
insulations is widely considered today as a promising thermal improvement
method. Similar material options with anticipated high chance for building appli-
cations include PCM enhancements of structural boards, stucco, gypsum finish, or
blending PCMs with concrete or composite elements. PCMs used for building
envelopes are inorganic or organic substances with a high heat of fusion, which
melt and solidify at a specific temperature range. The high heat of fusion gives
PCMs the capability of storing and releasing large amounts of energy. PCM, energy
is absorbed or released when the material changes from a solid to liquid state and
vice versa.
In building envelopes, PCMs can be used and incorporated into different types of
building products, capsules, packages, etc. New applications of PCM in the design of
building envelope components require careful selection of materials, identification of
PCM location, bounding thermal resistances, and evaluation of the quantity of PCM
to be used. Concentrated PCM applications (such as gypsum boards or arrays of PCM
containers) have been tested as a thermal mass component in Northern American and
European buildings for the last forty years. Most of the published research data have
demonstrated that PCMs can notably enhance energy performance of walls, roofs,
and attics. Recent North American studies (Feustel 1995; Athienitis et al. 1997, 2005;
Kissock et al. 1998; Zhang et al. 2005; Murugananthama et al. 2010; Kośny et al.
2006, 2010a, b) demonstrated that the application of concentrated PCMs could
generate heating and cooling energy savings of up to 25–30 % in well-insulated
residential buildings in the southern USA. Childs and Stovall (2012) performed
numerical analysis of thermal performance of different configurations of layered wall
cavity insulation using micro-encapsulated PCM.
Keep in mind that roofs and attics are the most dynamic working building
thermal envelopes. Initial experimental studies of residential systems utilizing latent
energy storage have demonstrated very promising performance characteristics. For
1 Introduction 11

Fig. 1.8 Construction of the experimental PCM-PV roof—Oak Ridge, TN, USA. Left Arrays of
PCM cells and reflective insulation, center ventilation air cavities on top of reflective insulation
and between PCM cells, right top view of the test PCM-PV roof during construction

example, several generations of novel roof designs developed and tested by Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, USA, showed about 95 % cut of peak-hour cooling
loads and over 30 % overall cooling load reduction compared with traditional roofs
design of the same insulation R-value (see Kośny et al. 2010a). In addition to
conventional insulation, these attics contained over-the-deck ventilation, reflective
insulation, and a PCM heat sink. Figure 1.8 shows a roof cross-sectional view of a
similar metal roofing system containing arrays of PCM pouches, over the roof
ventilation, reflective insulation, and building integrated PV (BIPV) laminate
(Kośny et al. 2012a). Correspondingly, the parametric performance comparisons of
roofs and attics utilizing dispersed and concentrated PCM systems has been per-
formed by Kośny et al. (2014a).
Majority of the North American experimental studies of dispersed PCM appli-
cations have been focused on wood-framed walls or attics (see Petrie et al. 1997;
Tabares-Velasco et al. 2012; Kośny et al. 2006, 2012b). PCM-enhanced cellulose
insulation was most often used. Advantages of cellulose originate the fact that
natural cellulose fibers can efficiently mix with micro-encapsulated PCM, while
glass or composite fibers have difficulties in structural support of the weight of the
PCM micro-pellets. In early North American experiments, paraffinic PCM was
utilized (Kośny et al. 2008) and it was later replaced by less flammable bio-based
PCM fabricated from waste fatty oils. In 2009, this technology was awarded the
prestigious North American R&D 100 Award,9 and in 2010, a first residential house
using this technology in its walls and attic was constructed in Oak Ridge, TN, USA
(Miller et al. 2010; Kośny et al. 2014b; see Fig. 1.9). In 2012/2013, new PCM
cellulose blends were tested by Fraunhofer CSE and ORNL in the USA. These
mixtures used extruded shape stabilized bio-PCM, currently developed by Syn-
troleum Corporation (see Fig. 1.10). In addition to the 2012 thermal testing, a series
of flammability tests was performed to ensure ignition resistance of these new
products (see Shukla et al. 2014).

9
http://www.rdmag.com/award-winners/2009/07/organic-thermal-material-changes-phase-stalls-
fire.
12 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.9 Development team of ignition resistant PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation and the first
house with PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation in walls and attic. Left side Development team
from left D. Yarbrough and J. Kośny—ORNL, D. Leuthold—AFT, T. Riazzi—Microtek Labs,
right side PCM house during construction—Oak Ridge, TN, USA

Fig. 1.10 Shape stabilized bio-PCM—Syntroleum Corporation, USA, a cross-sectional SEM

image of sliced polymer-coated PCM pellet (256 × magnification), b a roll of the shape stabilized
PCM membrane

Earlier findings in areas of thermal mass, building thermal inertia, and building
envelope integrated PCMs help in defining a new dynamic building design paradigm
for today. The conventional concept of “statically” designed building envelopes is
replaced with a novel, dynamically working, and fully integrated envelope system.
For this purpose, several major dynamic thermal effects, which can be generated
either by thick layers of conventional insulations, PCM-enhanced insulations, or by
different sequences of insulation and massive components, are considered.
• Traditional approach of using thermal mass for stabilization of the internal air
space temperature.
• Reduction of the heat flow across building enclosure components through an
application of PCM.
• Use of PCM for reduction of peak thermal loads.
• Utilization of PCM for time shifting of dynamic thermal loads generated by
building enclosure components.
1 Introduction 13

• Use of PCMs to assist floor, wall, or ceiling hydronic space conditioning

systems.
Thermal response shift and an application of materials causing reverse heat flow
may be the future low-cost means for energy performance improvements in small
residential and commercial buildings (Kośny and Kossecka 2013; Kośny et al. 2014a).
Time shift can be controlled by the form of PCM application (dispersed or concen-
trated), the PCM location in the case of condensed PCM application, and the total
R-value of the building component insulation (in most cases a function of its thickness).
In short, in low-energy buildings, in order to optimize performance of the building
envelope as a thermal system, the following design goals need to be considered:
• Design of thermal insulation of high R-value and low amount of penetrating
thermal bridges.
• Selection of dispersed or concentrated PCM thermal mass.
• Optimized location of thermal mass within the building envelope component.
• Proper selection of the PCM phase transition temperature.
• Finally, a wider usage of synchronized dynamic thermal response characteristics
of the building structure, instead of adding costly thermal insulations or over-
sized space-conditioning systems.
In addition, several current studies have demonstrated that PCMs can also be
very useful in local temperature control in different building envelope designs. In
several PCM-stucco applications, slightly higher surface temperatures during the
night and early morning hours eliminated the risk of condensation, reduced mold
grow, and improved overall lifespan of the exterior finish (Künzel 2007). In typical
North American shingle roofs, the under-the-deck PCM applications can reduce
roof surface peak temperatures and increase roof lifespan.
Heat storage materials used in thermal engineering to enhance energy efficiency,
control temperatures, and shift thermal loads are invariably subjected to dynamic
thermal excitations. In order to incorporate dynamic thermal characteristics in
thermal analysis or design work, information about dynamic thermal performance
of materials or composites containing PCMs is needed to supplement the material
physical properties measured under the steady-state conditions.
In the past, the most frequently used method for PCM thermal evaluations
utilized the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The accuracy of DSC mea-
surements of standard materials is discussed in detail by Richardson (1997) and
Rudtsch (2002). Concerning DSC measurements of materials with strong phase
transition, the accuracy of the measurement is dominated by the heating rate and
sample size. Unfortunately, the DSC method requires small and relatively uniform
test samples. This requirement is unrealistic in the case of many PCM-enhanced
building envelope products. Small samples are not representative of PCM-based
blends, since these materials are not homogeneous. Considering the limitations of
the DSC testing (when applied to more complex building envelope applications), a
combined experimental–analytical protocol has been developed. This method
14 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.11 Modified heat flowmeter apparatus and hot-box testers used by the author for dynamic
testing PCM-enhanced building envelopes. a Heat flowmeter apparatus with a complex PCM
assembly inside, b ORNL hot-box apparatus used for dynamic testing of walls containing PCMs,
c ORNL horizontal hot-box tester used for dynamic testing of attics containing PCMs

utilizes a conventional ASTM C518 heat flowmeter apparatus (Kośny et al. 2009;
Shukla et al. 2014) to analyze major thermal characteristics and to determine the
amount of phase-change energy available to provide thermal storage (see
Fig. 1.11a). Another testing alternative for non-uniform PCMs is the T-history
method, which was proposed by Zhang (1999). This method is a relatively inex-
pensive and easy way to measure the phase-change enthalpy of PCM products
using samples significantly larger from what is required for DSC testing.
Dynamic heat flow meter apparatus testing and the T-history method make pos-
sible the material and system-scale analyses of thermal characteristics of PCM blends
or complex arrays of PCM containers. It is important to remember that thermal
characteristics of final PCM-enhanced products can be significantly different from
initial characteristics of pure PCMs used for their production. Finally, building
envelopes containing PCMs can be also tested in a full scale using dynamic hot-box
testing method (see Kośny et al. 2007, 2010a). Figure 1.11b, c shows two hot-box
testing apparatus used in the past by the author for dynamic hot-box testing of walls
and attics containing PCMs at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA.
In order to assess and optimize the PCMs included in building walls, floors, roof,
or attic, transient numerical simulations are necessary. An extensive literature review
of the available numerical models for PCM simulation in building envelopes is
presented in this publication. As for all building envelope technologies, numerical
analysis of PCM-enhanced building systems can be performed both on a system scale
and in a whole building scale. The application of materials with phase transition for
lightweight construction (e.g., a wood or steel frame buildings, lightweight masonry
buildings) makes it possible to modify thermal inertia, improve thermal comfort, and
reduce energy consumption. Simulation models are useful tools due to large number
of variables and input parameters usually required to estimate energy consumption
and demand for buildings with PCM products. There are many state-of-the-art
models capable of performing analysis of PCM products, building envelopes con-
taining PCM, as well as for whole buildings containing PCM-enhanced building
envelopes. However, in most cases, the calculation accuracy has not been fully
evaluated and many of these models have not yet been experimentally validated.
1 Introduction 15

The most interesting models used by engineers and researches worldwide have
been selected and analyzed in more detail. Their weak and strong points have been
highlighted. All of the models have been considered, regardless if they were
implemented solely for thermal analysis of building components, or in whole
building energy simulation programs. The mathematical algorithms used to
approach the phase transition, numerical methods, modeling accuracy, the simu-
lation time, and the need for experimental data (previous measurements are nec-
essary) have been studied as well.
There are different commercially available programs today which are useful for
the thermal and energy performance analysis of whole buildings and for building
envelope components: DOE-2, Energy 10, BLAST, EnergyPlus, TRNSYS, ESP-r,
RADCOOL, IDA-ICE3, HVACSim, CLIM2000, WUFI, and many others. How-
ever, only a few of them have the full capability to analyze the phase transition
processes. In these cases, the effect of phase transition has been added to the energy
balance equation as a latent heat generation term. Most commonly, the phase
change is modeled using temperature-dependent specific heat.
The evaluation of PCM products for building envelope applications requires
careful determination of their energy-efficiency potential. Very often, comparisons
need to be drawn to determine mass equivalents between PCM and conventional
thermal mass including stone, concrete, and brick. In addition, detailed thermal
inertia characteristics, temperature, and sensible cooling profiles need to be
developed for a prototypical building based on energy simulations. It is also
important to determine which climate zones are most appropriate for the considered
PCM installations. In most cases of building envelopes containing PCMs, good
thermal performance depends on regular day-after-day phase transition ability,
which is most often a function of night local temperature variations required to
regenerate PCM. It is important to mention that a great majority of early-developed
numerical models used for whole building energy analysis were based on research
findings from projects using simple paraffinic PCMs, thereby using simplified
enthalpy curves and ignoring hysteresis and subcooling effects. A good represen-
tation of the subcooling effect and complexity of the enthalpy curve is critical for
performance analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelope systems. It is essential
for proper estimation of PCM’s solidification capability during the discharging time
(in most cases overnight cooling), which is a key energy performance factor for the
PCM-enhanced building envelopes.
The main goal of this publication is to improve the understanding of how PCM-
enhanced building envelopes are constructed, what their thermal behavior is, and
what could be their energy impact on the whole building energy balance. The
author hopes that this publication will help in bringing PCM-enhance building
envelopes to the design mainstream of future residential and commercial
constructions.
HAPPY READING!
16 1 Introduction

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Chapter 2
Short History of PCM Applications
in Building Envelopes

2.1 PCM for Building Applications—Background

Ongoing improvements in building envelope technologies suggest that residences

will soon be routinely constructed with low heating and cooling loads. The use of
novel building materials containing active thermal components (e.g., PCM, sub-
venting, radiant barriers, and integrated hydronic systems) would be an ultimate step
in achieving significant heating and cooling energy savings from technological
building envelope improvements. The key benefit of using PCM is that it affords
structures improved thermal storage capabilities with minimal change to the existing
building design (Sharma 2013). The main methods for incorporating PCM into
building materials include the use of gypsum plaster boards and other structural
boards, blending PCM with thermal insulations, and by macro-packaging. The
thermal energy storage property of PCM is based on its latent heat storage capacity,
given that large amounts of energy can be stored in a small volume. Therefore, the
material containing PCM can absorb and release heat more effectively than con-
ventional building materials. However, the selection of the PCM locations, PCM
transition temperature range, and the amount of used PCM are essential for effective
and durable use of the PCM-enhanced technologies, considering a relatively long life
span of building envelopes.
Present-day residential and commercial buildings are becoming more structur-
ally lightweight, and concerns are been raised over indoor thermal comfort due to
reduced thermal storage potential. A strong tension exists between the drive to build
better efficient structures with less impact on the environment and the tendency to
add more mass to the structure for thermal storage. These issues are further
heightened by global climate change and the continual rise in energy cost. Without
counting traditional arctic ice igloo constructions, the use of PCM in buildings
began in the mid-1940s and this passive solar system with thermal storage capa-
bility was one of the first applications studied at that time (Telkes 1978; Frysinger
and Sliwkowski 1987; Ghoneim and Klein 1991). During the 1980s, bulk

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 21

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_2
22 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

encapsulated paraffinic PCM had been manufactured for building applications.

When phase changing heat storage materials are incorporated into the building
envelope or internal building structural components, during the day they absorb
heat from the glazing and opaque enclosure. As the PCM melts, they stabilize the
indoor temperature. At night, when the interior space temperatures decrease, in
passive cooling scenarios, the PCM releases the stored energy, thus preventing the
temperature in the room from getting excessively cold (Abhat 1983; Lane 1983;
Shapiro et al. 1987; Peippo et al. 1991; Schossig et al. 2005; Sharma and Sagara
2005; Mehling and Cabeza 2008). In active cooling scenario when air-conditioning
is used, at least part of the PCM’s energy is discharged by the space conditioning
systems—so, this is not happening without associated energy cost. In some
buildings, this cyclic process may result in a reduction of heat flow from the
outdoor to the indoor enclosures, which in turn shifts peak cooling loads to off-peak
periods, thereby evenly distributing the demand for electricity and avoiding energy
shortages often encountered during the peak periods. PCM-enhanced building
envelopes offer higher per unit heat storage capacity than conventional building
materials and provide lightweight structures the benefit of increased thermal mass
(see Kośny and Kossecka 2013). The capabilities of incorporating PCM in struc-
tures to thermally stabilize interior space and shift peak-hour cooling loads are
highlighted in publications of Castellón et al. (2007), Zhuang et al. (2010), Kośny
et al. (Kośny et al. 2010a, 2014), Tardieu et al. (2011), and Childs and Stovall
(2012). Since available surface area for heat transfer is significantly greater in
building envelopes, in comparison with encapsulated local heat storage applica-
tions, large amounts of energy can be stored with minimal fluctuations in the
transition temperature. As a result of the improved thermal performance gained
from PCM incorporation, lighter and thinner building envelopes can be designed
and constructed to take full advantage of the performance.

2.2 First PCM Application for Passive Solar Heating

The use of PCM as thermal storage systems for buildings has been of interest
throughout the second half of the twentieth century. Most often latent heat storage
materials are used to stabilize interior building temperatures. In building envelope
applications, PCM stores latent heat as the ambient temperature rises to the melting
point (most PCMs change from a solid to a liquid state). As the temperature cools
down, the PCM returns to a solid phase and the latent heat is released. This
absorption and release of heat takes place at a constant temperature, which is ideal
to smooth external temperature fluctuations.
The first documented use of a PCM for passive solar heating of the residential
building took place in 1948 by Dr. Maria Telkes (December 12, 1900–December 2,
1995), a Hungarian born researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT—Cambridge, MA, USA). By her friends and co-workers, she was called the
Sun Queen because of her long fascination by the possibilities of solar heating,
2.2 First PCM Application for Passive Solar Heating 23

since the 1920s. Unable to get a research grant from MIT, Telkes collaborated with
sculptor Amelia Peabody, the client, who personally funded the project, and
architect Eleanor Raymond.1
The first PCM residential house was constructed in Dover, Massachusetts, USA
(Telkes 1947). It contained approximately 4 m3 of Glauber’s salts, which were
packed in steel drums located in the southern glazed sun spaces that were ventilated
with fans to move the warm air into the living space during the winter. In summer
months, PCM thermal storage was able to cool surrounding rooms as well (see
Telkes 1978, 1980). The Dover house worked very well for two and half seasons.
Unfortunately, Glauber’s salt disintegrates during a short-time period and loses its
phase transition capability, if not sealed and chemically enhanced. During the third
winter season in the Dover house, containers with Glauber’s salts permanently
stopped working. As a result, the experiment was terminated. However, Dr. Telkes
stayed for log time optimistic for PCM application in solar heating applications. In
1951 she wrote—“Sunlight will be used as a source of energy sooner or later
anyway. Why wait?”2
Since 1948, more resources have been invested in the development of PCM-
based heat storage technologies. These systems have been extensively studied over
decades, notably in the late 1980s and 1990s (see Mancini 1980; Feldman and
Shapiro 1989; Peippo et al. 1991; Hawes and Feldman 1993; Bromley and McKay
1994; Salyer and Sircar 1989; Stetiu and Feustel 1996). The next, portion of rapid
development PCM technologies experienced during the first decade of twenty-first
century—to be discussed on the following sections. Yet, despite numerous exper-
imentally proven performance pluses and the fact that a large portion of difficulties
associated with designing of PCM-enhanced systems and their long-term durability
have been already resolved, the technology is still moving through the bumpy road
of development and market acceptance. In 2014, the assumption could be drawn
that for many PCM applications the cost-to-benefit ratio is simply still too high for
many PCM applications, to become a common design option of choice.

2.3 PCM Solar Thermal Storage Walls

Applying a PCM in building construction can utilize both the heat from external
solar energy gains and thermal loads produced by mechanical heating and cooling
systems. Effective storage of this energy is then required in order to match the
energy demand of the building sufficiently and at the appropriate time. PCM solar
walls are typically used in mixed and cold climates. Generations of passive solar
walls containing PCM have been studied for decades as a way of heating buildings
from a renewable energy source. A key ingredient of these walls is their heat

1
http://www.technologyreview.com/article/419445/the-house-of-the-day-after-tomorrow/.
2
http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi2608.htm.
24 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

Summer Summer
Air vent shading Air vent
shading

Solar Solar
radiation radiation
Air Air
Heat Heat
circulation circulation
conduction conduction
South South
facing facing
glazing glazing

Air cavity Air cavity

Solar Masonry wall Solar PCM container

absorber absorber

Fig. 2.1 Schematics of conventional Trombe Wall and PCM-enhanced Trombe Wall

storage capacity. In conventional non-PCM applications, the storage capacity

increases weight and volume of passive solar systems, which makes difficult their
merge with, common today, lightweight construction methods and limits integra-
tion into the existing buildings. To alleviate this problem, conventional heavy-
weight thermal mass is replaced by PCM.
PCM solar walls are designed to trap and transmit solar energy efficiently into a
building. They are sometimes called solar thermal storage walls with PCM. A
single- or double-pane glazing is used as an outer thermal barrier of the wall and to
provide a greenhouse effect. Research has been carried out on various building
applications to determine the effectiveness of PCM latent heat storage. Generations
of building thermal designers and solar architects pursued very often an early idea
of passive solar walls, which were developed by French engineer Félix Trombe and
architect Jacques Michel.3 The Trombe wall is an example of an indirect gains
approach to passive heating which has been tested both experimentally and theo-
retically with the integration of PCM. The working principal of a Trombe wall is
based on sensible heat storage and can be seen in Fig. 2.1. Single or double glazing
is usually placed on the exterior surface of the massive heat storage module, with a
thin air gap separating these two materials. The exterior surface of the heat storage
part is usually painted black so as to absorb the solar energy, which is then stored
and conducted through the wall over the period of the day. In winter solar heating
scenarios, when the evening and night heating energy demands approach and the
internal space temperature drops, heat from the wall storage radiates into the
building from the Trombe wall over several hours.
During the last decades, several modifications have been developed from the
basic design of a classical Trombe wall and composite Trombe–Michell wall
(Zalewski et al. 1997, 2002; Sharma et al. 1989; Jie et al. 2007). Originally, Trombe
walls have been built using either masonry or water to provide the appropriate
sensible heat storage capacity. This requires large areas of space in order to con-
struct the walls. For this reason, the greater heat storage per unit mass provided by

3
http://solarhousehistory.com/book/.
2.3 PCM Solar Thermal Storage Walls 25

PCM is seen as the ideal property which can be incorporated into the existing
systems and optimize the space for other practical uses. Thinner PCM walls are also
much lighter in weight in comparison with the traditional concrete and masonry
materials. These factors offer convenience and attractive reductions in the con-
struction costs associated both with construction of new buildings and their retrofit
applications (see Tyagi and Buddhi 2007).
A large number of experimental and theoretical assessments have been con-
ducted to investigate the energy performance and long-term reliability of the PCM-
based Trombe wall heat storage components. Initially, hydrated slats have been
sampled for this purpose. Telkes (1978, 1980) worked on a construction similar to
the Trombe wall, using Glauber’s salt behind a polyhedral glazing. Her work was
only a first-order theoretical analysis demonstrating the potential for energy and
space savings. In experiments performed by Swet (1980), Ghoneim et al. (1991),
and Chandra et al. (1985), a Glauber’s salt was utilized as well (sodium sulfate
decahydrate with melting point 32.1 °C) as a phase-change material in a south-
facing Trombe wall. Bourdeau and Jaffrin (1979) and Bourdeau et al. (1980)
simulated and tested a Trombe wall using chliarolithe (CaCl2 · 6H2O) as a PCM
heat storage. A numerical model demonstrated that a 3.5-cm wall using PCM could
replace a 15-cm-thick conventional wall made of concrete. In a following project,
Bourdeau (1982) studied the behavior of Trombe wall made of polyethylene con-
tainers placed on a wood shelf behind a double glazing. A series of field tests was
carried out at Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA (Balcomb and McFarland
1978; Balcomb et al. 1983). These experimental results were used to validate the
numerical model, which demonstrated that a Trombe wall with latent heat storage
was more efficient than conventional concrete walls. This research indicated that the
optimum thickness of a PCM wall was of a factor 4 thinner than an equivalent
concrete wall.
In the following work, varieties of natural- and petroleum-based hydrocarbons
have been used as thermal storage. Knowles (1983) used paraffin mixed with metal
shavings for increasing the overall conductivity and efficiency in the Trombe wall.
Using numerical analysis, Knowles developed a guidelines for the design of low-
mass, high-efficiency walls. One conclusion from this experiment was that thermal
resistance of the solar thermal wall should be as low as possible. Compared with
concrete, paraffin–metal mixtures were found to offer a 90 % reduction in storage
mass and a 20 % increase in thermal efficiency. Stritih and Novak (1996) inves-
tigated a passive solar wall, which absorbed solar energy into a black paraffin wax
(with a melting point between 25 and 30 °C). The stored heat was used for the space
heating with efficiency close to 79 %. The results of numerical analysis showed that
the optimum thickness of paraffinic heat storage should be close to 5 cm and the
melting point of PCM should be few degrees higher from the room set point
temperature. In early 1980s, Kośny and Starakiewicz (1987) tested PCM Trombe
wall using as a thermal storage a 5-cm-thick metal container with beeswax. Benard
et al. (1985) performed a 3-year field experiment in test cells on composite Trombe
walls containing 40-cm-thick layer of concrete, 8-cm hard paraffin, and 8-cm soft
26 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

paraffin. These test cells allowed the analysis of various degrees of thermal coupling
between the wall and the conditioned space behind.
The subsequent development included an application of fatty acids and esters for
thermal storage. For example, Buddhi and Sharma (1999) measured the transmit-
tance of solar radiation through a solar storage wall containing stearic acid. This
parametric analysis was performed at different melting temperatures and wall
thicknesses. In addition, Benson et al. (1985) carried an analysis on polyalcohols
used as PCM. They also performed numerical analysis on PCM-enhanced Trombe
walls compared to conventional concrete structures. They found an optimum
melting temperature for PCM which was close to 27 °C. Numerical analysis
demonstrated that an increase in thermal diffusivity can be beneficial to the thermal
performances of PCM solar walls. Accordingly, laboratory tests demonstrated that
diffusivity can be increased by a factor of five through the addition of 2 % of
graphite, which should lead to about 30 % improvement in performance. Similar to
the Los Alamos test findings discussed earlier, Benson et al. (1985) concluded that
a Trombe wall containing PCM could be four times thinner and a factor nine lighter
than its equivalence made of concrete.

2.4 Impregnated Concrete Blocks and Ceramic Masonry

The passive use of PCM-enhanced construction and finish materials is relatively not
a new concept. As discussed earlier, there were several moderately successful
attempts in the 1970s and 1980s to utilize different types of organic and inorganic
PCMs to reduce peak loads and heating and cooling energy consumptions (Bal-
comb 1979; Balcomb et al. 1983; Salyer and Sircar 1990; Hawes and Feldman
1993). These investigations focused on impregnating concrete, gypsum, or ceramic
masonry with salt hydrates or paraffinic hydrocarbons.
For decades, masonry blocks or other building materials impregnated with a
PCM have been tried in building construction, resulting in successful applications
in structures with enhanced thermal inertia and without the heavy-weight mass
associated with it. However, an incorporation of PCM in concrete masonry mate-
rials is a complex technological process. Some of the concerns include volume
changes during melting and freezing, slow heat transfer rates of inorganic PCM
products, problems of PCM leakage, and adverse effects on the physical properties
of the PCM carrier materials. One of the simplest PCM-enhancement methods
consists of impregnation of the concrete block with PCM in a constant volume
liquid PCM (see Lee et al. 2000). This is a flexible method which can be applied to
different PCM transition temperatures. Concrete blocks can be impregnated as a
part of continuous process during their manufacturing.
Concrete is a common construction material made of four components: cement,
water, aggregates, and additives. PCM can be either introduced to concrete as an
additive or during the impregnation process. Cement is the bounding concrete
element that is activated by water. Frequently used Portland cement usually consists
2.4 Impregnated Concrete Blocks and Ceramic Masonry 27

of the following four major mineral ingredients: tricalciumsilicaat (3CaO · SiO2),

dicalciumsilicaat (2CaO · SiO2), tricalciumaluminaat (3CaO · Al2O3), and tetra-
calciumaluminaatferriet (Al2O3 · Fe2O3). Occasionally, blast furnace cements or fly
ash cement can be used in concrete mixtures instead of, or in addition to the
portland cement. Sometimes lime and clay are added to the concrete mixture as
well. A typical concrete hydration process can be described as the following
development of C–S–H (Calcium–Silicate–Hydrates):

2ð3CaO
SiO2 Þ þ 6H2 O ! 3CaO
2SiO2
3H2 O þ 3CaðOHÞ2

2ð2CaO
SiO2 Þ þ 4H2 O ! 3CaO
2SiO2
3H2 O þ CaðOHÞ2

In 1980s and 1990s, impregnation was used as the major method of introduction
of melted PCM to the carrier material. Incorporation of PCM into concrete masonry
products was carried out through an immersion process into a liquid PCM bath.
Hawes et al. (1990, 1992) have studied latent heat storage of concrete with different
types of PCM in different types of concrete blocks. Innovative methods of PCM
containment in hollow-core building blocks were studied by Salyer et al. (1995).
One significant technical innovation from this work was development of a new
PCM composite that could be made by blending of PCM with high-density poly-
ethylene (HDPE)/ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) and silica in defined proportions.
PCM-hydrophobic silica dry powder was incorporated into the concrete wet mix to
provide an effective thermal storage material. Based on this discovery, Salyer and
his team have developed different methods of PCM incorporation to building
masonry products: by imbibing the PCM into porous materials, PCM absorption
into silica or incorporation of PCM into polymeric carriers. Silica fume and fly ash
were used often to reduce the alkalinity of concrete and to improve the compati-
bility with alkaline sensitive PCM. Romanowska et al. (1991) have analyzed the
thermal performance of organic PCM’s added by impregnation to different types of
ceramic masonry. Lee et al. (2000) have studied and presented the results of macro-
scale tests that compare the thermal storage performance of ordinary concrete
blocks with those that have been impregnated with two types of PCM, butyl
stearate, and commercial paraffin. Hawes et al. (1990, 1992) presented the thermal
performance of PCM’s (butyl stearate, dodecanol, paraffin, and tetradecanol) in
different types of concrete blocks. This analysis has covered the effects of concrete
alkalinity, temperature, immersion time, and PCM dilution on PCM absorption
during the impregnation process. Hadjieva et al. (2000) have applied the same
impregnation technique for concrete but with sodium thiosulphate penta-hydrate
(Na2S2O3 · 5H2O) as a PCM. They concluded that the large absorption area of
cellular concrete may serve as a good carrier material of an incongruently melting
inorganic PCM and improving its structure stability during thermal cycling.
Another PCM application method incorporating concrete products has been
highlighted in more recent work performed by Zhang et al. (2004), Bentz and
Turpin (2007), and van Haaren (2012). In these experiments, lightweight aggregates
with high porosity were used as the PCM carriers to achieve adequate heat storage
28 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

capacity. In some types of PCM-enhanced masonry products, porous aggregates are

surrounded by tight cement-based paste, which reduces a potential for PCM leak-
age. In early 2000, Bentz and Turpin (2007) investigated the effectiveness of
thermal storage mortar with lightweight expanded shale aggregates impregnated
with paraffin and polyethylene glycols.
In addition to early applications of salt hydrates, Hawes et al. (1990) and Hawes
and Feldman (1993) studied the thermal performance of several organic PCMs,
such as butyl stearate, dodecanol, tetradecanol, and paraffin, in different types of
concrete masonry products. However, it was found that most of the above methods
of PCM introduction to the masonry products may have drawbacks of interacting
with building structure and change the material matrix, causing possible leakage
over its lifetime, among other issues (see Schossig et al. 2005). Despite many
benefits, the problem of PCM leakage has been observed in many building appli-
cations after repeated thermal cycling. To reduce potential durability problems, in
research work performed by van Haaren (2012), the introduction of PCMs into the
concrete was achieved in two different ways: (1) The sand from a standard mixture
was replaced by PCM particles and (2) porous lightweight aggregates were
impregnated with PCM and later a concrete mix was made with use of impregnated
and not impregnated lightweight aggregates (see Fig. 2.2).
Encapsulation of a solid–liquid PCM during its phase transition is crucial in
most cases to hold the liquid phase of the PCM and to reduce PCM leakage and the
reactivity of PCM with the outer environment (see Hawlader et al. 2003). In
Microencapsulation, micronized materials (both liquids and solids) are packaged in
the form of microcapsules, which range in size from less than 1 μm to more than
300 μm. The outer skin of the capsule can be made by using natural and synthetic
polymers which provides a hard shell. Depending on the size of the final products,
encapsulation can be classified as follows: macro-encapsulation or microencapsu-
lation. Keep in mind that in early PCM building research, Collier and Grimmer
(1979) already showed that a macro-encapsulated PCM material cemented within

Fig. 2.2 Microscopic view of the concrete—inorganic PCM mixture (left) and test samples of
PCM—enhanced concrete (right) (van Haaren 2012)
2.4 Impregnated Concrete Blocks and Ceramic Masonry 29

masonry building blocks results in significant increase in the system performance

over an equivalent volume of concrete. In Spain, the results from a field study of
concrete blocks using microencapsulated PCM were presented by Cabeza et al.
(2007). Improved thermal inertia was observed for PCM-enhanced products, which
indicated a potential for energy savings in buildings. Other types of masonry
products can be used as well as PCM carriers. For example, the application of
PCM-treated ceramic bricks was investigated by Romanowska et al. (1991) and Lai
and Chiang (2006). In addition, Mehling et al. (2002) found that PCM can be
combined with lightweight wood concrete (holz-beton) and that the mechanical
properties of the structure do not change significantly.

2.5 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Interior Plaster

Products

As mentioned in the previous section, PCM can be easily blended with many
construction materials, including gypsum building products. This makes it possible
to increase the latent heat capacity of lightweight constructions by applying it in the
form of interior plaster or finish gypsum boards. In natural form, gypsum is a
common soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the
chemical formula CaSO4 · 2H2O. Manufacturers of commercial gypsum remove
purposely much of natural gypsum’s inherent water by crushing the rock into
powder and heating the powder to remove its water molecules. Dehydration of
gypsum allows the gypsum to become rehydrated later. After addition of water, the
rehydrated gypsum dries and sets, it becomes a rock-hard substance, which is
commonly used in variety of building materials.
For decades, paraffinic PCM has been the most widely used latent heat storage
material for thermal enhancement of gypsum boards and plasters. The reason for
this is very simple; in interior environments, PCM with a melting temperature
between 19 and 24 °C can be used with best results, since this is a temperature
range, which is close to human comfort level. Keep in mind that paraffin waxes
(such as n-hexadecane, n-heptadecane, and n-octadecane) match the necessary
temperature range well. That is why a large number of building applications used
today by construction industry largely use paraffin for heat storage. However, due to
relatively high cost of paraffin-based PCM, its flammability, and origin in non-
sustainable petrochemicals, other organic PCMs are being explored now, including
fatty acids, coming from agricultural and food industry waste.
Interior building surfaces of walls, ceilings, or floors have been traditionally
considered as the best locations for the PCM. In gypsum board and plaster appli-
cations, PCM is used to stabilize the temperature of the building interior. As shown
in Fig. 2.3, PCM concentrated in gypsum boards interacts mostly with the interior
of the building. The energy storage capacity of the PCM-enhanced gypsum is used
to reduce interior space temperature swings and absorb solar gains coming through
30 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

Fig. 2.3 PCM as part of the interior surface of the building envelope

the glazing. In this working scenario, heat stored in PCM needs to be discharged
through, most-often, ventilation during the night or by the building’s space con-
ditioning systems. In the second case, when mechanical system is used, there may
not be direct energy savings. The only energy benefits associated with this PCM
setup can be peak-hour load savings and peak load shifting. In addition, in buildings
using air-conditioning, due to the relatively small interior temperature fluctuations,
PCM applications facing the interior of the building may require a long time to
discharge the stored energy.
During the last two decades of twentieth century, interest has increased toward
the energy saving potential achieved when combining PCM into wall or ceiling
interior finish materials. PCM-enhanced wallboards are capable of stabilizing
interior space temperature by capturing dynamic internal thermal loads and a large
proportion of incident solar radiation falling on building surfaces. They are also
relatively easy to install and are used in a wide variety of applications. Most of the
earliest studies focused on wallboard that had been immersed into the molten
paraffin. Gypsum, in wallboard, can absorb up to 30 weight percentage of PCM
(Stovall and Tomlinson 1995; Neeper 2000). Initially, porous building materials
such as gypsum were dipped into a molten PCM bath, absorbing the material into
pores by capillary action. Next, the building material was removed from the paraffin
immersion and was cooled, allowing the PCM to set. The great advantage of this
method was that it enabled ordinary wallboard to be converted to PCM wallboard
simply, inexpensively, and when it was required, i.e., imbibing the material either
prior to installation or at the building site. The major disadvantage was potential
leaking of PCM from the product causing aesthetical surface discolorations.
Non-encapsulated paraffins were the initial material of choice in early investi-
gations of the PCM-impregnated gypsum boards. Today, they are still the most
common PCM substances considered for thermal enhancement of gypsum boards,
however, after microencapsulation. Research by Feldman and Shapiro (1989),
Feldman et al. (1991), and Peippo et al. (1991) showed that gypsum–paraffin
2.5 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Interior Plaster Products 31

composites can be used to reduce room cooling loads. Paraffinic hydrocarbons

generally perform well while impregnating gypsum boards with liquid material, but
they increase the flammability of the building envelope (see Slayer and Sircar 1989;
Tomlinson et al. 1992; Kissock et al. 1998). Salyer and Sircar reported that during
the testing of wallboard with PCM, after 3 months of continuous exposure to cycled
40 °C air, there was no significant loss of PCM. In addition, Kissock and co-
workers investigated the wallboard which contained a paraffin-based PCM mixture
made up mostly of n-octadecane. This PCM had a mean melting temperature of
24 °C and a latent heat of fusion of 143 kJ/kg. They reported: “…it was easy to
handle and did not possess a waxy or slick surface. It scored and fractured in a
manner similar to regular wallboard. Its unpainted color changed from white to
gray. The drywall with PCM required no special surface preparation for painting”
(see Kissock et al. 1998).
In first PCM gypsum applications analyzed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
USA, gypsum boards impregnated with paraffin were installed directly on the
interior building surfaces (see Drake 1978; Tomlinson and Heberle 1990; Toml-
inson et al. 1992). A following study focused on gypsum board impregnated with
non-encapsulated PCM demonstrated a potential for significant cooling energy
savings. However, this work indicated a need for greater convective heat exchange
between PCM-enhanced gypsum boards and interior space air (see Stovall and
Tomlinson 1995). In addition, Neeper (2000) examined gypsum wallboard infused
with fatty acids and paraffin waxes, subjected to the diurnal variation of room
temperature, but not directly illuminated by the sun. Kondo et al. (2000), with a
research team from Kanagawa University and Tokyo University, Japan, researched
the thermal storage of PCM-enhanced gypsum boards using the dual-PCM mixture
containing 95 % octadecane and 5 % hexadecane.
Since, PCM must be able to cycle continuously day after day, it is critical to
optimize its amount, phase transition temperature, and location within building
envelopes. Numerical analysis is very helpful for this purpose. It has been used in
many research projects worldwide in conjunction with laboratory or field experi-
ments. For example, Athienitis et al. (1997) conducted extensive field experiments
combined with one-dimensional nonlinear numerical simulation study in a full-
scale outdoor test room with PCM gypsum board as inside wall lining. Their
numerical results were compared with good agreement against the experimental
data. Finite-difference heat transfer simulations were used by Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, USA, (Feustel 1995; Feustel and Stetiu 1997) and Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, USA, (Stovall and Tomlinson 1995) to numerically evaluate
the latent storage performance of PCM-enhanced wallboard. Simulation results for
a living room with high internal loads and weather data in Sunnyvale, California,
USA, showed significant reduction of room air temperature when heat was stored in
PCM-treated wallboards. In the case of the prototype International Energy Agency
(IEA) building located in California climate zone 4, it was estimated that PCM
wallboard would reduce the peak cooling load by 28 % (see Feustel and Stetiu
1997).
32 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

According to many authors, the PCM used on wall surfaces may decrease
overheating in the interior spaces and reduce energy consumption for space con-
ditioning (see Kuznik and Virgone 2009; Schossig et al. 2005). In 2006, Kissock
and Limas of University of Dayton, USA, investigated paraffinic PCM that can be
added to the walls, to reduce the peak diurnal cooling and heating loads transmitted
through the envelope (Kissock and Limas 2006). This work was a combined
numerical–experimental study to quantify the effectiveness of PCM in reducing
thermal loads through the building envelope components and to develop a design
strategy for the placement of PCM within the massive walls. The PCM studied was
paraffin octadecane, with an average melting temperature of 25.6 °C. For the cli-
mate of Dayton, OH, thermal loads through the PCM-enhanced wood-frame wall
were simulated using an explicit finite-difference procedure with the indoor air
temperature held constant. While comparing to the conventional wall, cooling load
savings were close to 16 %. The simulation technique has been validated against the
experimental work.
In addition to simple paraffinic PCM, a great variety of organic compounds,
including fatty acids and esters, were also used for gypsum board impregnation.
Shapiro (1989) investigated a potential of several methyl-esters PCM for intro-
duction into gypsum wallboard with possible thermal storage applications for the
Florida, USA, climate. These materials were blends of methyl palmitate, methyl
stearate, and mixtures of short chain fatty acids (capric and lauric acids). Although
these materials had relatively high latent heat capacity, the temperature ranges
required in achieving the thermal storage were not fully sufficient for the internal
wall location—PCM had problems with full cycling everyday. Similarly, (Feldman
and Shapiro (1989), Feldman et al. (1991) performed extensive research on different
organic compounds as candidates for PCM heat storage. This work included fatty
acids (capric, lauric, palmitic, and stearic), butyl stearate, dodecanol, and poly-
ethylene glycol 600. Various materials were considered as PCM carriers, including
different types of concrete and gypsum products. The PCM gypsum board was
made by soaking conventional gypsum board in liquid butyl stearate, a PCM with
phase-change temperature range of 16–20.8 °C. The PCM gypsum board contained
about 25 % of PCM by weight. Its thermal properties were measured with a
differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Wallboards with incorporated organic
PCM were also analyzed by Shilei et al. (2006). Capric acid and lauric acid, as
PCM, were applied in building wallboards for low-temperature latent heat storage
due to their low carbon chains. It was found that they can automatically absorb
indoor redundant heat, which can greatly reduce the building thermal loads and
save electric energy for space conditioning. In full-scale experiments, a wallboard
containing about 26 % PCM by weight was installed on top of the existing con-
ventional wall. Compared with an ordinary room, it was found that the PCM
wallboard room could greatly reduce the energy cost of HVAC systems and notable
shift electric power peak load.
It is good to remember that PCM must be able to cycle continuously for years
without loss of its reacting volume. In order to prevent PCM’s loss in mass through
leaking, while in melted stage or through evaporation, PCM must be enclosed,
2.5 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Interior Plaster Products 33

either by means of micro- or macro-encapsulation. Later studies of wallboards and

plasters containing microencapsulated PCM have shown promising results in terms
of thermal performance but also in the effectiveness of the manufacturing processes
used to produce these types of components. The microencapsulation of PCM has
allowed a PCM weight ratio to reach about 30 % in gypsum-based composites (see
Fig. 2.4). In recent years, we have seen the advent of composite materials that can
contain up to 60 % by weight of PCM (Athienitis et al. 1997). The opportunities
presented by the microencapsulation of PCM in gypsum plaster were also inves-
tigated by Schossig et al. (2005). It has been found that, since the PCM micro-
pellets are very small, the mechanical destruction of capsules during the production
process is highly unlikely. The fine distribution of the PCM particles in the matrix
provides larger surface area for heat transfer, so the heat transfer rate during melting
and freezing cycle is enhanced significantly. It has been shown that microencap-
sulation of PCM results in easy application, improved heat transfer, and good
compatibility with conventional construction materials. The PCM walls facilitate
low fluctuations in the indoor air temperature.
An innovative method of incorporation of microencapsulated PCM into the
plaster mix for indoor use was developed by Zamalloa et al. (2006). Thermal and
mechanical properties of the developed new material and long-term PCM durability
have been tested. Thermal simulations were performed to study the optimal dis-
tribution of this material inside the building. These simulations were validated in
the field by the construction of two real-size concrete cubicles, using in one of them
the PCM-enhanced plaster. The results of the study showed that the new plaster is
effective to diminish the thermal oscillations inside the buildings and reduce the
energy needs up to a 10–15 % in heating and about 30 % in cooling seasons.
In recent years, heat conduction boosting agents are added to PCM-enhanced
building products to improve their overall thermal performances. Earlier ORNL
research on PCM-impregnated gypsum boards showed that PCM boards required a
significant increase of the surface convection coefficient (up to three times), to
provide proper conditions for charging and discharging of PCM. It was related to

Fig. 2.4 Electron microscope

image of gypsum-PCM
composite
PCM Micro Pellets
5 – 50 µ m

Gypsum Particles
34 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

limited temperature fluctuations available inside the building space (see Stovall and
Tomlinson 1995). It was also found that heat conduction enhancement of the
interior wall surface layers may improve overall effectiveness of many PCM
gypsum products. Adding high conductive materials such as metal (aluminum
powder and sometimes silver), metal oxide, and expanded graphite into PCM
produced effective thermal storage materials and enhanced heat transfer rates with
the interior space (see Zhou et al. 2007, 2014; Sari et al. 2004; Sari and Karaipekli
2007; Kim and Drzal 2009). It was found that with the addition of 3 % by weight of
expanded and exfoliated graphite, the thermal conductivity of PCM composites
increased between 14 and 24 %. A series of thermal storage and release tests of pure
hexadecane and aluminum/hexadecane composite demonstrated significant
improvement of heat conduction. Darkwa and Zhou concluded that thermal
response rate especially heat-flux rate was accelerated by introducing aluminum
powder. Heat conductivity of composite was more than 8 times higher comparing to
pure hexadecane (Darkwa and Zhou 2011).

2.6 Use of PCM-Enhanced Wall Cavity Insulation

Similarly to, earlier described, PCM applications in wall masonry units, air gaps in
massive walls and framed wall cavities can be very convenient locations for PCM.
As shown in Fig. 2.5, the application placing PCM inside the wall cavity takes
advantage of the large temperature fluctuations that take place on the exterior
building envelope surfaces. These energy fluctuations, which can be a significant
part of the building cooling and heating loads, are largely absorbed by the PCM-
enhanced insulation and later transferred to the environment without affecting the
interior building energy balance. In this application, phase transition temperature

Fig. 2.5 PCM-enhanced materials used as an integral part of the building thermal envelope. Right
picture shows construction of an experimental double wall with exterior layer of cavities
containing PCM-cellulose insulation
2.6 Use of PCM-Enhanced Wall Cavity Insulation 35

range of PCM should be as close as possible to the interior space set point tem-
perature. As a result, heat transfers between the core of the building envelope and
the interior space is reduced. This simple change in material configuration means
real space conditioning energy savings. It is also expected that this new placement
method for PCM should significantly reduce flammability issues that were common
in earlier technology developments. In addition, detailed optimizations performed
for PCM applications showed significant potential for reduction of initial costs and
a corresponding reduction in cost payback time (Kośny 2008; Kośny et al. 2009;
Kośny et al. 2012a). A challenge for this application can be a need for significant
latent heat storage capacity in place where PCM is located.
Ismail and Castro (1997) presented the results of a theoretical and experimental
study of PCM-filled brick walls and attic floor insulation under real operational
conditions to achieve passive thermal comfort. In theoretical analysis, Ismail and
Castro used a one-dimensional finite-difference model for simulations of the phase
transition problem in a wall constructed of two layers of brick with the PCM core.
The results obtained were compared with field measurements. The experimental
setup consists of a small room with movable roof and side wall. The test wall
contains the PCM heat sink which was composed of two commercial grades of
glycol in order to obtain the required fusion temperature range. Another wall,
identical but without the PCM, was also used during comparative tests. Field tests
demonstrated that in Brazil climate the PCM used was capable to maintain the
indoor room temperature close to the thermal comfort levels. Economical analysis
indicated that the PCM application concept may effectively help in reducing the
electric energy consumption and improving the energy demand pattern in Brazilian
buildings.
Another PCM application concept was proposed by Kośny and Yarbrough in
2002/2003 to the US Department of Energy (US DOE). The concept is based on
incorporating PCM thermal insulation into the internal cavity of lightweight framed
walls (see Kośny et al. 2006, 2007). This application is counter intuitive, because it
deliberately restrains energy transport between the PCM and the conditioned space
and the exterior environment (Khudhair and Farid 2004). However, this PCM
location controls the temperature profile within the building envelope component,
and thus influences the overall heat exchange. In some configurations, this can
reduce the net energy transported through the interior envelope surfaces; in others it
only changes the time when the peak energy crosses that boundary. In most air-
conditioning operations, a night-time precooling is a well-established energy saving
method. In the case of PCM application, the time delay can prove especially
valuable, in economic terms, when utilities lower off-peak-time electricity rates. In
energy consumption terms, the air-conditioning system can operate more efficiently
(less costly) during the time of the shifted space conditioning loads.
Zhang and Medina of University of Kansas, USA, developed a thermally
enhanced wood-frame wall that integrated a paraffinic PCM via macro-encapsu-
lating (Zhang et al. 2005). Results from the field testing show that the PCM wall
reduced wall peak heat fluxes by as much as 38 %. For a period of several days (in
experiment that included walls facing different directions), the average wall peak
36 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

heat-flux reduction was approximately 15 % for a 10 % concentration of PCM and

approximately 9 % when a 20 % PCM concentration was used. The average space-
cooling load was reduced by approximately 8.6 % when 10 % PCM was applied
and 10.8 % when 20 % PCM was used.
In research work initiated by the US DOE on fiber insulations blended with
PCM, in addition to microencapsulated paraffins, new PCM produced from organic
fatty-acid esters was used (Kośny 2009). Compared to the paraffinic PCM, fatty-
acid esters are less expensive and significantly less flammable. They are made from
underused feedstocks such as soybean oils, coconut oils, palm oils, and beef tallow.
Because these esters are fully hydrogenated, the fatty-acid ester PCM is expected to
remain stable during thousands of phase-change cycles with no risk of oxidation.
PCM-enhanced cellulose was one of the first successful developments of PCM-
enhanced thermal insulations in the building area (Kośny et al. 2006, see Fig. 2.6).
Subsequently, PCM blended with blown fiberglass (Kośny et al. 2010a) and
building plastic foam insulations were introduced (Kośny et al. 2007, 2010b;
Mehling and Cabeza 2008). From 2006 to 2007, ORNL performed a series of
dynamic hot-box tests of wall assemblies containing PCM-enhanced insulations.
For the wood-framed wall containing PCM-enhanced foam insulation, Kośny
reported that it can reduce wall-generated peak-hour cooling loads by about 40 %
(Kośny et al. 2007, 2010a). The major advantage of PCM-enhanced insulations is
their capability of significant lessening and shifting the peak-hour thermal loads
generated by building envelopes. A detailed explanation of dynamic hot-box testing
procedures is presented in the following chapters. Below, a short description is
available for the dynamic hot-box test performed on the wood-frame wall insulated
with PCM-enhanced cellulose.
In dynamic hot-box testing, nominal 2.4 × 2.4 m lightweight-frame wall spec-
imens were used (see Fig. 2.7). One of the first test walls was constructed with
6 × 15.2 cm wood framing installed 40 cm on center. Three wall cavities were
insulated with plain cellulose of a density of about 42 kg/m3. Three remaining wall
cavities were insulated with a cellulose–PCM blend of a density of about 42 kg/m3
and containing about 22 % by weight of PCM. It is estimated that about 17 kg of

Cellulose without PCM - visible Cellulose with 30% PCM - visible

fire-retardant chemicals. clusters of PCM pellets.

Fig. 2.6 Scanning electron microscope images of the PCM-cellulose blend. Clusters of PCM
microcapsules are shown on the right photograph. BASF’s Micronal PCM was used
2.6 Use of PCM-Enhanced Wall Cavity Insulation 37

Fig. 2.7 Installation of PCM-enhanced cellulose in the test walls

PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation was used for this dynamic experiment (Kośny
2008). Comparisons of measured heat flow rates on the wall surface, which was
opposite the thermal excitation, enabled an estimate of the potential thermal load
reduction generated by the PCM (3 test wall cavities contained about 3.6 kg of the
microencapsulated PCM manufactured by BASF). In reality, most daily thermal
excitations generated by solar irradiance are no longer than 5 h (peak-hour time). In
this dynamic experiment, during the first 5 h after the thermal excitation, measured
heat flux was reduced by about 40 % thanks to the PCM application.
In 2009, the dynamic hot-box experiment was performed on the wood-framed
wall containing blown PCM-enhanced fiberglass insulation (see Fig. 2.8). This
insulation was jointly developed by ORNL, Johns Manville (insulation manufac-
ture), and Microtek Labs (bio-based PCM manufacture) (see Kośny et al. 2010a).
Comparisons of measured heat flow rates on the wall surface opposite to the
thermal excitation enabled estimation of the potential thermal load reduction gen-
erated by the PCM. On average, the PCM part of the wall demonstrated over 27 %
total reduction of the heat flow during 8-1/2 h, and over 50 % during the first two

Fig. 2.8 Installation of the test wall containing PCM-enhanced fiberglass insulation. Left side
presents wall cavity instrumentation with array of thermocouples installed across the wall cavity.
Right side Cavity finish task, after blowing in fiberglass insulation
38 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

hours after the rapid heating process. It took about 15 h to fully charge the
PCM-fiberglass wall. Recorded load reduction for the entire 15 h time period was
close to 20 %. Thermal lag time for that heating process was between 7 and 8 h for
the PCM part of the wall (Kośny et al. 2010a).
In addition to dynamic hot-box experiments, a series of full-scale field tests was
performed on lightweight walls containing the PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation
(Kośny 2008). A novel production method was developed and tested on a small-
scale pilot line in the Advance Fiber Technologies production facility in Bucyrus,
OH, USA. Then, cellulose/PCM material was produced in full-scale commercial
plant conditions. Two field experiments were performed in test facilities located in
Oak Ridge, TN and Charleston, SC, USA. Reduction of cooling loads averaged
42 % for PCM-insulated cavities at the southern oriented Oak Ridge test site.
Heating loads during mixed season and winter were reduced by 16 % at the same
location. A 5 % cooling load reduction was observed for the wall cavities insulated
with PCM at the northwestern-oriented Charleston test facility. Peak-hour load
reductions of 30 % were observed for PCM-insulated walls at the Charleston site
during the summer months.
The incorporation of PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation for use as latent heat
storage and for potential reduction of energy requirements in buildings was also
analyzed by Evers et al. (2010). Two types of PCM, paraffin-based products and
hydrated salt, were mixed into loose-fill cellulose insulation with 10 and 20 % by
weight. A square 1.22 m × 1.22 m lightweight wood-frame wall was used in this
experiment. The test walls containing PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation were
heated and allowed to cool down in a dynamic wall simulator that replicated the
sun’s exposure to a wall of a building on a typical summer day. Peak heat fluxes,
total “daily” heat flows, and surface and air temperatures were measured and
recorded. Results show that the paraffin-based PCM-enhanced insulation reduced
the average peak heat flux by up to 9.2 % and reduced the average total “daily” heat
flow up to 1.2 %. At the same time, cellulose insulation blended with inorganic
PCM did not work. Because of the hydroscopic behavior of non-encapsulated
hydrated salt, the hydrated salt-based PCM-enhanced insulation did not provide any
thermal storage benefit.

2.7 PCM-Enhanced Floors and Ceiling Systems

Traditional passive solar systems have relied for decades on sensible heat storage of
internal walls and floors for energy savings. However, recent research has also
investigated advantages of latent heat storage for additional energy savings in
passive solar applications. This can be accomplished by the incorporation of PCM
into flooring materials used in passive solar houses. For this purpose, floor boards,
tiles, or panels can be enhanced with PCM. Storing available solar energy during
daytime and releasing it in the evening can help in reducing the building energy
need for thermal comfort even during relatively cold nights. Depending on the
2.7 PCM-Enhanced Floors and Ceiling Systems 39

specific phase transition temperature, which needs to be around a comfortable room

temperature between 21 and 23 °C, the PCM is expected to be effective during early
and late winter as well as during spring and fall seasons. In these seasons, solar
gains and peak ambient temperatures can be sufficient enough to melt PCM during
daytime. During the evening or night, the ambient temperature can be low enough
to discharge energy stored in PCM. An example of passive solar sunspace designed
with PCM-enhanced floor components was the PCM floor system investigated by
Stamatiadou et al. (2009) for the climate of Athens, Greece. It has been shown that
the addition of paraffinic PCM (of specific heat capacity at 110 kJ/kg) to conven-
tional floor tiles used for floor applications has a positive impact on the heating
load, in cases of direct exposure to solar radiation. The PCM floor tiles in the
sunspace, used for the numerical analysis, were compared to a typical marble floor
tile. Two considered types of PCM-enhanced tiles contained 10 and 20 % of
microencapsulated PCM by weight. The passive solar heating system yielded
maximum solar savings of around 4 %, which can be directly translated to reduced
building heating load requirements and can be expected when applying floor tiles
containing 20 % of PCM by weight.
Research performed at the Colorado State University, USA, introduced a new
flooring material that contained PCM (see Hittle 2002). An agglomerate floor tile
containing 20 % by mass of encapsulated octadecane was manufactured. Peak
melting transition temperature was determined to be 27.2 °C with a latent heat of
33.9 J/g of tile. It was determined that the maximum phase-change material content
was 20 % by mass. Supplementary analysis of energy savings using this floor tile
containing 20 % by mass of PCM was performed by A.S. Lee as a part of her PhD
research at Colorado State University (Lee 2005). A series of dynamic whole
building energy simulations was performed to enhance understanding of perfor-
mance of PCM-enhanced floor tiles in residential applications (Barbour and Hittle
2006). The prototype tiles incorporating microencapsulated PCM have undergone
preliminary testing indicating that the annual heating cost can be reduced by an
average of 24 %. The prototype tiles were optimized to have similar physical
properties as tiles without PCM.
In a similar research project performed by the University of Twente, the Neth-
erlands, a series of field experiments was focused on PCM applications in concrete
floors (Entrop et al. 2009, 2011). As shown in Fig. 2.9, the test containers used in
this study had a similar configuration to what was originally used ten years earlier
by the University of Dayton, OH, in the USA (see Kissock et al. 1998). The
University of Twente study demonstrated that PCM-enhanced floors can signifi-
cantly improve indoor thermal comfort in southern oriented rooms. It was recorded
during the summer that in concrete floors containing PCM, maximum floor tem-
perature was reduced by up to 16 °C ± 2 % comparing to similar assemblies without
PCM. For the winter months, an increase of minimum floor temperatures up to
7 °C ± 3 % was reported.
In parallel work, Li et al. (2009) analyzed the usage of microencapsulated PCM in
floor elements made out of a composite of high-density polyethylene and wood
composites. Moreover, a research team from the Southeast University, Nanjing,
40 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

80 12
0
73.50

PCM-enhanced
floor tiles

Fig. 2.9 Test containers used by University of Twente, the Netherlands, to test PCM floor tiles.
Entrop et al. (2011)

China, investigated a new double-layer PCM floor system (Jin and Zhang 2011). The
two layers of PCM had different phase transition temperatures. It was found that
compared to the floor without PCM, the energy released by the floor with PCM in peak
heating demand time period can be increased by around 40 %, depends on PCM
temperature range. PCM of a total enthalpy about 150 kJ/kg was analyzed in this work.
From the design perspective, PCM cooling applications in ceilings are either
passive (similar to PCM-enhanced wall gypsum boards or internal plasters) (see
Fig. 2.10), or active, which are usually a part of more complex, dynamic air-
conditioning systems using over-night precooling with often incorporated space
conditioning components (i.e., hydronic systems, micro-tubing heat exchangers,
and air channels) (see Fig. 2.11). Earlier research focused on conventional ceiling
cooling systems demonstrated that they can offer significant advantages over tra-
ditional space air-conditioning technologies (see Kochendörfer 1996; Antonopou-
los et al. 1997; Conroy and Mumma 2001). Briefly, considerable energy savings
may be observed, primarily because thermal comfort is obtained with higher indoor
temperatures, typically 28 °C. Additional energy savings are obtained because of
the available large cooling surfaces, which enable higher cooling water tempera-
tures. Comfort is improved due to minimization of air motion and surface tem-
perature differences, elimination of noise associated with fan coils, and uniformity
of indoor air temperature. Also, peak cooling loads may be reduced because of cool

PCM ceiling boards or plaster Air plenum

Solar
radiation
Night-time Detached PCM ceiling panels
heat losses

Room
glazing Room
glazing
Exterior
Exterior
wall
Overnight pre-cooling is necessary using wall Night-time pre-cooling is necessary using
either windows or space conditioning system over the ceiling ventilation system

Fig. 2.10 Passive applications of PCM-enhanced ceiling systems

2.7 PCM-Enhanced Floors and Ceiling Systems 41

Air plenum Optional air plenum

Mechanical system

Mechanical system
Detached PCM Integrated PCM
ceiling panels ceiling panels with
Room Room hydronic system
glazing glazing
Air circulation

Exterior Exterior
wall wall
PCM discharging is necessary using cold PCM discharging is necessary using
air supply provided by mechanical system coolant provided by mechanical system

Fig. 2.11 Active applications of PCM-enhanced ceiling systems

storage within the ceiling and adjoining structural elements. Decades of testing and
demonstrations worldwide have proven that adding PCM to the ceiling cooling
systems can notable improve their energy performance and reduce a risk of
moisture condensation. Due to a large variety of ceiling systems containing PCM
described in engineering literature (see Fig. 2.12), this section is only limited to a
small number of most typical, representative research projects, and applications.
One of the first passive solar heating systems that incorporate a PCM located in
the ceiling was developed by Gutherz and Schiler (1991). Sun reflectors were used
to direct the solar energy entering via the windows on to the PCM. The main
advantage of the system was that it allowed a large area to be dedicated to heat
storage without the need for large volumes of storage medium that would be
required with sensible heat storage. It was shown that the use of such a system has
the potential to recover 17–36 % of heat lost over the initial gains.
In an office building study performed by Kondo and Ibamoto (2006) from
Kanagawa University, Japan, the PCM-enhanced ceiling rock wool boards
were used, in order to reduce the cooling peak load of the air-conditioning system.

Fig. 2.12 Passively working delta cool ceiling panels containing inorganic PCM. Dörken GmbH
& Co. KG, Germany
42 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

The melting point and latent heat of fusion of used PCM were 24.51 °C
and 174.4 kJ/kg, respectively. Please notice that the thermal capacity of the
PCM-enhanced ceiling board was approximately 663 kJ/m2, which is about 5 times
more comparing to ordinary rock wool ceiling boards. The tested ceiling was
basically the same as the conventional plenum ceiling system used in other office
buildings in Japan. The chilled air from the air-handling unit was passed through
the ceiling plenum area to allow the PCM in the PCM-enhanced ceiling board to
refreeze. This system required approximately 2 h of plenum cooling to fully recover
PCM’s heat storage capacity. It was found that due to the PCM application, the
peak-hour cooling load was reduced by 14.8 %, compared to the conventional
ceiling without PCM. There was a small increase in the night operation time for the
space conditioning system. However, in Japan, off-peak electricity cost is signifi-
cantly lower than in the middle of the day. As a result, the overall electricity cost
was 8.4 % lower than that of using the rock wool ceiling boards. From these results,
it can be concluded that the PCM ceiling system acts effectively to enable peak
shaving and load shifting, bringing cost savings in electricity cost for space cooling.
The research team from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece,
utilized the combined numerical–experimental methodology for the solution of the
transient three-dimensional heat transfer problem for night cooling with use of the
PCM-enhanced ceilings containing embedded piping (see Antonopoulos 1992;
Antonopoulos and Democritou 1993; Antonopoulos et al. 1997; Antonopoulos and
Tzivanidis 1997). This research demonstrated that thermal comfort requirements for
the indoor space can be better satisfied during the day and night with an application of
active PCM-enhanced ceiling systems, while compare to similar non-PCM concrete
ceiling technologies. It was found that PCM applications yield significantly lower
temperature fluctuations. For example, in case of the PCM-enhanced ceiling system,
approximately 2.8 °C indoor temperature variations were observed, compared to
about 4.4 °C in the case of the traditional concrete slab application. In addition, cycling
of the space conditioning equipment was notable reduced during daily operation.
In the past, several research centers have considered an application of
PCM-enhanced heat exchangers containing hydronic tubing or plastic micro-tubing
systems. Very often, hydronic piping is not directly embedded in the concrete slab
of the ceiling, as in many European ceiling applications. Instead, it is placed in a
layer of the latent heat storage material located between the lower surface of the
ceiling structure and the bottom, indoor-facing finish layer. Turnpenny et al. (2000)
introduced a latent heat storage unit incorporating heat pipes embedded in phase-
change material. The latent heat storage capacity in this dynamic system was
restored during the night, to be available for cooling purposes in daytime. To allow
sizing of an experimental mechanical system, Turnpenny also developed a one-
dimensional mathematical heat transfer model of energy transfer from air to PCM.
At the same time, a large number of demonstration and commercial projects
focused on novel chilled ceilings with integrated PCM have been studied by the
Fraunhofer ISE, Germany (Schossig et al. 2003, 2005; Kalz et al. 2007; Haussmann
et al. 2009). Different combinations of ceilings and mechanical systems were
analyzed to demonstrate the main advantages of using PCM for space conditioning.
2.7 PCM-Enhanced Floors and Ceiling Systems 43

Fig. 2.13 Installation of the active-chilled ceiling system containing PCM-enhanced plaster and
plastic micro-tubing. Fraunhofer ISE, Germany (http://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/areas-of-
business-and-market-areas/energy-efficient-buildings/hot-and-cold-storage)

The aim of this research work was to develop new space conditioning technologies
enabling reduction of the primary energy consumption associated with space
conditioning. It was found that the best approach for these targets is adding PCM
thermal mass to construction material which shifts building thermal loads and
allows decoupling the cooling demand from the cold production. This allows
moving cold production from day to night, where most space conditioning systems
can work more efficient and cost-effective due to lower night air temperatures and
lower energy prices. As shown in Fig. 2.13, a chilled ceiling with integrated PCM
gypsum plaster and plastic micro-tubing was installed in five office rooms with an
overall surface area of 100 m2. The layer of the PCM plaster was about 3 cm thick
with a density close to 950 kg/m3. The overall system heat storage capacity in a
6 degree temperature range was nearly 162 Wh/m2. For comparison, for the same
ceiling without PCM, heat storage capacity would be just around 62 Wh/m2. The
experimental and analytical results show that the energy demand for cooling could
be reduced by optimizing the control strategies. Shifting the energy demand from
day to night by adding thermal mass to the building is a good solution to enhance
the efficiency of most cold sources. Increasing the heat exchange area and the
utilization capacity of a cold source is another important advantage achievable by
using PCM in a chilled ceiling as dispersed storage. Measurements with chilled
PCM ceilings also show that power output and response time are not negatively
affected by the PCM, especially since the increased thermal mass only has an effect
within the PCM operation temperature range. Outside the phase transition range,
the PCM-enhanced ceilings react in a similar way as conventional non-PCM chilled
ceilings.
According to Hasnain (1998), Khudhair and Farid (2004), and Farid et al.
(2004), the ceiling structures containing PCM may store considerably greater
amounts of heat than those stored in conventional concrete slabs. A properly
designed application of PCM, under favorable conditions and the right temperature
levels, may increase the storage capacity by more than five times or decrease
storage space accordingly (Zalba et al. 2004). In hydronic ceiling applications,
PCM solidification and further cooling by the cooling water take place during the
44 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

night off-peak time at the reduced electricity price. During the day, melting and
further heating of the PCM take place, following the daily thermal excitations
generated within the conditioned indoor space.

2.8 PCM Used in Roofs and Attics

Currently, conventional roofs and attics are thermally designed based on a steady-
state criteria with thermal resistance (R-value) being used by the majority of the
building standards as a metric of thermal performance. At the same time, most of
these building envelope components are subject to dynamic environmental condi-
tions. Building loads are very often complex and dynamic combinations of con-
vective, radiative, and conductive heat transfer mechanisms with frequently added
air leakage, ventilation, or hygrothermal-related mass transport process. The steady-
state principles used in design and code requirements for the roofs and attics and
their dynamic operation are seriously conflicting. As a result, the dynamic operation
combined with shortened thermal designs yields relatively low overall thermal
efficiencies. The author believes that with proper thermal design incorporating heat
storage, thermal breaks, and radiation control technologies, a significant part of
these dynamic loads can be reduced, or even totally eliminated, thus improving
overall building energy efficiency. Well-designed roof or attic thermal systems will
not only improve overall thermal resistance, but also minimize transmission of
dynamic thermal excitations (by shaving and shifting dynamic loads). Some
advance thermal systems can also exhaust or absorb part of the dynamic environ-
mental loads (depending on the climatic season).
Dynamic roofs containing PCM have been investigated in the USA for several
decades. In 1994, blends of lightweight aggregates and salt hydrates were analyzed
and tested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, as dynamic attic floor insu-
lation (Petrie et al. 1997). This novel attic configuration contained inorganic PCM
which was sandwiched between two layers of conventional insulation. The PCM
heat storage that was used consisted of hydrated calcium chloride dispersed in
perlite and contained in test cells. One cell had a PCM/perlite ratio of 2:1 by weight;
while the other had a 6:1 mixture. Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) was the
insulation below and above the PCM. Heat-flux transducers on the top and bottom
of each cell as well as arrays of thermocouples from the top to the bottom of each
cell allowed to follow the progression of freezing and melting in the PCM as the
project team subjected the cells to both steady and diurnally varying simulated
outside temperatures. The above testing of the perlite granulates impregnated with
PCM, demonstrated excellent capability for reduction of temperature fluctuations in
comparison with traditional fiberglass insulation. For example, in the 2:1 PCM
system, 22 % lower thermal loads were observed comparing to the conventional
fiberglass system. Its peak heat flux was reduced by 42 % as well. In addition, a
four-hour delay time was observed. The 6:1 PCM insulation system showed 32 %
2.8 PCM Used in Roofs and Attics 45

lower total cooling loads. The thermal load profile was essentially flat at a level that
was 21 % of the peak fiberglass heat flux (79 % cooling load reduction).
Very often, dynamic roofing and attic systems utilizing PCM were designed
based on earlier experiences gained during similar projects focused on wall
assemblies. Following findings from earlier wall performance investigations, in
1997, Ismail and Castro (1997) presented the results of a theoretical and experi-
mental study of the PCM-enhanced roofing insulation system under real operational
conditions to achieve passive thermal comfort in a test building. The experimental
setup consists of a small room with movable roof and side walls. The roof was
constructed in the traditional way using attic floor insulation with added PCM.
Thermocouples were distributed across the cross section of the roof. Another roof,
identical but without the PCM, was also used as a baseline. It was found that for
Brazilian climate conditions PCM-enhanced envelopes can help in keeping the
interior of the building within desired thermal comfort zone.
In 2006, Kissock and Limas investigated paraffinic PCM that can be added to the
steel commercial roofs, to reduce the peak diurnal cooling and heating loads (see
Kissock and Limas 2006). This work was a combined numerical–experimental study
where the numerical algorithm was validated against the experimental data. The PCM
studied was the paraffin octadecane, with an average melting temperature of 25.6 °C.
The metal roof that was analyzed had two 1-inch-thick layers of polyisocyanurate
foam. The bottom layer of the foam was enhanced with the paraffinic PCM. For the
climate of Dayton, OH, USA, thermal loads through the PCM-enhanced polyisoc-
yanurate board were simulated using an explicit finite-difference procedure while the
indoor air temperature was held constant. When compared to a conventional roof (no
PCM), cooling load savings were close to 14 %.
A prototype residential roof using a cool-roof surface, natural subventing, and
PCM heat sink was designed and field tested by the author (Kośny et al. 2007;
Miller and Kośny 2008). A multilayer configuration of PCM-enhanced polyure-
thane foams, PCM-impregnated fabrics, and highly reflective aluminum foil was
used. As shown in Fig. 2.14, the PCM roof also used 10-cm air channels to exhaust
excess heat during peak irradiance (subventing). Two reflective membranes were
placed above the roof sheathing boards with the aluminized surfaces facing each
other across the 10-cm air gap. Loading of PCM was about 0.39 kg/m2 of the
surface area. Two types of PCM were used with two melting temperatures, which
were around 26 and 32 °C. The total storage capacity of the PCM heat sink was
about 54 kJ/m2. The field test results show that when comparing the heat flow
penetrating the conventional shingle roof to the similar metal roof assembly using
cool-roof pigments, reflective insulation, and subventing air channels, the sum-
mertime peak heat flow crossing the roof deck was reduced by about 70 %.
Installation of the PCM heat sink on the metal roof generated an additional 20 %
reduction in the peak-hour heat flow, bringing the total load reduction to over 90 %
(see Fig. 2.15).
A similar configuration of a roof containing metal roof panels with photovoltaic
(PV) laminates and PCM heat sink was field tested during 2009–2010 in East
Tennessee, USA, climatic conditions (Kośny et al. 2012b). It was a new solar roof
46 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

Fig. 2.14 Construction details of a roof assembly containing, reflective insulation, and subventing
air channels, followed with two PCM insulation systems produced by Outlast, USA (PCM-
enhanced foam and PCM-impregnated fabric, see left photograph)

94.6
Conventional
78.9 asphalt shingle roof

63.1
~70%
47.3 Metal roof with cool -
~90% roof surface, and
sub-venting
31.5
W/m 2

15.8

0.0

-15.8
Metal roof with cool -
-31.5 roof surface, PCM,
and sub-venting

-47.3
48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96
Time [hrs]

Fig. 2.15 Heat transfer penetrating the roofs of a direct nailed asphalt shingle, standing seam
metal roof (containing, cool-roof pigments, reflective insulation, and subventing air channels), and
a similar metal roof containing PCM

technology utilizing metal roof panels with integrated amorphous silicon PV

laminates, a ventilated air cavity, dense fiberglass over-the-deck insulation with
reflective surface, and arrays of bio-based PCM cells (see Fig. 2.16). The thermal
performance of the experimental roof was compared to a control attic with a
conventional asphalt shingle roof. The test data demonstrated that, during winter,
without the phase-change contribution, the PV-PCM attic had a 30 % reduction in
roof-generated heating loads compared to a conventional shingle attic. Conversely,
2.8 PCM Used in Roofs and Attics 47

Fig. 2.16 Construction of the experimental PCM-PV roof—Oak Ridge, TN, USA

during the cooling season, the attic-generated cooling loads from the PV-PCM attic
were about 55 % lower than the shingle attic. In addition, about 90 % reductions in
peak daytime roof heat fluxes were observed with the PV-PCM roof.
Heat transmission across the concrete roof structure containing PCM was also
analyzed for Indian climatic conditions (Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu State) by
Ravikumar and Srinivasan (2012, 2014). A transient numerical procedure was
developed to analyze thermal performance of the PCM roof. A numerical model
was validated against the available experimental data. The analysis shows that the
melting and solidification of PCM, over the day–night cycle and over summer–
winter cycle during the year, compensate for all the external climatic excitations and
keep the roof bottom surface temperature almost constant and close to room air
temperature. On a yearly basis, there was about a 56 % reduction in heat trans-
mission observed into the room with a PCM roof in comparison with the con-
ventional Indian concrete roof design.
A development of microencapsulated PCM which can be installed as a part of
the attic insulation system was a critical step in development of modern building
envelopes. Subsequent introduction of the insulation blends with microencapsulated
PCM was another noteworthy technology improvement during the first decade of
twenty-first century. PCM-enhanced cellulose was one of the first dynamic insu-
lation products successfully developed for building applications (Kośny et al.
2007). In about the same time, PCM blended with blown fiberglass (Kośny et al.
2010a) and plastic foams (Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Kośny 2008) were intro-
duced. The major advantage of PCM-enhanced insulations is their capability of
significantly lessening and shifting peak-hour thermal loads generated by building
envelopes.
Dynamic hot-box experiments were performed on a residential attic module
containing PCM-enhanced attic floor insulation (see Fig. 2.17). The attic module
was tested under periodic temperature changes in the Large Scale Climate Simu-
lator (LSCS) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA (see Kośny 2008). Two
concentrations of microencapsulated PCM were tested (5 and 20 % by weight). The
main focus of the attic tests included discharging time of the PCM-enhanced
48 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

Fig. 2.17 Experimental attic module containing microencapsulated PCM blended with cellulose
insulation, ORNL, USA, testing facility

insulation (time necessary to refreeze PCM). PCM charging is not a problem in

attics because of the intensive fluctuations of the attic air temperature during sunny
days (a rapid increase in temperature caused by the sun). However, the attic cooling
process is significantly slower. In a well-designed PCM application, 100 % of the
PCM material should be able to fully discharge its energy before daytime operation
the next day. During the dynamic LSCS tests, the attic test module was subjected to
periodic changes of temperature. The following temperature schedule was used:
18 °C for about 16 h, rapid temperature ramp to 50 °C and kept for about 4 h,
followed by natural cooling back to 18 °C. One of the noteworthy findings was that
only layers of insulation located higher than 10 cm from the attic floor were
involved in the phase-change process. It took about 6–8 h to fully discharge the
energy stored in these layers. It is interesting that even in attic insulation containing
only 5 % PCM by weight, notable evidences of phase change were observed
(Kośny 2008).
During the summer of 2008, a full-scale experimental attic was constructed and
instrumented in order to field test blown fiber glass insulation combined with
microencapsulated PCM in the ORNL test facility. Bio-based microencapsulated
PCM, manufactured by Microtek Labs., USA, was utilized in this experiment. The
main goal of this experiment was to investigate at what level and how often PCM
was going through the phase-change process. As shown on Fig. 2.18, a full-scale
residential attic was filled with about 26-cm blown fiber glass insulation with the
approximate density of 29 kg/m3. Next, on top of this insulation, four 1.3-cm-thick
layers of the PCM-adhesive blend were installed with 1.3-cm-thick layers of blown
fiber glass installed in-between. The total thickness of added PCM-fiberglass
multilayer sandwich was approximately 10 cm (Kośny et al. 2010a). Results of
DSC testing and numerical analysis indicated that in order to make PCM fully melt,
attic air temperature should be—during the peak of the day—higher than 32 °C. It
was also found that during the night, attic air temperature should be below 20 °C to
allow PCM to refreeze. Melting temperature of microencapsulated PCM used was
at about at 29 °C. A temperature difference between melting and freezing peaks
2.8 PCM Used in Roofs and Attics 49

Fig. 2.18 Field test attic module containing PCM-enhanced fiberglass insulation

(PCM subcooling effect) was about 6 °C with freezing temperature close to 23 °C.
The phase-change enthalpy was about 170 kJ/kg. Detailed temperature profiles
across the roof, attic space, and within the attic insulation were collected for two
summer seasons of 2008 and 2009. It was found that for East Tennessee, USA,
climate, the second week of May was a beginning week for PCM to have at least
two full phase changes a week. This process ended during the first week of October.
In May and September, calculated number of active days for PCM was close to
50 % of total number of days. During the months of June and August, during about
75 % of days, full phase transition processes took place. In July, due to increased
night temperature, a number of days when PCM was fully active went down to
below 50 %. Theoretical analysis showed that, in order to improve PCM effec-
tiveness during July, it is possible to use PCM of higher melting point (Kośny 2008;
Kośny and Kossecka 2013). However in that case, a number of active days can be
reduced for May and September. This work demonstrated that numerical analysis is
usually necessary to optimize the PCM roof design for a specific climate.
A series of thermal simulations of the 25-cm-thick attic floor insulation showed
significant reductions to the total thermal loads, generated by the PCM attic. In
general, PCM-enhanced attic insulation assemblies may reduce peak-hour loads by
25–44 % when compared to non-PCM systems of equivalent R-value—subject to
the PCM load and PCM location (see Kośny et al. 2014).

2.9 PCM-Enhanced Windows and Window Attachment

Products

As presented in earlier sections, an application of PCM is an interesting solution for

improving opaque building envelopes. However, PCM can be also an attractive
alternative for fenestration products as they generate a significant part of building
50 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

thermal loads. In conventional applications, thermal performance of fenestration is

most-often improved by the use of absorbing gases filling the gap between glass
sheets, or by an application of thermally insulated glass windows. When only
translucency is required, the other thermal improvement possibilities may incor-
porate novel filling materials into glass panes, such as silica aerogel or a semi-
transparent PCM. Both of these options require serious consideration of optical
properties and window functionality. The objective of using PCM in the window
glazing or the shutters is to utilize their high latent heat of fusion to reduce window-
generated thermal loads by absorbing the heat gain before it reaches the indoor
space. The phase-change cycle may stabilize the indoor building temperature and
reduce the heating and cooling loads. From the thermal perspective, PCM windows
work like the optically transparent or translucent Trombe walls. They usually
consist of a single- or multilayer glazing panel made of conventional glass, inte-
grated with a layer of a transparent or translucent PCM product—Fig. 2.19a. In
dynamic windows, PCM changes its phase from solid state to liquid when heated,
thus absorbing available solar energy in the endothermic process. At the same time,
PCM’s translucency is usually changing as well. When the ambient temperature
drops during the night, the melted PCM of required optical properties solidifies into
a solid-state material while giving off the earlier absorbed heat in the exothermic
process. A suitable phase-change temperature range, depending on climatic con-
ditions and desired comfort temperatures, as well as the ability to absorb and release
large amounts of heat energy are needed for proper work of PCM windows. It is
essential that both phase-change transition ability, as well as PCM optical char-
acteristics do not deteriorate in time, which is a crucial condition when selecting
PCM for fenestration application.
Translucent Trombe walls are constructed in a way that they can transmit light
and illuminate the building interior. In conventional solar fenestration systems, the

(a) (b) (c) Prismatic glass

PCM heat sink PCM heat sink

Winter sun
PCMheat sink

Winter sun
Summer sun

Translucent Winter sun

Air gaps insulation

Glazing Glazing

Fig. 2.19 Different configuration options of semi-transparent PCM solar fenestration: a Semi-
transparent Trombe Wall containing PCM heat sink. b Translucent Trombe Wall with PCM heat
sink and translucent insulation. c Solar fenestration system using PCM heat sink and selective
prismatic glass
2.9 PCM-Enhanced Windows and Window Attachment Products 51

temperature gradient within the assembly results in winter time significant heat
losses from the heated interior to the cold exterior. As shown in Fig. 2.19b, heat
losses through the glazing can be reduced using a transparent insulation (vacuum)
or translucent insulating fillers (i.e., aerogels) placed between window panes. The
transparent or translucent thermal insulation transmits solar radiation, which is then
absorbed by a layer of PCM, which is usually partly transparent when melted. In
order to further improve thermal performance, translucent/transparent storage walls
may use selective glass. During the summer, the outer prismatic glass may be used
to reflect the high-angle rays of the sun—Fig. 2.19c.
Various paraffins are typical examples of PCM in building products, but a low
thermal conductivity (Farid et al. 2004), significant volume change during phase
transition (Hasnain 1998) and poor optical properties limit their fenestration appli-
cations. Askew (1978) used a collector panel made of a thin slab of paraffin placed
behind the double glazing of a building and found that thermal efficiency was
comparable to a conventional flat plate solar thermal collector. In a following research
performed by Nayak (1987), a Transwall solar system was used as a transparent
modular wall that provides both heating and illumination of the dwelling space.
Further design possibilities emerge from the variable translucency of some
PCM-based products. They provide dynamic thermal characteristics and a source of
natural lighting to the building. The energy state of these assemblies is visualized as
transparent or translucent when PCM is melted and milky when PCM is frozen
(Mehling and Cabeza 2008). Manz et al. (1997) studied a solar facade composed of
transparent insulation material and translucent PCM used both for solar heat storage
and daylighting. The PCM was hexahydrated calcium chloride (CaCl2 · 6H2O) with
5 % of additives. The numerical model was developed for analysis of the radiative
heat transfer inside the PCM-enhanced solar window. Experimental data were
gathered over a period of 5 months. The authors concluded that overall system
performance could be improved by changing of the PCM melting temperature from
26.5 to about 21 °C. Another semi-transparent solar window system containing
PCM has been introduced by the INGLAS company form Friedrichshafen,
Germany.4 This technology combines design principles of passive solar walls with
fenestration function and a semi-transparent heat reservoir. As a result, this solar
window efficiently transfers solar light and absorbs the heat developed in the
process. The absorbed heat is stored by the heat sink utilizing organic PCM.
According to manufacture, large amounts of solar energy can be stored during
daytime and released into the building at night, when PCM cools down and
solidifies.
In similar research performed in Germany, an application of semi-transparent
PCM components from Dorken has been jointly investigated by the glass company
Glaswerke Arnold and research institute ZAE Bayern. A complete system is made
of two glass sheets on the outside and a macro-encapsulated PCM on the inside
(Mehling and Cabeza 2008). In this technology, a variable transparency is utilized

4
http://www.inglas.eu/glass/company.html.
52 2 Short History of PCM Applications in Building Envelopes

Solid PCM stage Liquid PCM stage Transition liquid to solid

Fig. 2.20 PCM-enhanced window component with variable optical properties, Dorken, Germany
(http://www.cosella-dorken.com/bvf-ca-en/projects/pcm/kempen.php)

for an effective diffuse illumination of the interior space. PCM optical properties are
changing to some degree between the solid and liquid states (see Fig. 2.20).
Parametric analysis and performance comparisons with other advanced fenes-
tration products are important factors, in designing of low energy buildings, which
needs to be undertaken with advanced thermal modeling on a system scale, with use
of whole building energy simulations. As an example, Ismail et al. (2008)
numerically analyzed performance of the PCM-filled window and the window filled
with the infrared absorbing gas. The use of absorbing gases and filling the gaps
between glazing sheets appears to be an alternative solution for thermally insulated
glass windows. In this work, a thermal efficiency comparison between glass win-
dow, filled with an absorbing gas and the other one containing a PCM heat sink was
analyzed for a hot cooling-dominated climate.
A concept of solar windows using PCM-enhanced window attachment products
is an attractive alternative for described above fenestration systems with PCM heat
sinks. However, this technology is still awaiting successful implementation.
Additionally, many semi-transparent and translucent solar walls have several dis-
advantages. One is reduced optical transparency. The other one is limited thermal
storage capacity. These systems need to have sufficient thermal mass resulting in
significant thickness coming from added PCM components. This is where PCM-
enhanced window attachments (blinds, shutters, or curtains) offer a unique solution:
a thin, movable layer of PCM which can be easily used “as needed” without
compromising window optical properties (see Alawadhi 2012). A fenestration
system using movable PCM heat sink needs to be installed on the south-side
windows. When PCM window attachments are in use (during the sunny day), the
window heat sink is heated by incoming solar radiation, melting the PCM. At night
that heat is utilized to warm the interior space.
The window shutters and blinds are often made of extruded plastic or foam-filled
aluminum profiles. The same extruded profiles can be used as PCM containers.
PCM can fill existing cavities or replace foam as a filling material there. PCM-
enhanced window attachments can be installed on the interior side of south-facing
windows. In cooling scenario, the PCM blinds are used in the same way as con-
ventional blinds, yet absorb excess solar radiation. The PCM is regenerated at night
through radiation to the exterior or/and by cool air (from outside ventilation flaps or
2.9 PCM-Enhanced Windows and Window Attachment Products 53

tilted-open windows). According to Alawadhi, the numerical result indicates that

heat gain through the windows can be reduced as high as 20–30 % depends of
climatic conditions, window type, and PCM configuration (Alawadhi 2012). A
similar window attachment systems using PCM have been installed in four offices5
(two in Kassel City Hall and two in the EnBW building in Karlsruhe, Germany).
The solar protection system consists of vertical blinds; there is an approximately 1-
cm-thick layer of PCM in each of the slats.
In another concept, window shutters containing PCM are placed outside of
window areas. During daytime, they remain opened to the outside. However, the
shutter surface is still exposed to solar radiation and heat is absorbed causing PCM
to melt. At night, the shutters are closed, insulating the windows and heat from the
PCM radiates into the rooms. Buddhi et al. (2003) studied the thermal performance
of a test cell (1 m × 1 m × 1 m) with and without PCM. Lauric acid with melting
point of 49 °C was used as a PCM latent heat storage material. It was found that the
heat storing capacity of the cell due to the presence of PCM increases up to 4 °C for
4–5 h, which was used during nighttime. In another research project focused on
PCM-enhanced window attachments, Ismail and Henriquez (2001) numerically and
experimentally studied thermally effective windows with moving PCM curtains.

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(11):1019–1037
Tyagi VV, Buddhi D (2007) PCM thermal storage in buildings: a state of art. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 11(6):1146–1166
van Haaren M (2012) Application of PCM in concrete; improvement of the indoor comfort and
reducing energy demand. MSc thesis, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Zalba B, Marin JM, Cabeza LF, Mehling H (2004) Free-cooling of buildings with phase change
materials. Int J Refrig 27:839–849
Zalewski L, Chantant M, Lassue S, Duthoit B (1997) Experimental thermal study of a solar wall of
composite type. Energy Build 25(1):7–18
Zalewski L, Lassue S, Duthoit B, Butez M (2002) Study of solar walls, validating a simulation
model. Build Environ 37(1):109–121
Zamalloa A, Embil MJ, Zuñiga J, Zubillaga O, Cano F, Flores I (2006) PCM containing indoor
plaster for thermal comfort and energy saving in buildings. In: Proceedings of ECOSTOCK.
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Zhang D, Li Z, Zhou J, Wu K (2004) Development of thermal energy storage concrete. Cem Concr
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Zhou G, Zhang Y, Wang X, Lin K, Xiao W (2007) An assessment of mixed type PCM-gypsum and
shape-stabilized PCM plates in a building for passive solar heating. Sol Energy 81:1351–1360
Zhou T, Darkwa J, Kokogiannakis G (2014) Numerical and experimental analysis into the thermal
performance of a novel phase change material gypsum board. In: Proceedings of 12th
international energy conversion engineering conference, Cleveland. ISBN: 978-1-62410-304-9
Zhuang C-L, Deng A-Z, Chen Y, Li S-B, Zhang H-Y, Fan G-Z (2010) Validation of veracity on
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ICSEE’10 Proceedings of the 2010 international conference on Life system modeling and
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sustainable energy and environment: Part I. Springer, Berlin, pp 486–496
Chapter 3
Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs
Used in Building Envelopes—Packaging
Methods, Encapsulation, and Thermal
Enhancement

3.1 Introduction

Modern developments in areas of building technologies and new construction

methods have led to reduced build time and cost for residential and commercial
buildings. However, they have also resulted in lightweight construction materials
with very little thermal mass. Wood- or steel-framed buildings can be five times less
thermally massive than their stone or brick counterparts (Campbell and Sailor
2011). This lack of thermal mass combined with dynamic thermal excitations
(climate-and internal load-based) results with an inability to mitigate dynamic
thermal loads, leading to large diurnal indoor air temperature fluctuations, followed
with increased space-conditioning energy consumption. Several demonstration
projects discussed in previous chapters showed that adding PCM thermal mass will
yield an increase of the building thermal storage capability and thus help in
improving overall building energy performance. In this chapter, an overview has
been made of the thermal energy storage materials with solid–liquid phase change.
The following four major aspects have been the focus of this overview: the type of
materials, heat transfer characteristics followed by methods of thermal conductivity
enhancements, and durability. In addition, PCM encapsulation and packaging
methods are discussed here.
PCM’s heat storage capability is very attractive alternative for conventional
building thermal mass, such as solid wood, stone, brick, gypsum, and concrete,
because of their high storage density within small temperature swing. Approximate
temperature range for PCMs used in building envelopes is usually between −5 °C
(building envelope surface temperature during winter) and 70 °C (peak roof surface
temperature during summer). For more traditional internal building applications,
such as wall, floor, or ceiling finish, PCM’s phase-transition temperature should be
within the human comfort range of 20–30 °C.
Flame resistance and long-term durability of PCM-enhanced building envelopes
are important design factors. Paraffinic PCMs are very chemically stable and

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 61

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_3
62 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Fig. 3.1 Electron microscope images of PCM-enhanced building materials—author’s archive.

a PCM-enhanced gypsum composite. b Cellulose-PCM blend. c Polyurethane foam–PCM blend

durable materials. For decades, they have been adding thermal mass to the walls,
ceilings, or floors. In early applications (mostly in North America and Europe),
these PCMs were used in a passive way in buildings without space conditioning.
Figure 3.1 shows electron microscope images of microencapsulated paraffinic
PCMs mixed with different building envelope products. Unfortunately, in North
America, some of paraffinic PCM applications failed during the required US
flammability tests (ASTM E119—12a—“Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of
Building Construction and Materials,”1 the Corner Fire Test- NFPA 265,2 and
“Standard Test Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and
Assemblies”—ASTM E2257—13a3). That is why, in more current approaches,
designers either use different types of less flammable organic PCMs, or place PCMs
in different locations, taking advantage of larger temperature fluctuations in resi-
dential attics, roofs, and at the exterior wall surfaces. Climate-generated energy
fluctuations, which can represent a significant part of the building cooling and
heating loads, are largely absorbed by the PCM-enhanced building material and
insulations and are later transferred to the environment without affecting the interior
building energy balance (Kośny et al. 2008, 2012a). In buildings with space con-
ditioning, this simple change in thermal mass configuration means real energy
savings. This new placement method for PCM significantly improves fire-safety,
since PCM is not directly exposed to the interior of the building. However, it is
good to remember that this change also dictates the different temperature ranges for
selected PCMs.
A large number of solid–liquid PCMs are commercially available today for
almost any required temperature range. Zalba et al. (2003) classifies 118 organic
substances, inorganic substances, organic eutectics, inorganic eutectics, fatty acids,
and non-eutectic mixtures with potential for use as PCM. Lane (1978, 1980, 1983,
1989) identifies 210 organic, inorganic, and eutectic materials that undergo phase
change without component separation, suitable for building temperature regulation.

1
http://www.astm.org/Standards/E119.htm.
2
http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/document-information-pages?mode=code&code=265.
3
http://www.astm.org/Standards/E2257.htm.
3.1 Introduction 63

Water/ice, with its heat of phase transition of about 330 kJ/kg, is the best known
PCM abandon in human environment. PCM materials used in building envelopes
need to have relatively high energy of fusion, with phase-transition process at a
certain temperature range specific for building enclosure components and type of
application. They should be capable of storing and releasing relatively large
amounts of energy on daily bases for a typical life span of a building envelope (in
most cases at least 25 years). In addition, for PCMs used in building envelopes, the
amount of latent heat should be significantly larger compared to the sensible heat
gain/loss available in typical building materials. Most of PCMs discussed here have
latent heat between 100 and 250 kJ/kg. PCMs used in building envelopes are at
least 2–10 times lighter from structural materials and should store up to 15 times
more heat per unit volume than conventional construction materials such as
masonry, concrete, or stone, for temperature changes of *10 K. This allows an
application of lightweight construction methods and still taking advantage of
thermal mass benefits. Energy is absorbed or released when the material changes
from solid to liquid and vice versa; thus, PCM-enhanced building envelopes are
often classified as lightweight latent heat storage components. For all internal
surface applications, it is very important that a PCM temperature should remain
relatively constant (or should vary within a very small temperature range) during
the phase-change process. This is useful for keeping the conditioned internal space
of the building at a desired uniform temperature.
There is also a group of solid–solid PCMs which are under investigation right
now (Gu et al. 2010; Sarı et al. 2011). They can be potentially useful for building
envelopes, because some of them change phase in temperatures close to 25–30 °C
and do not encompass problems associated with handling of PCM in liquid phase,
i.e., containment, potential leakage, etc. Also, unlike many inorganic solid/liquid
PCMs, they do not require nucleation aid additives to prevent supercooling. Solid–
solid PCMs change their crystalline structure from one lattice configuration to
another at a fixed, single temperature range, and their phase transition involves
significant amount of latent heats comparable to the most effective solid–liquid
PCMs. Because it is a solid–solid phase transition, there is no visible change in the
appearance of the material (insignificant expansion–contraction). In the future,
some of solid–solid PCMs with lower phase-change temperature may have a chance
to be used in building envelops.

3.2 PCM Classification

In general, PCMs latent heat storage can be achieved through a solid–solid, solid–
liquid, solid–gas, and liquid–gas phase changes. However, phase change used in
most building envelope applications is a solid–liquid process. As stated earlier,
there is also considered a limited number of solid–solid PCM applications, which
due to their very slow phase-transition processes, maybe helpful in a future building
dynamic load management.
64 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

3.2.1 Introduction—Phase-Change Processes

From the thermodynamic standpoint, the PCM absorbs or releases thermal energy or
heat because of the entropy change. This portion of heat is associated with the unit
mass of the material, and it is defined as the latent heat of the material. The latent heat
is absorbed by a material during the melting, or it is released during the freezing
process. In the case of melting, added thermal energy is used to break the bonds
between the molecules. When heat is entering a substance, this energy is used to break
the molecular connections. The phase changing substance is, at this time, a mixture of
solid and liquid molecules. In solids, the molecules, ions, or atoms are held relatively
close to each other by strong intermolecular forces. Although the particles move due
to their kinetic energies, their relative movement is quite small. This gives a solid the
property of having a definite shape. It can be observed that during a phase transition,
both liquid and solid molecules of PCM are moving with the same rate (vibration).
This means that molecules have the same average speed and thus the same average
kinetic energy (since they have the same mass). It is followed with the same Kelvin
temperature. When a solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy. When the
particles gain enough energy to overcome the attractions that hold them in a solid
structure, the substance is starting to melt. Finally, after some time, PCM’s molecules
rearrange themselves, causing an entropy change and the material is starting to melt.
Melting process can be also called fusion.
Freezing is an exothermic process (releases thermal energy). Freezing or
solidification occurs when a substance changes from liquid to solid. In case of
freezing, energy is taken from PCM. This energy exchange does not cause a change
in kinetic energy. While in the liquid state, the particles in a substance possess
enough kinetic energy to move around in close proximity to each other, because of
existence of intermolecular forces. When temperature drops down, the particles lose
their kinetic energy and bond together. Gradually, the particles settle into fixed
positions, causing the substance to take shape and become a solid. Sometimes, if a
liquid PCM is rapidly chilled down, the temperature drops faster from the speed of
the solidification. This results in a liquid PCM that can be colder from its freezing
point (Skripov 1974; Kurz and Fisher 1992; Kashchiev 2000). This process is
called supercooling. It is good to remember that supercooled liquid PCMs, because
they are very unstable, will crystallize rapidly upon any slightest disturbance, such
as stirring the liquid, vibration, or small amounts of foreign substances. There are
numerous inorganic PCMs (i.e., hydrated salts), called congruent, which melt and
solidify cleanly with the liquid phase being exactly the same chemical composition
as the solid phase. In semi-congruent PCMs, a salt hydrate and an aqueous solution
are formed during the fusion process. This reaction needs to be overturned before
freezing to avoid volume reduction of the active PCM, which compromises the
overall system thermal performance. Usually, semi-congruent melting PCMs can be
modified with additives to render them congruent. Finally, anhydrous salt and an
aqueous solution are formed in incongruent PCMs during the melting. This process
is often called PCM separation. Unless such PCM is modified, the anhydrous salts
3.2 PCM Classification 65

settle down due to gravity, which is resulting in a gradual loss in performance of the
PCM. The most suitable methods of preventing this process are either through
thickening the salt solution or through PCM gelling. Thickening means an addition
of a material to the salt hydrate that increases the viscosity and hereby holds the salt
hydrate together (Zalba et al. 2003; Farid et al. 2004; Mehling and Cabeza 2008).
Gelling means adding a cross-linked material (e.g., polymer) to the salt to create a
three-dimensional network that holds the salt hydrate together. So, when anhydrous
salt crystals are formed, PCM separation does not occur. Simply, anhydrous salt
crystals remain dispersed throughout the PCM, making it easier for them to
redissolve in the aqueous solution (Farid et al. 2004).
Numerous distinctions between organic and inorganic PCMs can be investigated
from various perspectives including operating temperature range, phase-transition
enthalpy, chemical stability, long-term durability, and flammability [see Lingayat
and Suple (2013)]. Figure 3.2 shows relationship between PCM’s enthalpy and
temperature for different types of PCMs. These characteristics are especially
important for their application in building envelopes, since PCM has to be incor-
porated into the structural components, finish materials, or thermal insulation. A
very common situation is when for a specific application, there is no a single PCM
product which possesses all the required properties and performance characteristics.
In such circumstances, overall design of the PCM system has to be modified to
make up for the missing physical properties. As discussed earlier, supercooling
effect can be suppressed by introducing nucleation aid additives. PCM semi-con-
gruent melting can be inhibited by using additives to render them congruent.
Finally, performance of potentially incongruent PCMs can be improved by thick-
ening the salt solution (Farid et al. 2004). Other key factors important for building
envelope applications are compatibility with different packaging or encapsulation
methods and PCM flammability.

1000
Temperature range for most
(12)
typical building applications
900
(11)
Phase transition enthalpy (kJ/L)

800

700 (9)

600 (10)
(2)

500

400

W (7)
300 (1)
(8)
200 (5)
(3)
(4)
100
Phase transition temperature ranges for PCMs ( oC)
0
20
40
60
80
-80
-60
-40
-20

100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800
820
840
860
880
900
0

(1) Eutetic water-salt solutions (2) Salt hydrates (3) Fatty acids (4) Polyethylene glycols

(5) Paraffin's W Water (7) Sugar alcohols (8) Nitrates

(9) Hydroxides (10) Chlorides (11) Carbonates (12) Fluorides

Fig. 3.2 Relationship between PCM’s enthalpy and temperature for different types of PCMs
66 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Paraffinic PCMs

Bio-Based PCMs

Other Nonparaffinic
Organic Compounds

Salt Hydrates
Phase Change
Inorganic
Materials Metalics

Eutectic Organic –0rganic

&
Mixtures Organic –Inorganic

Inorganic –Inorganic

Fig. 3.3 Classification of PCMs

As shown in Fig. 3.3, multiple types of PCMs exist. The main categorization of
PCMs is the differentiation between inorganic PCMs and organic PCMs. The
commonly used phase-change substances for technical applications are as follows:
paraffins (organic), fatty acids (organic), and salt hydrates (inorganic)—IEA Annex
39 (2005). Additionally, numerous combinations of eutectic PCMs can be used for
this purpose (see Fig. 3.3). They are compositions of two or more PCMs, each of
which melt and freeze congruently forming a mixture of the component crystals
during crystallization.
As mentioned above, the main division between PCMs is made by the fact that
they can either be organic or inorganic(Farid et al. 2004; Mehling and Cabeza 2008;
Sharma et al. 2009). In general, inorganic compounds have almost double volu-
metric latent heat storage capacity than the organic compounds. Because of their
very different thermal and chemical behavior, the properties of each subgroup
which affects the design of latent heat thermal energy storage systems are discussed
in details below.

3.2.2 Organic PCMs

Organic PCMs are composed of paraffins, fatty acids, fatty-acid asters, or sugar
alcohols. The most important advantages of using organic PCMs are their capability
to melt and freeze repeatedly without phase segregation (which leads to degradation
of their latent heat of fusion) and a fact that organic PCMs crystallize with little or
no supercooling. Organic PCMs are usually non-corrosive. Unfortunately, a
3.2 PCM Classification 67

relatively low ignition resistance of some organic PCMs is an important drawback,

in case of building envelope applications.
Historically, paraffinic PCMs have been the most commonly used in building
envelope applications because of ease of microencapsulation using well-established
and relatively simple process. This fact enables blending with cement and gypsum
composites and PCM enhancement of thermal insulations. Most of paraffins
available today on the market are petroleum-based straight chains of n-alkane
hydrocarbons (CH3–(CH2)–CH3). There are also non-petroleum paraffins, produced
out of food industry waste products. Melting temperature and phase-transition
enthalpy increase for paraffins with the length of the carbon chain. When the
number of carbon atoms in the paraffin molecule is between 13 and 28, the melting
temperature falls within a range of approximately −5 to 60 °C—Mehling, Cabeza
(2008). This temperature range covers great majority of building envelope appli-
cations. When comparing to inorganic compounds, major advantages of paraffinic
PCMs are their superior chemical stability, non-corrosiveness, and non-toxicity. In
addition, paraffins show negligible subcooling effect (Boh and Sumiga 2008).
Major disadvantages are their high cost and flammability.
Fatty acids are represented by the chemical formula CH3(CH2)2nCOOH, for
example, capric acid, lauric acid, palmitic acid, etc. Fatty acids have heat storage
densities very similar to paraffins, and like paraffins, their melting temperatures
increase with the length of the molecule. Although chemically stable upon cycling,
they tend to react with the environment due to their acidic nature.
Sugar alcohols are a hydrogenated form of a carbohydrate such as D-sorbitol,
and xylitol. They generally have higher latent heat and density than paraffins and
fatty acids. However, they melt at temperatures between 90 and 200 °C, making
them unsuitable for building envelope applications.

3.2.2.1 Paraffinic PCMs

An origin of paraffinic PCMs is coming from the earliest candle production. For
centuries, candles have been made of many different bio-based materials. In ancient
Egypt and during early Roman times, the fat rendered from butchered animals was
used to make a type of candle. This material is known as tallow. China relied on
bees for their wax, while Japan used tree nut extract to produce wax. In early India,
wax was produced through boiling of the cinnamon tree fruits. In the eighteenth
century, most wax came from the whales’ oil. In the second half of nineteenth
century, commercial production of paraffinic wax was initiated in Europe and North
America. The feedstock for paraffin is a mixture of oil and wax, called slack wax. It
is a by-product from the refining of lubricating oil.
Paraffin is the name given to a mineral wax and oil and is also used as a generic
name of a particular series of hydrocarbons. In 1830, Carl Von Reichenbach dis-
tilled paraffin out of tar of beech wood. At this time, Reichenbach called his new
developed mixture of hydrocarbon oils a “eupione.” The production of paraffin wax
68 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

from coal started in 1845, in Glasgow, UK.4 In 1850, James Young patented the
production procedure of paraffin oil by distillation of coal. Following these
developments, it was discovered in the USA that paraffin could be extracted from
crude oil as well. During 1890s, this technology spread around the world and
became one of the basic petroleum by-products. Today, production of paraffin
waxes is based on slack wax, which is a mixture of oil and waxes. Most often, they
are by-products of the lubrication oil refinery processes. Paraffin wax consists of a
mixture of mostly straight chain n-alkanes CH3–(CH2)–CH3.
In organic chemistry, paraffin is the common name of the alkane hydrocarbons
with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin waxes have typically a clearly defined
crystal structures composed of macroscopic crystals, which are called the macro-
crystalline. In case of low-carbon-number hydrocarbons, these individual crystals
can be directly observed with use of the magnifying glass or with use of the
microscope. Macro-crystalline crystals are usually hexagonal or needle shaped
(orthorhombic) (Becker 1997). Paraffin’s potential for thermal storage applications
is coming from the fact that the crystallization of the (CH3) chain releases a large
amount of latent heat during phase-change processes. Most of paraffinic PCMs used
to enhance building envelopes are not 100 % pure. Usually, latent heat of phase
transition varies for these compounds between 150 and 270 kJ/kg and depends on
chemical purity (Sharma et al. 2009).
Poor heat conduction of paraffinic PCMs is an often reported problem associated
with PCM applications in building products facing interior space (wall, floor, and
ceiling surfaces). This group of PCM applications requires fast heat accumulation and
PCM discharging. This can be either achieved through direct increase of thermal
conductivity of the PCM-enhanced product, or indirectly through increase of the
surface heat transfer coefficient in place of PCM location (Stovall and Tomlinson
1995). Ceiling panels containing PCM or PCM-enhanced wall boards are good
examples of PCM applications facing interior of the building, where relatively slow
heat transport to and from the PCM effects system’s thermal performance. During last
decade, several authors investigated the improvement of heat conduction by the
addition of highly conductive fillers into the paraffin or by using high conductive
matrix to carry paraffin. Most typical heat conduction enhancing agents are as follows:
1. Metal particles (Kozumi 2004; Molefi et al. 2010)
2. Graphite powder, expanded graphite, and exfoliated graphite (Kim and Drzal
2009; Xia et al. 2010; Cheng et al. 2010a, b)
3. Carbon fibers and nano-fibers (Fukai et al. 2002; Wang et al. 2010; Cui et al.
2011)
Table 3.1 summarizes basic physical properties of paraffins having carbon
numbers between C(14) and C(33). As shown in Table 3.1, melting temperatures of
n-alkanes increase with the increasing number of carbon atoms. It can be observed

4
http://europecandles.org/pages/uk/an-everlasting-history/raw-materials-and-candles-production-
processes.php?lang=FR.
3.2 PCM Classification 69

Table 3.1 Basic thermal properties of n-paraffins

Name Carbon Chemical Melting Heat of Molecular
number symbol pointa fusionb weighta
Units °C kJ/kg g/mole
n-Tetradecane C(14) C14H30 6 228 198.39
n-Pentadecane C(15) C15H32 10 205 212.42
n-Hexadecane C(16) C16H34 18 237 226.44
n-Heptadecane C(17) C17H36 22 213 240.47
n-Octadecane C(18) C18H38 28 244 254.5
n-Nonadecane C(19) C19H40 32 222 268.53
n-Eicosane C(20) C20H42 37 246 282.55
n-Henicosane C(21) C21H44 40.5 200 296.58
n-Docosane C(22) C22H46 44.5 249 310.61
n-Tricosane C(23) C23H48 47.5 232 324.63
n-Tetracosane C(24) C24H50 52 255 338.66
n-Pentacosane C(25) C25H52 54 238 352.69
n-Hexacosane C(26) C26H54 56.5 256 366.71
n-Heptacosane C(27) C27H56 59 236 380.74
n-Octacosane C(28) C28H58 64.5 253 394.77
n-Nonacosane C(29) C29H60 65 240 408.79
n-Triacontane C(30) C30H62 66 251 422.82
n-Hentriacontane C(31) C31H64 67 242 436.85
n-Dotriacontane C(32) C32H66 69 170 450.87
n-Triatriacontane C(33) C33H68 71 268 464.9
a
Becker (1997)
b
Sharma et al. (2009)

that these paraffins have melting points between 6 and 71 °C, which is almost
exactly within expected temperature range for the PCM-enhanced building enve-
lopes. Paraffin wax is non-corrosive, chemically stable, and non-reactive below
500 °C. Pure paraffin waxes of carbon number above C(16) are colorless, odorless,
and tasteless solids. Paraffinic PCMs usually have relatively sharp enthalpy profiles
with well notable melting and freezing points (KCPC 2003). They show very little,
or no supercooling and little volume changes during phase change (Farid et al.
2004). Paraffin can react with halogens under UV, light, or heat. When heated at
high temperatures in the absence of air, paraffin wax can also crack and break up
into smaller, lighter paraffin molecules. The density of paraffin wax generally
increases with increasing molecular mass, but remains below the density of water
(1.0 g/cm3). At 15 °C, the density of paraffins is about 0.773 g/cm3 for carbon
numbers C(14) to C(17) and 0.798 g/cm3 for C(17) to C(20).5 Paraffin waxes are
also non-polar; therefore, they are insoluble in water but are soluble in other

5
http://www.chemicalland21.com/petrochemical/n-PARAFFINS.htm.
70 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

nonpolar petroleum-based solvents, such as benzene, ether, and certain esters.

Solubility of paraffin wax decreases as a number of carbon atoms increases (Becker
1997).
Paraffin does burn readily if ignited. The US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) claims that smoke and fumes generated by paraffin during its burning can be
toxic (EPA 2001). It has been found that during burning of paraffins, styrene,
naphthalene, toluene (aromatic hydrocarbons that are extremely toxic), and form-
aldehydes are released. Burning paraffin wax can cause irritation of the respiratory
system. According to EPA, paraffin burning products exceeds the EPA’s standards
and poses an increased risk of cancer. That is why, when paraffinic PCMs are used
in buildings, the flammability of the PCM-enhanced products may be a concern.
The flash point of paraffin wax is about 120 °C for carbon numbers C(14) to C(17)
and 160 °C for C(17) to C(20).6 It is the lowest temperature at which paraffin can
vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. It is measured according to ASTM D92
standard (ASTM 1992) and it requires an ignition source.
Various flame retardants may be used to improve flame resistance of PCM
building components. The flame retardant may contain boric acid, borates,
ammonium polyphosphates, sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, aluminum
hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, antimony trioxide, various hydrates, tetrakis
(hydroxymethyl) phosphonium salts, halocarbons, including chlorendic acid deri-
vates, halogenated phosphorus compounds including tri-o-cresyl phosphate, tris
(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS), bis (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, tris (1-
aziridinyl)-phosphine oxide (TEPA), and others.7 The flame retardant may be
applied as a solution, dispersion, a suspension, or a colloid that forms a coating on
the microencapsulated paraffinic product to provide flame resistant characteristics.
Summarizing, paraffinic PCMs have numerous favorable characteristics useful in
building applications including chemical stability, long-term durability, congruent
melting, and good nucleating properties. However, they also show some undesir-
able properties such as:
1. Low thermal conductivity
2. Relatively high flammability, and
3. Paraffin burning products are toxic
Most of these undesirable effects can be partly eliminated by slightly modifying
the wax through addition of highly conductive additives, or fire retardants.
In addition, a great majority of paraffinic PCMs used today in building products
are produced out of crude oil. That is why, they are relatively expensive and their
price strongly depends on fluctuations of the world’s oil market. That is why, in the
USA, an effort was undertaken to develop a similar PCM technology based on non-
petroleum source. In 2010, Syntroleum Corporation of Tulsa, OK, and USA
received the US Department of Energy grant (D.E-EE0003924) for the

6
http://www.chemicalland21.com/petrochemical/n-PARAFFINS.htm.
7
http://www.faqs.org/patents/app/20100087115#b.
3.2 PCM Classification 71

development of low cost, bio-based phase-change material for building envelope

applications.8 A new production facility was built in Geismar, LA, USA, to convert
fats and oils into hexadecane and octadecane at the biodiesel price range. This novel
paraffinic PCM technology is manufactured with utilization of low-cost food
industry waste products.

3.2.2.2 Non-paraffinic Bio-based PCMs

In the past, the PCM market has been dominated by paraffin products and salt
hydrates. Paraffins have recently become more popular than the salt hydrates.
However, the use of bio-based compounds has started to make strong inroads in the
world’s PCM market. The ability of bio-PCMs to compete in the building market
depends on their price/performance characteristics relative to paraffinic PCMs.
Despite of many advantages of paraffinic PCMs, their relatively high cost, along
with high flammability, is proving to be major barriers to their widespread
acceptance in buildings. Finally, since paraffins are derived from crude oil, their
prices are susceptible to the seasonal changes and geopolitical scenarios, which
makes economical planning extremely difficult for manufactures of paraffin-based
PCMs. All these factors underline a need to shift the major focus in research and
development away from paraffinic PCMs to some other types of non-petroleum-
based equivalents. The following two alternative groups of chemical compounds
have a great potential to substitute paraffin in the future and compete with the
existing energy-efficient building materials and technologies. They are bio-based
PCMs and inorganic PCMs. Fire safety and environmental benefits of using bio-
based PCMs are significantly greater than those of paraffinic hydrocarbons.
The non-paraffin organic PCMs constitute a highly diversified group of chemical
compounds. Each of these materials has its own physical characteristics unlike
paraffins, which all have very similar properties. This is the largest category of
potential materials for future sustainable heat storage products. Bio-based PCMs are
obtained from animal fat and vegetation such as beef tallow, lard, palm, coconut,
and soybean. They are hydrogenated hydrocarbons, which are chemically stable
and can last for decades. They are non-toxic and can be cycled thousands of cycles
without experiencing any material degradation. That is why they are a sustainable
alternative to paraffinic PCMs. A family of non-paraffin organic PCMs includes
numerous materials with highly varied properties. Abhat (1978) and Buddhi and
Sawhney (1994) have conducted an extensive survey of organic materials and
identified a number of esters, fatty acids, alcohols, and glycols suitable for heat
storage.

8
Low-cost phase-change material (PCM) for building envelopes. http://www.recovery.gov/
Transparency/RecipientReportedData/pages/RecipientProjectSummary508.aspx?AwardIdSur=
117469.
72 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Fatty acids are given by the formula CH3(CH2)2nCOOH. They perform solid-
ification with very little supercooling and have similar heat of fusion as paraffins,
which are both positive qualities. However, they are also relatively expensive if not
produced from waste products and show a tendency toward mild corrosiveness
(Sharma et al. 2009). Fatty acids, possess some superior properties over inorganic
PCMs such as for example melting congruency. They also show (i) good chemical
stability, (ii) they are non-toxic, and (iii) have suitable melting temperature range
for building applications. For most of fatty acids with melting point appropriate for
building envelope applications, densities in solid and liquid phases are ranging
between 800 and 1100 kg/m3. According to Rozanna et al. (2005), in the liquid
phases, these materials have surface tensions in the order of 20–30 dyne cm−1 and
are therefore high enough to be retained (when melted) in the structure of the
material carrier such as concrete, gypsum, and wood composite. The raw fatty acids
are derived from sustainable vegetable and animal sources. This assures an envi-
ronment-friendly non-pollutant source of supply.
Fatty-acid esters come from combination of fatty acids with alcohols. Their
densities are similar to paraffins. When the alcohol component is glycerol, the fatty-
acid esters produced can be monoglycerides, diglycerides, or triglycerides, which
are components of vegetable fats and oils. Compared to paraffinic PCMs, fatty-acid
esters are significantly less flammable. They are made from underused feedstocks
such as soybean oils, coconut oils, palm oils, and beef tallow. Because they are
fully hydrogenated, the fatty-acid esters PCMs remain stable for years with ability
to undergo many thousands of phase-change cycles with no risk of oxidation. These
bio-based PCMs are capable of absorbing, storing, and releasing large amounts of
latent heat with no or little supercooling, similar to paraffin-based PCMs. In
addition, fatty-acid esters are equally easy to microencapsulate. Table 3.2 shows
basic phase-change properties of selected organic acids and esters, which can be
considered for building envelope applications—due to their melting temperatures
ranging between 6 and 70 °C.
Polyethylene glycols, or short PEGs, are polymers with heat of fusion between 100
and 200 kJ/kg (see Table 3.3). The chemical formula for PEGs is C2nH4n + 2On+1.
They are produced from ethylene glycol. Polyethylene glycols are available in a
molecular weight range from about 200 to 35,000. PEGs with molecular weight below
6000 g/mol are suitable for building envelope applications. Melting temperature for
PEGs with an average molecular weight between 200 and 400 g/mol is between 17 and
22 °C. These PEGs are in a liquid stage at room temperature. If higher melting
temperature (ranging between upper twenties and forties) is desired, PEGs with
molecular weight between 400 and 4000 g/mol can be used. The melting temperature
of all PEGs with a molecular weight exceeding 4000 g/mol is around 58–65 °C.
Sugar alcohols are getting interest today as potential PCMs. Sugar alcohols are a
hydrogenated form of a carbohydrate such as D-sorbitol and xylitol. They generally
have higher latent heat and density than paraffins and fatty acids. According to
Kakiuchi et al. (1998), sugar alcohols do not present health hazard; erythritol and
xylitol are used as sweeteners. Unfortunately, they have melting temperatures over
90 °C, which limits their building applications.
3.2 PCM Classification 73

Table 3.2 Comparison of melting points and heat of fusion of selected bio-based fatty acids and
fatty-acid esters
Name Molecular Melting Heat of References
formula point fusion
Units °C kJ/kg
Isopropyl palmiate C19H38O2 10 186 Haves et al. (1993)
Isopropyl stearate C21H42O2 14–18 142 Lutton (1967)
Caprylic acid C8H16O2 16.5 148.5 Schossig et al. (2003)
Butil stearate C22H44O2 19 200 Lutton (1967)
Dimethyl sabacate C12H22O4 21 120–135 Feldman et al. (1986)
Vinyl stearate C20H38O2 27–29 122 Lutton (1967)
Capric acid C10H20O2 32 152 Lutton (1967)
Lauric acid C12H24O2 42–44 178 Lutton (1967)
Myristic acid C14H28O2 49–58 187–204 Abhat (1983), Lane (1980),
Sari and Kaygyusz (2001)
Palmitic acid C16H32O2 61–64 185–203 Dicer and Rosen (2002), Lane
(1980), Sari and Kaygyusz (2002)
Stearic acid C18H36O2 69–70 203 Dincer and Rosen (2002),
Lane (1980), Lutton (1967)

In the USA, the US Department of Agriculture and the National Science

Foundation has sponsored research to investigate the potential vegetable-derived
compounds becoming significant in the PCM market.9,10 During this work, the
researchers investigated over 200 different fat- and vegetable oil-based PCMs with
latent heats between 150 and 220 J/g. Table 3.3 gives fusion energies and melting
temperature for selected organic non-paraffinic PCMs with phase-transition tem-
perature range making them suitable for building envelope applications.
The fire safety and environmental benefits of using bio-based PCMs are sig-
nificantly greater than those of paraffinic hydrocarbons (Suppes et al. 2002a).
Waste disposal of organic compounds used in buildings is another important fact
to consider. Paraffins are long chain alkanes with no “active” element on their
molecule for bio agents (such as microbes and bacteria) to begin their breakdown.
While this is very attractive from long-term durability perspective, it presents
environment disposal problems. In comparison, most of bio-based PCMs are nat-
urally degradable. However, when properly encapsulated, they remain chemically
stable. During accelerated aging tests, vegetable-based PCMs have demonstrated
chemical stability for equivalence of 30 years of service (Suppes et al. 2002a).
Accordingly, bio-based PCMs will most likely degrade in half a year, when dis-
carded in landfills. Many vegetable-based and animal fat-based PCMs can be
derived locally using common agricultural crops and food industry waste products.

9
US Department of Agriculture-SBIR Phase 1 grant #2002-00401 and Phase 2grant # 2003-04094.
10
National Science Foundation, USA—SBIR, Award Number—0750470.
74 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Table 3.3 Fusion energies and melting temperature for selected organic non-paraffinic PCMs
Name Melting Heat of References
point fusion
Units °C kJ/kg
Formic acid 7.8 247 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Polyglycol E400 8 99.6 Lane (1980), Mehling and
Cabeza (2008)
Dimethyl-sulfoxide 16.5 86.7 Farid et al. (2004)
Glycerin 17.9 198.7 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Octadecyl 3-mencaptopropylate 21 143 Kenisarin (1993), Cassedy (2000)
Polyglycol E600 22 127.2 Dicer and Rosen (2002), Lane (1980)
I-Dodecanol 26 200 Hawes et al. (1993)
Octadecyl Thioglycate 26 90 Kenisarin (1993), Cassedy (2000)
Methyl Palmitate 29 205 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
I-Tetradecanol 38 205 Hawes et al. (1993)
Camphenilone 39 205 Sharma and Sagara (2005),
Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Docasyl Bromide 40 201 Lingayat and Suple(2013)
Caprylone 40 259 Sharma and Sagera (2005),
Lingayat and Suple(2013)
Phenol 41 120 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Methyl-12-hydroxy stearate 42–43 120–126 Feldman et al. (1986)
Cyanamide 44 209 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Hydrocinnamic acid 48 118 Mehling and Cabeza (2008),
Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Camphene 50 238 Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Nitro Naphthalene 56.7 103 Sharma and Segera (2005) Lingayat
and Suple (2013)
Beeswax 61.8 177 Ramnanan-Singh (2012), Lingayat
and Suple (2013)
Glycolic acid 63 109 Mehling and Cabeza (2008),
Lingayat and Suple (2013)
Polyglycol E6000 66 190 Dicer and Rosen (2002), Lane (1980)
Acrylic acid 68 115 Lingayat and Suple (2013)

This leads to a more stable price and regionally based feedstocks. In addition,
according to USDA, bio-based PCMs are considered to be nearly carbon neutral
(Suppes et al. 2002b).

3.2.3 Inorganic PCMs

Numerous studies demonstrated that hydrated salts have a phase-change latent heat
value of around mid 200 s kJ/kg and reasonably thermal conductivity of about 0.5 W/
mK. Starting from 1948, when the first passive solar house utilizing PCM was
3.2 PCM Classification 75

constructed by Maria Telkes,11 most of early PCM buildings used inorganic phase
changing compounds (Telkes 1952, 1978). These materials were often installed in
solar walls containing massive metal containers. Inorganic compounds include salt
hydrates, salts, metals, and alloys. They cover a wide range of phase-transition
temperatures. Only salt hydrates, salt mixtures, and metallics are used as PCMs today.
Inorganic PCMs demonstrate relatively high heat storage density because they have
high latent heat of fusion per unit volume and their conductivity may be at least twice
as high as that of organic materials. Compared to organic PCMs, inorganic materials
usually have similar enthalpies per mass, but higher ones per volume due to their high
density. Another advantage is that they are readily available at a low cost. They are
also not considered as a safety hazard, since inorganic compounds are non-flammable
and only slightly toxic (Sharma et al. 2009).
Certain disadvantages were identified by using inorganic PCMs, though. The
major behavioral characteristics of salt hydrates impeding the scale of their heat
storage applications are that of incongruent or semi-congruent melting and poor
nucleation characteristics. In case of a large number of inorganic PCMs, the phase-
transition process that occurs at the melting and freezing temperatures involves the
hydration and dehydration. Sometimes the inadequate amount of water released
during the melting process is not capable to dissolve the crystalline structure of the
PCM. At the same time, a significant difference in densities between the solid and
liquid material, combined with gravity forces, results in the less hydrated salt that
desegregates and is settled at the bottom of the container. A similar situation is
observed during the solidification process, where poor nucleating properties of
hydrated salts lead to supercooling and thus a reduction in the overall latent heat
storage performance (Hawes et al. 1993). If such inorganic compound is not
properly tailored using special additives, these problems may become irreversible
tampering the long-term system thermal effectiveness (Farid et al. 2004; IEA 2005).
Another main problem effecting building applications is material compatibility with
metals, yielding a potential for corrosion in case of installations utilizing metal
enclosures or containments (IEA 2005; Mehling and Cabeza 2008). There is still a
significant number of other inorganic compounds which are expected to have
desired latent heat storage properties and which need to be investigated (IEA 2005).

3.2.3.1 Salt Hydrates

Salt hydrates are the most important group of inorganic PCMs, which have been
extensively studied for their use in latent heat thermal energy storage systems. Salt
hydrates are inorganic salts containing one or multiple water molecules, such that
the resulting crystalline solid has a chemical formula of AB · nH2O. Some of the
best known examples are sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na2SO4 · 10H2O), lithium
nitrate trihydrate (LiNO3 · 3H2O), and potassium fluoride tetrahydrate (KF · 4H2O).

11
http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/telkes.html.
76 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

They may be also considered as alloys of inorganic salts and water, forming typical
crystalline solids. Salt hydrates are non-toxic, non-flammable, and moderately
corrosive. They possess higher thermal conductivity compared to organic PCMs,
and they demonstrate volume changes on melting. The solid–liquid phase-change
process of salt hydrates is actually a dehydration of hydrated salt, although this
reaction resembles melting or freezing thermodynamically. A salt hydrate usually
melts either to a salt hydrate with fewer moles of water, or to its anhydrous form
(Telkes 1978).
A large number of salt hydrates have melting temperatures in a range suitable for
building applications. Table 3.4 shows basic phase-change properties of selected
inorganic PCMs of known phase-transition characteristics. In general, for inorganic
salt hydrates, densities of solid and liquid phases are ranging between 1400 and
2000 kg/m3 (for compounds with melting point suitable for building envelope
applications). In building applications, where building materials are usually
exposed to the hygrothermal processes, it is good to remember that salt hydrates are
not stable in water environments and vapors and that they need to be protected from
the negative environmental impacts. Macro-packaging, in form of plastic pouches
or containers, is possible since salt hydrates are compatible with plastics. This fact
makes PCM packaging process relatively easy and inexpensive. The only challenge
is long-term durability of such products (tightness).
As stated earlier, the major performance issue, which affects a wide spread
application of salt hydrates in buildings, is their incongruent melting. Incongruent
melting in salt hydrates is caused by the fact that the amount of available water
during crystallization is not always sufficient to dissolve all the solid phase salt. It
leads to an irreversible phase separation during the PCM cycling. During the
melting process, the lower hydrate (or anhydrous salt) settles down due to density
difference. Most often, phase separation leads to formation of three stratified zones.
At the bottom, there is a solid layer formed by salt precipitation from the solution.
Above this, there is an active salt hydrate zone. At the top, there is a dilute solution
of the salt hydrate. Unfortunately, this hydrate is later unavailable for recombination
with water during the crystallization process. Furthermore, during the following
melting/freezing processes, additional salt may break out from the solution, fol-
lowed with its accumulation on the bottom. This phenomenon results in an irre-
versible melting–freezing of the salt hydrate leading to lower phase-change
efficiency with each phase-transition cycle. Incongruent melting decreases the
overall heat storage capacity since phase separation results in the top and bottom
layers providing only sensible heat to the total quantity of heat of an energy storage
system. Control of phase separation can be accomplished by chemical modification
of the salt hydrate through an addition of suitable additives. Sometimes, an extra
water principle is used to avoid incongruent melting. The method involves using
extra water to dissolve the entire anhydrous salt during melting.
The other improvement method is thickening of PCM. Thickening of the
material to gel form was suggested by Telkes (1952). Different thickening materials
have been tried to minimize the phase separation in solid and liquid phases and also
3.2 PCM Classification 77

Table 3.4 Basic phase-transition properties for selected inorganic PCMs

Name Chemical formula Melting point Heat of fusion References
Units °C kJ/kg
Dipotassium phosphate K2HPO4 6H2O 14 109 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
Potassium fluoride KF ∙ 4H2O 18.5 231 Abhat (1983),
tetrahydrate Heckenkamp and
Baumann (1997),
Zalba et al. (2003),
Khundhair and Farid
(2004)
Ferric bromide FeBr3 6H2O 21 105 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
Manganese nitrate Mn(NO3)2 ∙ 6H2O 25.8 125.9 Nagano et al. (2000)
hexahydrate
Calcium chloride CaCl2 ∙ 6H2O 29–30 171, 190.8 Abhat (1983),
hexahydrate Heckenkamp and
Baumann (1997),
Khundhair and Farid
(2004)
Lithium nitrate Li NO3 ∙ 3H2O 30 296 Heckenkamp and
trihydrate Baumann (1997)
Calcium bromide CaBr2 ∙ 6H2O 30.2 115.5 Lane (1980), Dincer
hexahydrate and Rosen (2002)
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 ∙ 10H2O 32.4 254 Telkes (1975), Dincer
decahydrate and Rosen (2002)
Yavapaiite KFe(SO4)2 12H2O 33 173 Sharma et al. (2009)
dodecahydrate
Lithium bromite LiBr2 2H2O 34 124 Sharma et al. (2009)
dihydrate
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 ∙ 10H2O 34.2 146.9 Telkes (1975), Abhat
decahydrate (1983)
Sodium orthophosphate Na2HPO4 ∙ 12H2O 35.5–44 265 Belton and Ajami
dodecahydrate (1973), Telkes (1975)
Zinc nitrate hexahydrate Zn(NO3)2 ∙ 6H2O 36.2 246.5 Lane (1980), Dincer
and Rosen (2002)
Ferric chloride FeCl3 6H2O 37 223 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
Manganese nitrate Mn(NO3)2 4H2O 37.1 115 Sharma et al. (2009)
tetrahydrate
Cobalt sulfate CoSO4 7H2O 40.7 170 Sharma et al. (2009)
heptahydrate
Potassium fluoride KF2H2O 42 162 Sharma et al. (2009)
dihydrate
Magnesium iodide MgI2 8H2O 42 133 Sharma et al. (2009)
octahydrate
Calcium iodide CaI2 6H2O 42 162 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
K2HPO4 7H2O 45 145 Sharma et al. (2009)
(continued)
78 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Table 3.4 (continued)

Name Chemical formula Melting point Heat of fusion References
Units °C kJ/kg
Potassium
orthophosphate
heptahydrate
Zinc nitrate tetrahydrate Zn(NO3)2 4H2O 45 110 Sharma et al. (2009)
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3) 4H2O 47 142 Sharma et al. (2009)
tetrahydrate
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3) 4H2O 47 153 Sharma et al. (2009)
tetrahydrate
Ferric nitrate Fe(NO3)3 9H2O 47 155 Sharma et al. (2009)
nano-hydrate
Sodium silicate Na2SiO3 4H2O 48 168 Sharma et al. (2009)
tetrahydrate
Potassium K2HPO4 3H2O 48 99 Sharma et al. (2009)
orthophosphate
trihydrate
Sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3 ∙ 5H2O 48–55 187, 209 Telkes (1975),
pentahydrate Heckenkamp and
Baumann (1997)
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 7H2O 48.5 202 Sharma et al. (2009)
heptahydrate
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 3H2O 51 104 Sharma et al. (2009)
trihydrate
Zinc nitrate bihydrate Zn(NO3)2 2H2O 55 68 Sharma et al. (2009)
Ferric chloride bihydrate FeCl3 2H2O 56 90 Sharma et al. (2009)
Nickle nitrate Ni(NO3)2 6H2O 57 169 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
Sodium acetate Na 58 226, 264 Heckenkamp and
trihydrate (CH3COO) ∙ 3H2O Baumann (1997)
Magnesium chloride MnCl2 4H2O 58 151, 178 Sharma et al. (2009)
tetrahydrate
Ferric nitrate Fe(NO3)2 6H2O 60.5 126 Sharma et al. (2009)
hexahydrate
Sodium aluminum NaAl(SO4)2 61 181 Sharma et al. (2009)
sulfate decahydrate 10H2O
Sodium phosphate Na3PO4 12H2O 65 190 Sharma et al. (2009)
dodecahydrate
Tetrasodium Na2P2O7 ∙ 10H2O 70 184 Heckenkamp and
pyrophosphate Baumann (1997)
decahydrate
Lithium acetate LiCH3COO 2H2O 70 150 Sharma et al. (2009)
dihydrate

to prevent nucleating agents from settling down due to the gravity (Lane 1983; Ryu
et al. 1992; Cabeza et al. 2003; Gok et al. 2009). In early PCM research with
Glauber salt, a bentonite clay has been used as a thickening agent (Farid et al.
2004). In addition, a bentonite clay, due to the lower thermal conductivity of the
3.2 PCM Classification 79

mixture, provides an important feature for some building envelope applications,

which is a reduction of overall heat transfer rate. PCMs modified in this way, if
applied as a part of the building fabric, can generate a peak hour load shifting.12
Biswas (1977) found that for Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4 · 10H2O), incongruent
melting formed a heavy anhydrous salt (anhydrous sodium sulfate—Na2SO4) and a
saturated solution of in the water. Initial attempts to solve this problem were by
using a composition of 68.2 wt% sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na2SO4 · 10H2O)
and 31.8 wt% H2O. This salt modification enables more stable cycling; however, it
also resulted in a reduction in the heat storage density. It also made the system to
operate at a large temperature swing. Another similar research performed by
McMullin and Ben-Abdallah (1987) demonstrated that at levels of excess water
greater than 10 %, a separation of anhydrous salt and following this process,
compound stratification was increasing significantly.
In later years, super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) synthesized from the acrylic
acid have been tried as thickening agents. It was found that SAPs were effectively
preventing phase separation of the high hydrate inorganic salts (Na2SO4 · 10H2O,
Na2HPO4 · 12H2O, Na2CO3 · 10H2O) (Ryu et al. 1992). Inclusion of 3–5 wt% SAP
was found to be an effective thickener for most of these salt hydrates. For the low
hydrate inorganic salts (CH3COONa · 3H2O, Na2S2Oa · 5H2O), adding small
amounts of 2–4 wt% of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)13 stabilized the salt
hydrate (Lane 1980, 1983). In research study performed by Gok et al. (2009),
Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4 10H2O) was successfully stabilized with different con-
centrations of polyacrylamide and gelatin gels, which were used to prevent
incongruent melting.
Incongruent melting of salt hydrates is not their only problem. Their relatively
high latent heat storage density is often compromised by a large supercooling effect.
Most salt hydrates have poor nucleating properties resulting in supercooling of the
liquid before crystallization process begins. This means that in order to achieve a
reasonable rate of PCM crystallization, the salt hydrate solution has to be super-
cooled, since the rate of nucleation is generally very low at a temperature level close
to the melting point. As a result, the phase-transition heat, instead of being dis-
charged at fusion temperature, is discharged at much lower temperature. A super-
cooled liquid is thermodynamically not stable; the solid crystals can only grow due
to the surface tension, once a solid nucleation aid additive is available (Skripov
1974; Kurz and Fisher 1992; Kashchiev 2000). Different foreign substances,
introduced to the salt hydrates, can reduce their surface tension and improve their
ability to crystallize. This process is sometimes called “ PCM seeding.” Small

12
http://www.google.com/patents/US3986969.
13
http://www.google.com/patents/US4585572.
80 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

amounts of added foreign materials are called “seeds,” “nucleators,” or “nucleation

agents.”
A large number of experimental works performed during last decades has
demonstrated that the nucleation problem posed by PCM supercooling in salt
hydrates can be adequately solved by adding suitable nucleation agents. One of the
first inorganic PCMs for which nucleators were investigated was Glauber’s salt—
Na2SO4 · 10H2O—Telkes (1952, 1978), Biswas (1977). Glauber’s salt has a phase-
change temperature between 32 and 35 °C. Maria Telkes experimented with some
success using sodium tetraborate, to minimize supercooling effect. Experimental
results showed that supercooling in Glaber’s salt could be reduced to less than 2 °C.
The sodium tetraborate has a high density, and therefore, an additional thickening
agent had to be added to the Glauber’s salt to prevent settling. However, the above
attempt was not fully successful. It was observed that upon continued testing,
supercooling was still present, causing the material to remain in liquid form below
its freezing point without solidifying.
In many commercially available PCM products, the performance target is to
reduce supercooling of the used hydrated salt to less than 5 °C. At the same time, it
is preferred that the chemical additives do not act as nucleating agents for the lower
hydrated salts. In this way, any lower hydrate which might form could supercool to
a temperature at which the first or original hydrate begins to solidify and segre-
gation could be avoided. An effective nucleation agent has to provide sufficient
characteristics to uphold surface tension and help in initiation of local crystalliza-
tion (Günther et al. 2007). However, it is good to remember that most often each
PCM compound requires a specific combination of performance enhancing
additives.
Today, a development of a novel commercial inorganic PCM has most often to
involve a development of the proprietary nucleation enhancement strategy.
Furthermore, nucleation additives that are effective for one specific salt hydrate may
not be necessarily effective when a different PCM is used. The nucleating additives
are preferably added in an amount from 0.005 to 2 wt%. Very often, preferred
nucleating additives include Ba(OH)2, BaO, BaCO3, BaSO4, Sr(OH)2, SrO, SrCO3,
Mg(OH)2, MgO, MgCO3, NaOH, Na3AlF6, CaO, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3, and CaC2O4.14
Ryu et al. (1992) experimented with several other nucleators to reduce the effect of
supercooling. Powders of carbon (1.5–6.7 μm), copper (1.5–2.5 μm), and titanium
oxide (2–200 μm) were found to reduce supercooling of thickened
Na2HPO4 · 12H2O. For thickened CH3COONa · 3H2O, supercooling was reduced
from 20 to 2–3 °C by adding 2 wt% potassium sulfate. Numerous compositions of
PCMs were developed in the range of 30–60 °C to prevent both supercooling and
phase separation (Abhat 1978, 1983; Sharma and Sagara 2005; Gok et al. 2006).
This included Glauber’s salt/SAP/sodium tetraborate at 94/3/3 wt%, with a melting
temperature of 35 °C.

14
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0807150.html.
3.2 PCM Classification 81

3.2.3.2 Metallics

This category includes low-temperature melting metals and metal eutectics. In most
of metallics, melting temperatures are pretty high over 3000 °C. For example,
carbon melts at 3527 °C. However, there is also a group of materials with lower
melting temperatures, which may be useful for building applications. Mercury is a
liquid at room temperature, and gallium melts at slightly below body temperature.
In metallic substances, atoms are held together by metallic bonds, which are much
stronger than intermolecular forces in other types of chemical compounds. In
addition, in metals, atoms are spaced much tighter than the molecules in molecular
solids. However, the fluid nature of the valence electrons in metals allows the nuclei
and core electrons to slip past one another without breaking the metallic bonds.
Since the atoms can move without disrupting bonds, metals have a wide range of
melting points. Because of their high weight, metallics have not been seriously
considered for PCM building applications, yet. However, when low volume or
limited thickness of building envelope applications is required, metallics may be
likely considered because of the high heat of fusion per unit volume and their high
thermal conductivity. Unfortunately, thermal performance of metallics, suitable for
building applications, is often compromised by their large supercooling effect (see
Ge and Liu 2013). Some of the additional features of metallics are low specific heat
and relatively low vapor pressure.
Metallic alloys have been already employed in several high-performance mili-
tary systems and electronic applications (Antohe et al. 1996; Ge and Liu 2013).
They are also considered for high-temperature solar applications15 (Kotzé et al.
2012). The use of metallics poses a number of unusual engineering problems
related with their unique physical characteristics. A major difference between the
metallics and other PCMs is their high thermal conductivity. A list of phase-change
properties for selected metallics and their eutectics with potential for building
envelope application is given in Table 3.5.

3.2.4 Eutectics and PCM Mixtures

PCMs can be used in form of an individual chemical compound or as a eutectic

mixture of several components (multi-component blend which acts as a single
component). Eutectic compositions are mixtures of two or more chemical com-
ponents, which solidify simultaneously out of the liquid at a minimum freezing
point. On melting, all of these mixture constituents liquefy simultaneously. A large
number of eutectics of inorganic and organic compounds have been reported
Hasnain (1998), George (1989). Eutectics usually perform better than straight

15
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/sunshot/pdfs/csp_review_meeting_042413_chen2.pdf.
82 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Table 3.5 Melting point and Name Melting point Heat of fusion
fusion heat for selected
Units °C kJ/kg
metallics
Gallium–gallium 29.3 n.a.
antimony eutectic
Gallium 30 80.3
Cerrelow eutectic 58 90.9
Bi–Cd–ln eutectic 61 25
Cerrbend eutectic 70 32.6
Bi–Pb–ln eutectic 70 29
Reference Sharma et al. (2009)

chemical compounds with respect to potential segregation during the phase tran-
sition (Lane 1989). Each component of the eutectic composition melts and freezes
congruently forming a mixture of crystals during the solidification process (George
1989), again with unlikely separation. Therefore, most often, none of the mixture
components can sink down due to a different density.
Eutectics have been relatively well known since their early applications dated
back to the late eighteenth century. However, the separation and the life expectancy
of these mixtures were poorly explored at that time, and therefore, their wide spread
usage as PCMs is still limited.
Eutectic PCMs can be broadly grouped into two categories: “organic eutectic
PCMs” and “salt-based products.” However, there is also a third group of “organic–
inorganic eutectic mixtures.” The fundamental performance requirements for
eutectic PCMs can be classified in the following three categories: (i) stable solution
(no separation or degrading in long term), (ii) minimum supercooling, and finally
(iii) close freezing and melting temperatures for all components of the eutectic
composition.
Mixtures of fatty acids and fatty-acid esters are promising PCMs for building
envelope applications. Their major advantages over paraffins and salt hydrates are
relatively high phase-change enthalpy, long-term durability, and capability for easy
impregnation of porous materials. Gypsum and concrete composites are superior
PCM carrier candidates when it comes to building products using organic eutectic
mixtures. Florida Solar Energy Center, USA, investigated impregnation of gypsum
building products with eutectic mixtures of methyl esters, methyl palmitate, methyl
stearate, capric acid, and lauric acid (Feldman et al. 1986; Shapiro 1987). Shilei
et al. (2007) investigated thermal performance of wall board impregnated with
eutectic mixture of capric and lauric acids. Karaipekli and Sari (2007) used eutectic
mixture of capric and palmitic acid to impregnate building gypsum board. Dimaano
and Watanabe (2002a, b) analyzed thermal performance eutectic blends of capric–
lauric acid with pentadecane as a component of dynamic building envelopes.
Table 3.6 shows phase-change thermal properties for a selection of best known
fatty-acid blends and other eutectics, which can be used in building envelopes.
Densities of fatty-acid eutectics are close to or just below a density of water.
3.2 PCM Classification 83

Table 3.6 Melting point and fusion heat for selected eutectic mixtures of fatty acids and other
organic eutectics
Name Proportions Melting Heat of References
point ion
Units wt% °C kJ/kg
Fatty-acid eutectics
Caprylic acid-1-dodacanol 70–30 6.5 171 Zou et al. (2011)
Capric–lauric acid plus 90–10 13.3 142.2 Dimanno and Watanabe
pentadecane (2002a)
Capric–lauric acid 65–35 18 148 Dimanno and Watanabe
(2002b)
Lauric–capric acid 55–45 21 143 Hawes et al. (1993)
Capric–myristic acid 73.5–26.5 21.4 152 Karaipekli and Sari
(2008a, b)
Capric–palmitic acid 76.5–23.5 21.8 171.2 Karaipekli and Sari
(2008a, b)
Capric–myristic acid 66–54 24 147 Lane (1980)
Capric–stearic acid 82–17 24.7 178.6 Karaipekli et al. (2009)
Lauric–palmitic acid 77–23 33 150.6 Nikolic et al. (2003)
Lauric–myristic acid 66–34 34.2 168.8 Sari (2005)
Lauric–palmitic acid 69–31 35.2 166.3 Sari (2005)
Lauric–stearic acid 75.5–24.5 37 183.7 Sari (2004)
Myristic–palmitic acid 58–42 42.6 169.7 Sari (2004)
Myristic–stearic acid 64–36 44.1 182.4 Sari (2005)
Palmitic–stearic acid 64.2–35.8 52.3 181.7 Sari (2004)
Naphthalene–benzoic acid 67.1–32.9 67 123 Hawes et al. (1993)
Other organic eutectics
Triethylolethane + water + urea 45–55 13.4 160 Sharma et al. (2009)
Butyl stearate–butyl palmitate 49–48 + 3 17 138 Feldman et al. (1986)
addditives
Methyl stearate–cetyl stearate 91–9 22.2 180 Nicolic et al. (2003)
Methyl stearate–methyl 86–14 23.9 220 Nicolic et al. (2003)
palmitate
Methyl stearate–cetyl palmitate 91–9 28.2 189 Nicolic et al. (2003)
Triethylolethane + urea 62.5–37.5 29.8 218 Sharma et al. (2009)
Acetamide–urea 63.5–37.5 53 na Abhat (1983)

Elimination of component separation and reduction of subcooling are two major

reasons for mixing of inorganic compounds into eutectic PCM solutions. Some-
times, the following performance enhancing additives need to be added as well:
(i) nucleating agents, which encourage crystal formation and therefore minimize
super cooling; (ii) freeze depressants to achieve a lower phase-change temperature;
and (iii) gelling/thickening agents in order to overcome separation and long-term
degrading problems. As shown in Table 3.7, several inorganic eutectic
84 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

compositions show a melting temperature within a range required for building

envelope applications and relatively high heat storage density. For this group of
eutectics, densities are ranging most often between 1400 and 1600 kg/m3.

3.3 Long-Term Durability of PCMs in Building Envelopes

Durability of building envelope materials can be defined in many different ways. In

contrast to the simple dictionary definition, durability as applied to buildings must
offer not only mere material survival, but also capability of performing desired
functions. The Canadian Standards Association provides one of the most recog-
nized definitions of building durability in North America. According to their
“Guideline on Durability in Buildings” (CSA S478-95, Rev. 1997),16 the broad
definition of durability of the building system is its ability to perform for a desired
or designed time period without significant deterioration or loss of functionality and
without unforeseen cost for maintenance or repair.
Long-term durability of building materials is usually considered as one of the
basic performance requirements. It is measured as the length of the service time.
However, the useful life of a building component is always related to the particular
combination of environmental factors to which it is subjected. So, both long-term
durability and service life span must always be related to the particular conditions
involved (Sereda 1969). Long-term durability criteria for basic PCMs products are
pretty well defined today. However, specific long-term performance characteristics
for PCM-enhanced building envelopes have not been fully understood yet, and
corresponding performance regulations are still waiting for development. In 2004,
in Europe, several German companies founded the Gütegemeinschaft PCM e.V.
(quality control association) and commissioned the Bayerische Zentrum für
Angewandte Energieforschung e.V. (ZAE Bayern—Bavarian Centre for Applied
Energy Research) and the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE) to
develop appropriate procedures for PCM quality control. At that time, the main
objective was to guarantee the quality of both PCMs as well as PCM-enhanced
products. After completion of the initial work, the RAL17 Quality Mark was
introduced in April 2007. The main quality criteria defined in RAL are phase-
transition heat as a function of temperature, the cyclic reproducibility of the heat
storage process, and the thermal conductivity of the PCM.
When applied to building envelopes containing PCMs, long-term durability can
be defined in a similar manner, however, with several necessary significant dis-
tinctions. In building envelopes, PCMs represent a direct part of the building
structure, in contrary to PCMs used in forms of heat storage containers, heat

16
http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=CSA%20S478-1995%20(R2007)&source=
msn&adgroup=csa.
17
http://195.20.235.12/pdf/RAL-GZ_896.pdf.
3.3 Long-Term Durability of PCMs in Building Envelopes 85

Table 3.7 Basic phase-change characteristics of inorganic eutectics

Chemical formula Proportions Melting Heat Reference
point of
fusion
Units % °C kJ/kg
Na2SO4–NaCl–NH4Cl–H2O 32–14–12– 11 na Abhat (1983), Sharma
42 and Sagara (2005)
C5H5C5H5–(C6H5)2O 26.5–73.5 12 97.9 Abhat (1983), Sharma
and Sagara (2005)
Na2SO4–NaCl–H2O 37–17–46 18 na Abhat (1983)
CaCl2 6H2O–NH4NO3–NH4Br 96–2–2 20 141 Kimura and Kai (1984)
CaCl2 6H2O–KNO3–KBr 96–2–2 23 138 Kimura and Kai (1984)
CaCl2 6H2O–Ca(NO3)2 4H2O– 93–5–2 24 125 Kimura and Kai (1984)
Mg(NO3)2 6H2O
CaCl2 6H2O–MgCl2 6H2O 66.6–33.3 25 127 Heckenkamp and
Baumann (1997)
CaCl2–NaCl–KCl–H2O 48–4.3– 26.8 188 Heckenkamp and
0.4– Baumann (1997)
47.3
Ca(NO)3 ∙ 4H2O–Mg 47–53 30 136 Abhat (1983), Zalba
(NO)3 ∙ 6H2O et al. (2003)
Na(CH3COO) 3H2O–CO(NH2)2 60–40 31.5 226 Wada et al. (1983)
CaCl2 6H2O Ca(NO3)2 4H2O Mg 85–15 49 170 Kimura and Kai (1984)
(NO3)2 6H2O
NaCH3COO 3H2O NaBr 2H2O 90–10 51 175 Kimura and Kai (1984)
Mg(NO3)2 6H2O–NH4NO3 61.5–38.5 52 125.5 Lane (1980)
Mg(NO3) 6H2O–MgCl2 6H2O 58.7–41.3 58 132.2 Lane (1980),
Heckenkamp and
Baumann (1997)
Mg(NO3)2 6H2O–Al(NO3)2 9H2O 53–47 61 148 Abhat (1983)

exchangers, hydronic tubing, etc. The major difference is that PCM building sys-
tems cannot be freely replaced or repaired in case of their failure. They have to stay
fully functional as long as building is in operation. For example, recent surveys
indicate that the average building life in North America is about 80 years, in
Switzerland within 70–90 years, and in Britain even over 130 years (Bowyer 2005).
The National Standard of China stipulates that the building life is 100 years and 50–
100 years for the main construction of high-rise buildings and common buildings,
respectively.18 Detail reports in this field are not available for China yet, however,
according to Zhisheng et al. (2006), the building service life, especial for residential
buildings in large cities, may often be less than 30 years. Since different configu-
rations of PCM-enhanced building envelops can be located in different parts of the

18
Uniform credibility standard of building construction. (GB50068-2001) MOC-2001: Beijing,
China.
86 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

building, these technologies have to be individually designed for each specific

location and application. That means, a nominal life span for the PCM-enhanced
building envelope materials has to be at least as long as expected service time of the
building component, which hosts the PCM system.
PCMs, when applied to building envelopes, cannot compromise their desired
attributes, performance characteristics, and overall functionality. Although some
building shell components may perform according to a single required task, the
modern building envelope must usually fulfill many functions. First and foremost,
the building envelope acts as a prime construction component of a building. It must
resist all environmental loads such as wind, rain, snow, dynamic and static service,
and seismic loads, effectively transferring these loads to the building’s structural
components. Building shell serves also as an environmental barrier to resist the
intrusion of moisture in many forms, including rain, snow, hail, ice, and vapor.
Environmental protection function also includes building air sealing, which plays a
very important role both in building’s long-term hygrothermal and energy perfor-
mance. Finally, as one of the most significant contributors to a building’s energy
efficiency, building exterior shell must control heat transfer between interior of the
building and external environment. The basic performance requirements for
building envelopes include noise and interior lighting control, as well. Finally, the
building envelope must also provide a satisfactory level of fire resistance to protect
against ignition in case of contact with a fire source, enable evacuation of the
building, and to reduce the spread of fire to adjacent buildings.
The life expectancies of building envelope components depend on used material
configuration, on the quality of installation, the level of maintenance, climatic con-
ditions, and the intensity of use. Some components may remain functional but become
obsolete due to changing code requirements, architectural, styles and preferences, or
improvements in newer products, while others may have a short life expectancy due to
intensive use. As stated above, live expectancy of the PCM-enhanced building
envelopes should be at least as long it is considered now for analogical conventional
systems without PCM. Based on the National Home Builders Association (NHAB)
data, Table 3.8 shows estimated life expectancies for building envelope components
of North American residential buildings (NAHB 2007).
Unfortunately, very little of service life data are available today for modern
building envelopes containing PCM, and what data are available appear to contain
many limitations and contradictions coming from the fact that both general building
lifetime as well as life span data for different building envelopes varies from
country to country. Evaluation of PCM’s stability and potential of failure over a
long period of application are important challenges for the successful application of
suitable PCMs in building envelopes. Theoretically, most of PCM-enhanced
building envelopes should undergo at least one melt–freeze cycle per day. How-
ever, it is good to remember that many floor and ceiling PCM applications inte-
grated with hydronic heating/cooling systems can easily reach even 20 cycles per
day. In addition, an annual number of phase-change cycles is usually geographic
location specific, being a function of exact climatic conditions. Table 3.9 presents
example minimum cycling requirements for most typical PCM applications in
3.3 Long-Term Durability of PCMs in Building Envelopes 87

Table 3.8 Estimated life expectancies for building envelope components of North American
residential buildings
Material name Comment Live expectancy
(years)
Engineered wood Floor and roof trusses and laminated strand 30
systems lumber are expected to last at least 30 years
Wood framing and Framing and structural systems have Lifetime of the
plywood boards extended longevities: poured concrete building depends on
systems, timber frame houses, and country
structural insulated panels will all last a
lifetime. Wall panels and roof and floor
trusses will similarly last a lifetime
Plywood 30
Oriented strand boards 25–30
(OSB) and particle
boards
Gypsum boards 30
Concrete and masonry Masonry is one of the most durable 100
walls components of a building. Brick veneers
and brick walls have an average life span
over 100 years
Building foundations Poured concrete foundations and concrete Lifetime of the
block foundations—lifetime of the building building depends on
country
Hardwood floors 100 or more
Marble, slate, or 100
granite floors
Vinyl floors 50
Linoleum floors 25
Carpet floors 8–10
Roofing The lifetime of a roof depends on climatic
conditions, building design, material
quality, and maintenance
Slate, metal, copper, 50
and clay/concrete tile
roofs
Asphalt shingles 20
Fiber cement shingles 25
Wood windows 30
Aluminum windows 15–20
Source NAHB (2007)

building envelopes, considering that PCM is used for cooling application in

southern US climate. Conservatively, 10 cycles per day were considered for
dynamic building envelope applications integrated with mechanical systems.
Building life span was assumed as 80 years (data available for North American
houses—see above). It can be seen that an expected lifetime number of cycles can
88 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Table 3.9 Minimum cycling requirements estimated for most typical PCM applications in
building envelopes
PCM application name Expected Expected Life Minimum
number of number of days expectancy of number of PCM
PCM when PCM is building cycles during
cycles per cycling per envelope the system
day year component lifetime
(years)
PCM floor tiles, or PCM- 1 300 80 24,000
enhanced concrete slab—
passive use
PCM floor tiles, or PCM- 10 300 80 240,000
enhanced concrete slab—
used in conjunction with
floor hydronic system
PCM-enhanced gypsum 1 300 30 9000
board or plaster facing
building interior—
installed on the
lightweight wall
PCM-enhanced composite 1 300 30 9000
board, or array of PCM
pouches installed behind
the gypsum board or
interior plaster
PCM-enhanced concrete 1 240 80 19,200
wall
PCM-enhanced thermal 1 240 80 19,200
insulation installed in the
wall cavity, wall core
PCM-enhanced composite 1 240 30 7200
board, or array of PCM
pouches installed on the
exterior side of the wall
PCM ceiling tiles— 1 300 30 9000
passive use
PCM ceiling tiles used in 1–10 300 30 9000–90,000
conjunction with dynamic
ceiling system
PCM-enhanced attic floor 1 240 80 19,200
insulationa
Composite PCM board or 1 240 50 12,000
array of PCM pouches
installed on the roof deck
level
PCM-enhanced flat roof 1 240 15–20 3600–4800
membrane
*
There is an easy access to PCM-enhanced attic insulation, so cycling requirement for this
application can be lower considering that insulation can be replaced during its lifetime
3.3 Long-Term Durability of PCMs in Building Envelopes 89

be between 3.600 for flat roof membrane applications and 240.000 for floor and
ceiling technologies integrated with mechanical cooling systems. This is a 66-fold
difference, which needs to be considered during selection of the PCM technology
for specific application. In most common PCM applications in gypsum boards and
plasters, an expected lifetime number of PCM cycles may reach 9000.
However, long-term durability performance requirements for PCM-enhanced
building envelopes can not only be focused on PCM thermal characteristics.
Depends on their locations within the building, they need to also follow specific
design and performance requirements for specific building envelope components.
This includes structural, thermal, hygrothemal, and fire safety requirements. These
regulations and corresponding testing methods do not exist yet for PCM-enhanced
building envelopes. It is expected that following a current growth in the area of
PCM building envelope applications, new engineering performance analysis
methods and tools will be developed soon for these systems. They should enable a
development of necessary testing methods and following code requirements.

3.4 PCM Packaging and Encapsulation Methods

In building envelopes, PCMs store heat or cold during their phase-transition cycles.
It is important to keep in mind that any potential volume loss of the acting PCM
may directly affect an overall performance of the entire envelope system. In
addition, since PCMs are often directly embodied into building materials, it is
obvious that they should not damage their carriers. Unfortunately, a large number of
the solid/liquid PCMs need to be encapsulated because their liquid state is very
mobile, which may either cause esthetical surface discolorations (PCM leaking to
the surface), or compromise PCMs long-term performance due to a drop of acting
PCM volume. Some inorganic PCMs may also cause corrosion of building mate-
rials. Incorporation of PCMs into building envelopes poses several design chal-
lenges, critical ones being the integration method with building structure as well as
the location of PCMs within the volume of the building envelope component. Such
location is essential for building envelope performance in terms of peak load
shifting and control of heat transfer rates, which is essential for energy conservation
and dynamic load management (Kossecka and Kośny 2010; Childs and Stovall
2012; Kośny and Kossecka 2013a). For many additional reasons, such as thermal
performance, structural requirements, building code regulations, esthetics, fire
safety, and long-term durability, PCM integration method needs to be carefully
analyzed in order to provide maximum overall performance at a minimum cost and
with a minimum chance for system failures.
The following PCM containment methods can be considered: (i) bulk material
packaging using glass, metal, or plastic containers (semi-transparent windows,
partitions, ceilings with metal PCM containers, etc.…), (ii) foil packaging (PCM
panels or arrays of PCM pouches), (iii) direct PCM integration with the carrier
material (impregnated or shape-stabilized PCM products), (iv) macro-encapsulation
90 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Fig. 3.4 Different methods of PCM encapsulation which can be used in building envelopes.
a Transparent, modular window containers with melted inorganic PCM—Dörken GmbH & Co.
KG, Germany. b Aluminum and plastic foil packages containing PCM—PCM Products Ltd, UK.
c Macroencapsulation of PCM in form of spheres—PCM Products Ltd, UK. d Addition of the
microencapsulated PCM pellets to cellulose insulation during experimental production—author’s
archive

(spheres, tubing, etc.…), and finally (v) microencapsulation. Figure 3.4 presents a
selection of encapsulated PCM products.
Packaging or encapsulation serves as a barrier between PCM and the sur-
rounding environment. It prevents liquid PCM from leaking out of the carrier
material. Encapsulant also protects PCM from reacting with the outside environ-
ment and sometimes provides mechanical stiffness to the PCM product. Several
additional functions of PCM packaging or encapsulation can be considered as well,
for example, (i) improved heat transfer characteristic of the whole assembly
(packaging material or encapsulant may contain heat conduction enhancing addi-
tives), (ii) encapsulant may contain fire retarder in order to improve ignition and
flame resistances, (iii) packaging material can be a part of the building’s moisture
and air sealing membrane, and (iv) reflective surface of the PCM package may
serve as a radiant barrier. Today, a number of different packaging and encapsulation
3.4 PCM Packaging and Encapsulation Methods 91

techniques are offered depending on properties of the PCM and the operational
requirements. They are containers, boards containing PCM, bags, arrays of pou-
ches, spheres, microcapsules, etc. It is good to remember that most of PCMs are not
very costly by themselves, but their packing or encapsulation processes, necessary
to achieve reliable and consistent long-term performances, make a final product cost
significantly higher.
The largest packaged PCM products which are used in building envelopes are
PCM containers. Historically, transparent glass or plastic modules with PCM have
been considered for solar window applications (Fig. 3.4a). These systems require
extensive optical design and heat transfer optimization enabling sufficient solar
energy extraction. Likewise, opaque containers can be used for harvesting heat
from roofs and attics. Flat metal containers with PCM are often used for heat
storage in dynamic ceiling systems as well. Main concerns with bulk heat storage
systems may be their long-term tightness, potential corrosion of the container
material, and, in case of window applications, long-term optical properties of the
system. On the other hand, bulk PCM containers in building envelopes can sig-
nificantly reduce the cost of PCM application through elimination of the expensive
encapsulation processes.
A major advantage of using PCMs encapsulation is that, in general, it helps to
overcome some problems associated with phase segregation (Hadjieva et al. 2000;
Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Pasupathy et al. 2008). Encapsulation is absolutely
critical for all water-based PCMs (i.e., salt hydrates, eutectics). If these materials are
exposed to the surrounding atmosphere, their water content changes, either by
evaporation or, in some cases, by absorption. Because most of salt hydrates only
perform well as PCMs for the specific water to salts ratios, any change in this ratio
results in PCM desegregation and ultimately loss of phase-transition performance.
The other prospective source of durability problems is corrosion potential of some
PCMs. This issue has been thoroughly studied during last decade. The corrosion
caused by some salt hydrates and salt eutectics was experimentally analyzed by
Porosino (1988), Ettouney et al. (1990), and Groll et al. (1990). Cabeza et al.
(2001a, b) investigated corrosion resistance of aluminum, brass, copper, steel, and
stainless steel in contact with a large selection of molten salt hydrates (zinc nitrate
hexahydrate, sodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate, calcium chloride hexa-
hydrate, sodium carbonate, potassium hydrogen carbonate, potassium chloride,
water, sodium acetate trihydrate, and sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate). In addition,
Sari and Kaygusuz (2003) studied in long term a corrosion potential of fatty acids
(stearic, palmitic, myristic, and lauric acid) against stainless steel, carbon steel,
aluminum, and copper. No major signs of corrosion caused by fatty acids were
found in all tested metals.
Finally, PCM containers if exposed to high temperatures may start to leak.
During summer, roof surfaces and attic air temperatures may easily reach 70 °C
during mid of the day. As shown in Fig. 3.5, PCM leaking through building skin
materials may cause esthetic surface discolorations.
Metallic or plastic foil packages are relatively low-cost options for encapsulation
of inorganic and organic PCMs (Figs. 3.4b and 3.5). Foil packaging is a well-
92 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Fig. 3.5 Leaky inorganic PCM–foil pouches leaving esthetic discoloration marks on the metal
roofing panels—left discoloration of the bitumen roofing membrane caused by the inorganic PCM
sipping out from the leaky containers—right. Source Author’s archive

established technology widely used by food and healthcare industries. It has been
lately adopted by PCM companies. Plastic foil containers, bags, or arrays of pou-
ches are the cost effective way of PCM encapsulation, which have been tried for last
two decades. Because of cost advantage over microencapsulated products, they may
soon become the dominant trend when it comes to PCM packaging. Very often,
these systems are installed within the core of building envelopes as continues
impermeable layers of foil containing arrays of PCM pouches, or just as membranes
with directly enclosed PCMs. It is important to remember that such configurations
may significantly modify hygrothermal performance of the hosting building
envelope. That is why detailed hygrothermal analysis is recommended for foil PCM
assemblies of that type. Potential disadvantages associated with this technology are
possible plastic corrosion by some bio-based PCMs and, in case of some PCM
applications, a need for compensation for PCM’s volume change during phase
transition. Another limitation is coming from the fact that not all package sealing
methods (high-temperature welding) may be resistive enough to high temperatures,
as observed in, for example, roof and attic applications (see Fig. 3.5). It is necessary
that these foil packages remain tight after desired number of cycles with temper-
ature peak reaching its summer maximum. Aluminum foil can be used for pack-
aging of PCM when reflective surface characteristics are desired, or PCM may
cause corrosion of the plastic foil. An application of aluminum foil also improves
heat transfer between PCM and surrounding environment. Most popular applica-
tions of these technologies are in walls and ceilings—Murugananthama et al.
(2010) as well as in attics and roofs (Kośny et al. 2012b).
Another direct encapsulation method, which is gaining popularity today, enables
fabrication of a novel PCM material known as a shape-stabilized (SS) PCM. In this
material, PCM can retain the shape of the solid structure during phase transition.
SS-PCM is a composite of PCM with another material. For example, SS-paraffin
composite can consist of paraffin incorporated on a microscopic level into a
3.4 PCM Packaging and Encapsulation Methods 93

supporting porous structure created by high-density polyethylene (HDPE) (Xu et al.

2005). SS-PCMs offer a large number of benefits comparing to more traditional
encapsulation methods. Most important are as follows: (i) apparent heat capacity
comparable with other PCM products, (ii) suitable overall thermal conductivity,
(iii) good compatibility with building envelope materials, (iv) carrier material can
serve as a structural components of building envelopes, and finally (v) no more
need for an encasement as PCM does not tend to flow out of the porous structure
during melting. Inaba and Tu observed no leakage of paraffin through high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) network for paraffin loading levels as high as 75 % by weight
(Inaba and Tu 1997). In another project, Yinping prepared SS-PCM with 80 % by
weight loading of paraffin and found that no containment was required, i.e., samples
can be cut into pieces without any drainage(Yinping et al. 2006). Keep in mind that
even with all the benefits mentioned above, shape-stabilized application usually
adds up notable to the cost of the final PCM product
Macro-encapsulation utilizes different three-dimensional geometries to prevent
PCM from contacting with outside environment. Most often, macro-encapsulated
PCMs are manufactured in form of small rectangular containers, tubes, and
spherical products (Fig. 3.4c). The skin of the container provides self-supporting
structure isolating PCM from the surrounding environment. It has been found by
Wei et al. (2005) that from the heat transfer point of view, the highest thermal
performance can be observed for spherical PCM capsules, followed by cylindrical,
plate type, and tubular encapsulations. Figure 3.6 shows different phases of par-
affinic PCM melting inside a 85-mm spherical container. Because the sizes of
macro-encapsulated PCM products usually vary between 1 and 10 cm, it is a
designing challenge to place them within building envelopes. Tubular encapsula-
tions are probably the easiest for building envelope applications (Zhang et al. 2005).
Barba and Spiga (2003) have investigated PCM phase-change processes in
different sizes of encasements, and they have demonstrated that the PCM solidifi-
cation time is increasing proportionally to the square of the capsule radius. These
findings were just a confirmation of a long-known awarness that a size of the PCM
encasement plays an important role. In years, a size of encapsulated particles was
made significantly smaller and PCM microencapsulation was widely adopted by
PCM industry worldwide. As a result, a notable increase of heat transfer intensity
was reported in case of building products using microencapsulated PCMs.
Outside of inorganic PCMs, the second group of heat storage compounds, which
really benefits from encapsulation consists of paraffins and some organic PCMs. For
decades, it had been a practical challenge to find a safe way of adding organic
PCMs to building materials. At the beginning, PCMs were added to porous building
materials using immersion method (Salyer and Sircar 1989; Shapiro 1987; Neeper
1989; Tomlinson et al. 1992). Unfortunately, it was common at that time that in
PCM-enhanced building products (gypsum boards, or concrete components), liquid
PCM was leaking from the surface leaving unesthetic surface discoloration in the
best case. That problem was successfully solved by the development of PCM
94 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

Fig. 3.6 Phases of paraffin

melting in 85-mm-diameter
spherical glass container at
70 °C. Source Khot et al.
(2011). a 0 min, b 20 min, c
40 min, d 50 min, e 60 min,
f 70 min

microencapsulation processes. In 1953, a first major patent claim was filed by

Green et al.19 for a new type of a copy paper which worked with oil-filled
microcapsules. This invention initiated the large industrial use of microcapsules
having composite or polymeric shells with sizes varying between 3 and 100 µm in
diameter. Since microcapsules are very robust, they allow multiple material
applications performed by different industries. Since 1950s, this technology has
been widely employed, for example, in production of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
PCMs, and in printing.
PCM microencapsulation is a technique by which solid or liquid active material
with phase-change capability is enclosed within a second material. The major purpose

US Patent 2,730,456, “Manifold record material”, NCR Company, filed June 30, 1953.
19
3.4 PCM Packaging and Encapsulation Methods 95

of this process is shielding the PCM from the surrounding environment.20,21,22

Thus, the active ingredient constitutes a core of the small micro-pellet, and the sur-
rounding material forms the protective shell. In microencapsulation, PCM loading is
usually between of 70 and 85 % (Zalba et al. 2003; Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Kośny
et al. 2013). Microencapsulation can be either achieved by means of physical or
chemical processes. Phase changing particles enclosed in such manner can be
introduced to almost any carrier material used in buildings (i.e., cement or gypsum
composites, thermal insulations, building membranes and foils, coatings, particle
boards) (Riza 2007). Water-insoluble paraffinic hydrocarbons are widely considered
as the easiest materials to encapsulate today. The best known microencapsulation
processes are as follows: complex coacervation with gelatine, interfacial polycon-
densation, polycondensation of melamine (or urea) formaldehyde resins, and the
radical polymerization of suitable monomers.23 Amino resins and melamine–form-
aldehyde are probably the most common today among a multitude of possible shell
materials for paraffinic PCM microcapsules. In addition, microencapsulation helped
in improvement of the product ignition resistance, through possible incorporation of
fire retardants into the skin of microcapsules (Kośny et al. 2009). However, PCM
microencapsulation exhibits the highest production cost among most of PCM con-
tainment methods, which limits the economic viability of such technology (Zhao and
Zhang 2011; Kośny et al. 2013b).
Microencapsulation of salt hydrates becomes even more challenging due to the
fact that salt hydrates are hydrophilic in nature and contain well-defined water
fraction. To be able to be used in building applications, the microcapsule shell needs
to act as a water–vapor barrier and be made of hydrophobic materials to prevent the
salt hydrate from evaporating. Hessbrugge and Vaidya (1997) developed a novel
technique for the encapsulation of water-soluble salts. The method employs a simple
process, where additives such as emulsifiers and acid acceptors, that are needed to
stabilize the aqueous–organic interface and to remove the excess acid formed due to
hydrolysis, are not required. Further development of his technology may result in the
future in a less expensive microencapsulation process since the post-treatment
required to remove additives and their byproducts is no longer necessary. In addition,
there is less likelihood of contamination of encapsulated product due to the absence
of trace amounts of the reaction components and their by-products.
A similar attempt of microencapsulation of inorganic PCMs was performed by
the Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research (ZAE Bayern), in Würzburg,
Germany. Brandt et al. (2006) encapsulated powdered Na2CO3 hydrate particles
with an inorganic SiOx layer via a solgel process.
Recently, there have been several successful efforts to microencapsulate salt
hydrates. Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research (ISC) in Würzburg, Germany,

20
http://www.zae.uni-wuerzburg.de/files/11-jahns_mikroverkapselung.pdf.
21
http://microteklabs.com/technical_overview.html.
22
http://www.functionalpolymers.basf.com/portal/basf/ien/dt.jsp?setCursor=1_290868.
23
http://microteklabs.com/u-s-patents.html.
96 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

has developed a method where a salt hydrate melt is encapsulated by an inorganic–

organic hybrid polymer known as ORMOCER®.24,25 The process involves injecting
salt hydrate melt drops into the ORMOCER® solution that solidifies locally as it
comes in contact with the surface of the drop, thus forming a hard encapsulating
layer around the salt hydrate drop. The encapsulated drops are removed from the
coating solution via mechanical means and washed thoroughly before allowing them
to dry in air under ambient condition. Salt hydrate drops subsequently crystallize as
they cool down. Capsules produced in such manner have diameters ranging from a
few µm to a few mm. Although the final microencapsulated product still has some
water permeability and stability issues, nonetheless it is an encouraging step.

3.5 Enhancement Methods for Improved Thermal

Conductivity of PCMs

One of the major advantages of using PCM-enhanced building envelopes is that

these systems have capability to amend thermal response of the building compo-
nents. In some designs of low-energy buildings, it is beneficial when dynamic
thermal excitations, generated by the exterior environment, can be transferred to the
interior space with significant delay time (Kośny and Kossecka 2013). In these
situations, high thermal conductivity of PCMs is not necessary because the major
design objectives for these thermal systems are peak load reduction and time shift of
thermal response. Based on earlier investigations by Kossecka and Kośny (1998,
2002), Halford and Boehm (2007), Kośny et al. (2008), and Farid and Mecaial
(2008), such performance requirements can be easily satisfied by different config-
urations of thermally resistive and thermally massive components sandwiched
together or thick layers of PCM-enhanced thermal insulations. In some other
building applications, where PCM-enhanced products are expected to absorb and
release heat in a fast manner, high thermal conductivity is one of the key charac-
teristics of interest. Very good examples of such PCM products are all PCM-
enhanced boards or plasters facing interior of the building. Typically, these products
are using either microencapsulated or shape-stabilized organic PCMs (paraffins or
fatty acids) of relatively low thermal conductivities. There is significant performance
improvement potential in building applications requiring fast absorption and release
of latent heat. Most of these applications use today low conductive organic PCMs. In
addition, because of thermal comfort prerequisites for building interior space, these
PCM-enhanced systems usually have to operate within small temperature differ-
ences. Furthermore, these materials have relatively high latent heat compared to their
sensible heat storage. That is why a key challenge which needs to be addressed in

24
http://www.messib.eu/about_project/messib_innovative_elements/phase_change_materials/
microencapsulation_of_salt_hydrates.php.
25
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2011/0017944.html.
3.5 Enhancement Methods for Improved Thermal Conductivity of PCMs 97

such PCM applications is enhancement of their thermal conductivity. Since building

envelope acts as a major building’s thermal shield, the above approach is conflicting
with high R-value requirements so typical for low-energy buildings. While salt
hydrates exhibit thermal conductivities that rarely surpass 0.6 W/m K, most of
organic PCMs have thermal conductivities two to four times lower Naumann and
Emons (1989), Zalba et al. (2003), IEA (2005), Sharma et al. (2009). So potentially,
the easiest solution would be to switch in building envelopes from using organic
PCMs to inorganic PCMs’ applications. This would bring improved thermal con-
ductivity and higher phase-change enthalpy. In addition, an application of naturally
non-flammable microencapsulated inorganic PCMs would also solve fire safety
problems allied to many building technologies utilizing paraffinic PCMs today.
However, microencapsulation of these materials needs to reach a mature develop-
ment stage, when long-term durability will be not an issue any more.
Various heat conduction enhancement methods have been already considered for
PCMs. Theoretically, there are two options for solving this problem. On one hand,
the nominal distances for heat transfer by conduction in PCM’s enclosures needs to
be reduced. This can be achieved by stuffing the PCM into relatively small capsules
or by using microcapsulation. On the other hand, the thermal conductivity can be
enhanced by the addition of highly conductive materials to the PCM. Most com-
monly, graphite, carbon fibers, or metal in form of shavings, or powders can be
added to the PCM to form a composite. Alternatively, PCM may be incorporated
into the highly conducting matrix such as expanded graphite, metallic, or polymer
matrix. Ideally, this matrix network should hold the PCM inside the pores even
when it is in a liquid phase. In case of microencapsulated PCMs, it is also possible
to add conduction aid additives to the microcapsule shell material.
Practically, numerous means of enhancing the PCM heat transfer characteristics
have been already developed and tested. An example of early work in this area is
blending of PCMs with highly conductive substances. Different material configu-
ration had been tested starting from 1980s. More recent work performed by Mettawee
and Assassa (2007), focused on organic PCMs, demonstrated that in extreme scale,
an introduction of 50 % by weight of aluminum powder to paraffinic PCM can
improve the overall thermal conductivity by a factor of 20. However, it is good to
remember that such high percentage of foreign non-PCM additive, introduced to the
mixture, will significantly reduce the overall latent heat storage capacity, which will
later impact dynamic system performance. The most often analyzed method for
thermal conduction enhancement is an addition of highly conducting metal particles
and powders to the PCM. Siegel (1977), Hafner and Schwarze (1999) analyzed
thermal performance of PCM dispersed with high conducting particles. Promising
results on improving the conductivity of PCMs have been also reported by Koizumi
(2004), who analyzed an impact of copper plates on thermal performance of n-
octadecane, and Wang et al. (2010) who tested an addition of aluminum powder to
the PCM. Analogously, Fukai et al. (2000) experimented with carbon fiber as a heat
transfer improving material for organic PCMs. Different forms of graphite are also
often considered as highly conductive additives. Composite, paraffin–graphite blends
have been analyzed by Py et al. (2001) and Marín et al. (2005). This research
98 3 Overview of Basic Solid–Liquid PCMs Used in Building …

demonstrated that moderately compressed exfoliated graphite leads to highly porous

graphite matrices which can be used as a highly conductive carrier for PCM appli-
cations. These graphite/PCM composites offer excellent heat conduction and thermal
storage characteristics. They are usually fabricated by uniaxial compression of a
mixture of solid PCM powders and expanded natural graphite. An impact of graphite
powder and expanded graphite as heat conduction enhancement factors was inves-
tigated, for different organic PCMs, by Zhang and Fang (2006), Pincemin et al.
(2008), Kim and Drzal (2009), Cheng et al. (2010a, b), Chen et al. (2013). In addition,
Yin et al. (2008) tested absorption of PCM by the expanded graphite and its impact
on thermal conductivity of the final product. Other developments in this area include
(i) incorporation the PCM into the highly conducting metal matrix (Kamimoto et al.
1986; Hodendom and Bart 1992; Tong et al. 1996; Hafner and Schwarzer 1999), (ii) a
usage of exfoliated graphite for improving the thermal conductivity of the shape-
stabilized PCM composite (Sari 2004), or (iii) an application of metal screens/spheres
placed inside the PCM (Ettouney et al. 2004). A unique heat storage system, based on
n-octadecane retained by capillary forces in a porous silica carrier, was presented by
Erk and Dudukovic (1996). This configuration reduces overall cost of application,
provides higher energy density, and gives higher rates of energy storage and heat
release. Finally, Leoni and Amon (1997) employed aluminum foam to enhance the
heat transfer process in latent heat storage system.
In PCM applications described above, thermal conductivity improvements can
vary from 20 to up to 1000 times and depends on the specific material configu-
rations and blending methods (Ning-Wei et al. 2009). For example:
1. The introduction of 10 % by weight of expanded graphite to the composite made
of capric–myristic acids and expanded perlite, increased the overall thermal
conductivity by 58 % as reported by Karaipekli and Sari (2008a);
2. After the introduction of 2 % of expanded graphite into the mixture of capric–
myristic acid and vermiculite, 85 % thermal conductivity improvement was
observed by Karaipekli and Sari (2008b);
3. An addition of 10 % of expanded graphite into stearic acid, increased overall
thermal conductivity by 266 % as reported by Karaipekli et al. (2007).

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Chapter 4
Laboratory Thermal Testing
of PCM-Enhanced Building Products
and Envelope Systems

4.1 Introduction

In buildings, both sensible and latent energy accumulation can occur in the external
envelope as well as in the internal building fabric. As discussed in earlier chapters,
since late 1940s, latent storage using phase-change materials (PCMs) has been the
focus of multiple research studies.
Researchers have found that in some novel building envelope applications their
high latent energy capacity per volume can be more beneficial than sensible storage
available in traditional construction materials. Building components with phase-
transition capability allow large amounts of heat to be stored or released due to the
latent heat of fusion or solidification. PCM-enhanced building envelopes are widely
considered as prospective building technologies to achieve peak-hour load and
HVAC energy consumption reductions. The majority of PCMs used in building
envelope applications need to go through a complete phase transition during 24-h
time periods in order to be fully effective. This is why it is crucial that the temperature
in the locations where PCM is installed cycle above and below the temperature range
in which phase transition occurs. For the correct design of a PCM-enhanced building
envelope, as well as for the accurate whole building energy predictions, it is essential
to characterize the thermo-physical and rheological properties of the PCMs. These
properties include phase-transition enthalpy, melting and freezing temperatures,
hysteresis and supercooling effects, thermal conductivity in the solid and liquid
phases, viscosity of liquid PCM and its density as a function of temperature.
A great variety of organic and inorganic PCMs with stable thermo-physical
properties are available and have been used worldwide in heat storage applications.
These applications include heat sinks in electronics and hybrid vehicles, food
packaging, solar thermal systems, and transportation of medical products. One of
the major barriers reported, however, for expanding the use of PCMs is their
relatively high cost. It is suggested that one effective way for cost reduction of PCM
applications in buildings is optimization of the PCM location and its quantity.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 107

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_4
108 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

As expected, this requires an excellent understanding of thermal performance

characteristics. That is why the development is needed for relatively inexpensive
and easy-to-use testing methods for the determination of the key thermal charac-
teristics of PCM-based products or systems. This chapter is mainly focused on
laboratory-scale thermal-testing methods for PCMs, PCM-enhanced building
products, and building envelope systems containing PCMs.

4.2 Scale of Thermal Performance Analysis

and Testing Methods

After several decades of successful research, PCMs are now widely recognized as
one of the most promising technical means of improving the energy efficiency and
sustainability of residential and commercial buildings. In most of building appli-
cations, PCM-enhanced materials are utilized as lightweight thermal mass com-
ponents controlling the transfer of exterior thermal loads to the interior space. The
main benefit of using PCMs is the availability of significant amounts of latent heat
during the phase-transition processes. In most PCM building applications, the latent
heat storage is based on heat absorption or release during a change of state from
solid to liquid and vice versa. The storage capacity of materials containing PCMs
depends on the product of mass (m) and specific heat (cp) followed by the enthalpy
(h) curve and the functional temperature range (T1, T2), where the stored heat Q can
be denoted as follows:

ZT2
Q¼ mcp dT þ mfm Dh ð4:1Þ
T1

where, fm is the fraction of the material ongoing phase change.

Most of commercially used PCMs, when used in small temperature intervals
around their phase-change temperature, show superior heat storage density (the
amount of heat stored in a given material or system per unit volume or mass)
compared to sensible heat storage capacity of conventional building materials, such
as wood, concrete, or brick. Since, PCMs used in buildings represent a great variety
of phase-change thermal characteristics, the exact shape of the enthalpy curve
h(T) has to be known to quantify their heat storage capacity and thus the pro-
spective energy advantage of PCM-enhanced building systems. In Fig. 4.1, the
enthalpy curves for melting and freezing of an organic PCM are depicted. An ideal
PCM can be mathematically characterized by four scalar values, namely the specific
heat, cp, of solid and liquid phases, the phase-change enthalpy Δh, and the melting
temperature Tm. A real PCM is better represented by the function h(T). The precise
determination of this function is the goal of PCM calorimetric measurements. As
depicted in Fig. 4.1, enthalpy curves are not always identical for melting and
4.2 Scale of Thermal Performance Analysis and Testing Methods 109

Fig. 4.1 Examples of enthalpy curves for melting and freezing processes showing temperature
hysteresis (left) and supercooling effect (right)

freezing processes. It is often due to the temperature hysteresis phenomenon, which

strongly depends on the used testing method and a type of equipment (see IEA
2011). In addition, the notable supercooling effect can be observed in some organic
and majority of inorganic PCMs. It is associated with impaired PCM nucleation
during the freezing process. In many PCM heat storage applications, supercooling
may be a source of numerous thermal performance and durability problems. There
are many publications available, which are focused on theoretical and experimental
analysis of phase-change processes including hysteresis or supercooling phenom-
ena (see Demirel and Paksoy 1993; Martin et al. 2003; Wunderlich 2005; Bony and
Citherlet 2007; Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Günther et al. 2007, 2009).
As stated earlier, proper thermal characterization of building materials contain-
ing PCMs is essential for their performance analysis, which is necessary for system
designing, code approvals, and energy cost analysis. Theoretical and experimental
analyses of building technologies can be performed at three levels as follows:
• Material scale
• System scale
• Whole building scale
In laboratory work, PCM-enhanced building products are usually limited to
analysis at the material and systems scale. However, a limited number of small
building/room experiments have been performed as well.
A selection of most widespread methods for the testing of PCMs, PCM-
enhanced building products, and building enclosure systems containing PCMs is
briefly discussed below. More detailed descriptions of these testing procedures can
be found in the following paragraphs. The author is aware of a large number of
additional testing methodologies which can be utilized for measurements of
dynamic thermal characteristics of PCM-enhanced building envelope products and
systems (Wunderlich 2005). However, only mostly used and most widely accepted
methods are discussed in this publication.
For a long time, the only readily existing thermal test methods, available for
material-scale evaluations of PCMs, were the differential thermal analysis (DTA)
110 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Both above techniques have been
considered as standard tools for the measurement of latent heat of PCMs. These
methods, however, require the use of small and relatively uniform material samples
(Wunderlich 2005). Unfortunately, the above requirement is rather unrealistic for
most PCM-enhanced building envelope products. Small samples are not repre-
sentative in most cases of PCM-based blends or composites, since these composites
are usually heterogeneous. In addition, PCMs used in building envelopes are sel-
dom high-quality, pure substances. Typically, PCMs used in buildings contain a
wide range of different impurities. That is why a very careful sampling is required to
obtain the representative test-generated characteristics for building products con-
taining PCMs. It is also important to remember that in building envelopes, PCMs
are commonly used in the form of packaged or encapsulated products. It is well
known that a size of the PCM encasement, as well as thermal conductivity of a shell
material, may affect PCM’s phase-transition characteristics. Lastly, heat exchange
between individual PCM packages, capsules, or arrays of pouches has three-
dimensional character. Summarizing, because most of the PCM-enhanced building
envelope products and PCM-insulation blends are non-homogenous and because
they often use packaged or encapsulated PCM, the test data generated using DSC or
DTA may be a source of significant inaccuracies. This limits the usefulness of DSC
and DTA testing procedures to characterize PCM building applications.
In order to allow testing of larger PCM samples and heterogeneous PCM
products, Zhang (1999) and Zhang et al. (2007) proposed the T-history method, as
an alternative to DSC or DTA testing. It is an inexpensive and easy way to measure
the phase-change enthalpy of PCM products using test samples significantly larger
from what is required for DSC testing. According to Peck et al. (2006), the
T-history method can be used for measuring the thermal properties of PCM com-
posites and PCM blends. However, the accuracy of the T-history method is
restricted by the size of the PCM sample due to potentially uneven temperature
distribution and temperature stratification within the test sample. Paksoy (1996)
introduced the twin water bath method, which determines the thermal storage
capacity of PCMs or PCM-based composites. The water bath method is relatively
inexpensive, simple, and fast, making it widely used today. The method enables
evaluation of phase-change temperature and the thermal storage capacity of PCM
for wide range of temperatures. In addition, in early 1990-s Zhang designed a
simple bath calorimetric device which made possible test the specific heat at dif-
ferent temperatures and the solid–liquid phase-change enthalpy of ice (see Zhang
and Li 2008). This method was useful for evaluating the thermal physical properties
of PCM within a room temperature range.
Since, most often, PCMs used in building envelopes are difficult to analyze
complex heterogeneous composites or structures with multidimensional heat
transfer effects, Kośny et al. (2007b) introduced a new test method utilizing a
conventional ASTM C518 heat flow meter apparatus (HFMA). This method
determines the amount of phase-change energy available in heterogeneous
PCM-enhanced materials to provide thermal storage (Kośny et al. 2009a; Shukla
et al. 2013). Following this development, ASTM Committee C 16 approved a new
4.2 Scale of Thermal Performance Analysis and Testing Methods 111

test standard (ASTM C1784 2013)—Standard Test Method for Using a Heat Flow
Meter Apparatus for Measuring Thermal Storage Properties of Phase Change
Materials and Products. Considering the limitations of this new testing method
when applied to building applications using arrays of PCM pouches or containers, a
new combined experimental-analytical protocol was developed by Kośny et al.
(2009b) for testing building envelopes containing complex three-dimensional
geometries.
Experimental analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes can be also per-
formed in full scale with the use of the dynamic hot-box testing. In 2006/2007,
Kośny et al. (2007a) performed in Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA, a
series of full-size wall tests, utilizing ASTM C1363 hot-box apparatus (see ASTM
2011b). The dynamic hot-box method enabled assessment of the phase-change
energy storage capacity and determination of the system thermal response charac-
teristics for full-scale wall and attic/roof assemblies containing PCM. During these
dynamic tests utilizing thermal excitations on the climate side, temperature, heat
flux, air velocity, and electrical power were recorded. Furthermore, with the use of
an array of heat-flux transducers, the energy storage effect could be determined. With
this methodology, direct side-by-side performance comparisons of two wall
assemblies were possible. In 2010, similar full-scale dynamic wall testing was
performed by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
Trondheim, Norway (see Cao et al. 2010).
A full-scale experimental investigation of a test room with walls containing
PCM-enhanced wallboard was performed in laboratory conditions by Kuznik et al.
(2007) at the Université de Lyon, France. The experimental apparatus, which is
called MICROBAT, was composed of two identical test cells. Each test cell was a
cubical enclosure with an internal dimension of 0.50 m. This research allowed
energy performance analysis of a PCM wall system in a whole room scale. Results
from this testing were later utilized to validate the TRNSYS Type 260 subroutine,
containing a novel PCM algorithm (Kuznik et al. 2010). In this numerical proce-
dure, a one-dimensional finite difference model is utilized to simulate the thermal
performance of wall systems containing a layer of a PCM-enhanced material (this
development will be discussed in more detail in the following chapter).

4.3 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

(Material-Scale Testing)

The main characteristic of PCM is the enthalpy–temperature relation that deter-

mines the heat storage capacity. This relation can be determined experimentally
using different calorimetric methods. DTA is one of the earliest and most studied
thermal measurement methodologies. It is a thermal measurement methodology
well known in analytical chemistry for identifying and quantitatively analyzing the
chemical composition of substances by observing the thermal behavior of a sample
as it is heated. In DTA, the test sample and a reference material are subject to
112 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

identical heating profiles. At the same time, temperature differences between the test
sample and a reference are recorded. This differential temperature is then plotted
against time, or against temperature (DTA curve or thermogram). Changes in the
sample either exothermic or endothermic can be detected relative to the inert ref-
erence. Thus, a DTA curve can provide performance data on a number of physi-
cochemical processes such as glass transitions, crystallization, melting,
solidification, and sublimation. In order to obtain high sensitivity during DTA
measurements, they required uniform heating rates, sample symmetry, and weight
equivalence of the test sample and the reference.
The DTA method can also be used to measure the specific heat capacity and
phase-change enthalpy. In this case, the DTA apparatus is utilized to measure the
temperature difference between PCM and a reference material when they are both
subjected to the same heat load. During this measurement, the PCM and the ref-
erence material absorb the same quantity of heat and their temperatures are usually
different because of their different thermal characteristics within the phase-transition
temperature range. That is why thermal performance of PCMs is evaluated by
measuring the temperature difference between the analyzed PCM and the reference
sample.
During the heating process, a PCM sample of the mass “m” and specific heat “cp”
absorbs energy and its physical state can change due to a phase transition, or just the
internal energy change. For the case without phase transition, the received heat “δq”
is proportional to the temperature increase “δT” as follows:

dq ¼ mcp dT ð4:2Þ

For the temperature range (T1, T2), the enthalpy “H” change can be noted as
follows:

ZT2
DH ¼ C dT ð4:3Þ
T1

where “C” is the heat capacity at constant pressure.

The melting of the substance causes a change of the enthalpy ΔHM. Usually, if a
PCM sample is heated, its temperature slowly increases until the phase-transition
temperature TM is reached. In ideal PCMs, the temperature stays constant during the
phase-transition process. Before, during, and after the phase-change process
(melting), the enthalpy change can be denoted using the following equation:

ZTM ZT2
DH ¼ C dT þ DHM þ C dT ð4:4Þ
T1 TM
4.3 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) (Material-Scale Testing) 113

During the cooling process, the same amount of latent heat is released. The
temperature is decreasing before and after the phase-transition point, while
remaining constant during the transition.
As shown in Fig. 4.2, the DTA apparatus usually consists of a sample holder
comprising thermocouples, sample containers, and a ceramic or metallic block;
a furnace; a temperature programer; and a data acquisition system. During the
1950s, the DTA-measuring devices were relatively simple. However, later these
devices were subsequently automated and miniaturized. The key feature is the
existence of two thermocouples connected to a voltmeter. One thermocouple is
placed in a reference material (Tr) such as, for example, aluminium oxide (Al2O3),
while the other is placed in a test sample (Ts). Thermal performance of the test
sample and the reference material is determined from the measured temperatures.
The amount of heat involved and temperature at which the material changes take
place are characteristic of individual chemical elements or compounds. That is why
the DTA technique has been widely used for identification of chemical elements,
compounds, or in thermal investigations of their blends.
Figure 4.2 depicts a typical setup of a DTA apparatus. The substance under
investigation and a reference material are heated under the same temperature
conditions (TF) in a furnace. The increase of the temperature in the furnace should
be linear with respect to time. Both the test sample and the reference material
thermocouples are connected together in series, which enables direct temperature
difference measurements (ΔT). As shown in Fig. 4.3, the reading on the control unit
is zero as long as there is no heat consumed or released, because there is the same
temperature TS = TR in the sample and in the reference material and hence ΔT = 0.
If there is an endothermic reaction in the measured sample, its temperature increases
slower as the reference sample temperature (TS1 < TR1) and measured temperature
difference ΔT1 = TS1 − TR1 is negative. If there is an exothermic reaction, the
measured sample temperature increases faster as the reference sample temperature

TR TS P(TF) Heater temperature control

Furnace insulation

Furnace heating elements

Measured specimen
Reference specimen

Temperature difference
ΔT measurement
Furnace temperature
TF measurement

Fig. 4.2 Schematic of the DTA apparatus

114 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Fig. 4.3 DTA temperature–

TS
time curves for the test
material and reference and TR2
TS2 TR

temperature
temperature difference–time
curve
TR
TR1
TS1 TS

time
ΔT2

ΔT
ΔT1

time

(TS2 > TR2) and measured temperature difference ΔT2 = TS2 − TR2 is positive. The
DTA curve can be determined by subtraction of the curve TS from the curve TR.
During measurements of the PCM phase transition, the holding time in tem-
perature–time curves is often used as a semi-quantitative evaluation for the phase-
change enthalpy. This time is equal to the time from the beginning of the thermal
process to the time of the peak maximum. During the phase transition, the tem-
perature remains constant for this time. The peak area is a useful value for the
determination of heat capacities. In a DTA diagram, the heat of reaction ΔH is
proportional to the area between baseline and the DTA curve.
According to Gabbott (2008) and Xie et al. (2013), the main factors influencing
the accuracy of the DTA enthalpy measurements are as follows:
1. Configuration of the DTA apparatus, including the heating method and the type
and location of used thermocouples.
2. The type of a reference material used in measurements. A reference substance
for DTA measurements has to fulfill the following conditions: no phase tran-
sitions in the measured temperature range followed with the similar thermal
conductivity and heat capacity as the measured substance.
3. The sample size: there is generally better resolution and less baseline drift of the
DTA curve with smaller samples. However, samples that are too small may lead
to poor measurement resolution.
4. Furnace thermal control and analytical method used to process measured data.
5. The rate of temperature changes within the DTA apparatus. The faster the rate of
temperature change, the lower the resolution.
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Material-Scale Testing 115

4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

Material-Scale Testing

DSC is one of the most widely used PCM measurement methods, because of the
ease with which it can provide large amounts of thermodynamic data. Instead of
measuring temperature changes during the heating process (as in DTA), DSC
measures the amount of heat that is needed to increase the temperatures of the test
sample and the reference material across a temperature interval. The DSC method
was developed and patented in early 1960s by Watson and O’Neill (1966). DSC
apparatus measures the change of heat flow rate difference which is normally
released due to the change of the sample temperature. The test sample and reference
material are kept at the same temperature as it changes across the specified tem-
perature interval. The differing amounts of heat required to keep the temperatures
identical are measured. As the test sample undergoes phase transitions, more or less
heat is needed, which allows for energy diagrams to be created from the measured
data. Additionally, specific heat, glass transition temperature, crystallization tem-
perature, melting temperature, and oxidative/thermal stability, among other prop-
erties, can be measured using a DSC. That is why, DSC measurements are often
used today in industrial manufacturing, ensuring sample purity and confirming
compositional analysis. A DSC is also used in materials research to provide
information about material properties and enables material compositions to be
determined. In case of PCM measurements, a single DSC test yields qualitative and
quantitative information on the phase transitions of a sample, such as transition
temperature, enthalpy, heat capacity, specific heat, and heats of transition.
During DSC measurements, heat only flows if the temperature difference exists
between tested material and a reference. The DSC apparatus measures energy
directly and allows precise measurements of heat capacity and thermal conductivity
(see Klančnik et al. 2010). DSC is today the widest used and one of the most
powerful techniques to thermo-physically analyze a PCM, because it provides the
melting/solidification enthalpies, the melting/solidification temperatures, and the
specific heat of the materials under study. However, it presents several following
limitations when it comes to testing of PCM-enhanced building products: a small
size of the test sample, followed by the sample’s mass influence on the thermal
response characteristic (Günther et al. 2009), the response dependence on the heating
rate (Castellón et al. 2008), and finally, results repeatability may not be reached when
analyzing heterogeneous materials, blends, or composites (Barreneche et al. 2012).
Figure 4.4 shows the schematic of a DSC apparatus which can be used for PCM.
Despite many similarities, there are several differences between DTA and DSC
testing methodologies. First of all, during DTA testing, the temperature difference
between the reference and the sample is recorded as a function of temperature or
time, while in case of DSC measurements, the difference in heat absorbed by the
reference material and the tested PCM sample is analyzed. In addition, during DTA
test, the temperature difference between the reference and sample is recorded. The
DSC apparatus, however, generates test charts where heat flow rate difference is
116 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Heater temperature
TR TS P(TF) control

Furnace insulation

Furnace heating elements

Measured specimen

Reference specimen
Resistor
ΔT
heaters Direct temp. measurements
and temp. difference
TF measurement

Furnace temp. measurement

Fig. 4.4 Schematic of DSC apparatus

shown as the ordinate and temperature or time as the abscissa. Keep in mind that in
DSC testing, the temperature difference between the two materials is zero, usually
leading to more accurate results than in the case of DTA.
A DSC allows relatively fast measurements of phase-transition heats (heat flow
rates) and their changes at characteristic temperatures for small sample masses (in
milligrams and in grams) in wide temperature ranges with high accuracy (Höhne
et al. 2003).
DSCs are mainly classified as
• Power compensation DSC (PC-DSC), or
• Heat-flux DSC (HF-DSC)
The primary measurement signal for both these types is temperature difference
and the heat flow rate, which is proportional to the temperature difference (see
Mehling and Cabeza 2008).

4.4.1 Power Compensation DSC (PC-DSC)

The PC-DSC belongs to the heat-compensating calorimeter family of measurements

methods. The PC-DSC consists of two identical micro-furnaces, one for the test
sample and the other for the reference with individual heaters. The sample furnace
is heated following a programed temperature–time schedule, while the reference
furnace follows this temperature schedule. It results in increase and decrease of the
temperature in the reference furnace following a reaction. In this case, the com-
pensating heating power is measured, which is actually the heat flow difference.
The major advantage of the PC-DSC is a low weight of the individual furnace
(*1 g), while in the HF-DSC apparatus it is usually significantly heavier (up to
200 g). That fact favors extremely short responding time in the PC-DSC, where the
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Material-Scale Testing 117

heating and cooling rates can be up to 500 °C/min. When an exothermic (heat
releasing, i.e., solidification) or endothermic (heat absorbing, i.e., solidification)
reaction appears, the energy is accumulated or released to compensate the energy
change in both furnaces. The power required to maintain the system in equilibrium
is proportional to the energy changes occurring in the sample (see Mehiling and
Cabeza 2008; Ford and Mann 2012; Barreneche et al. 2012).
Power compensation DSC measures the power difference (ΔW) needed to
maintain the reference material and the PCM test sample at the same temperature.
This can be described by the following equation:

dQS dQR dH
DW ¼  ¼ ð4:5Þ
dt dt dt

where QS and QR represent heat absorbed by the sample of the tested material and a
reference, respectively.
Measured enthalpy change per unit time dH/dt can be described as a product of
the total current IT and voltage difference ΔV across the resistance heater as follows:

dH
¼ IT DV ð4:6Þ
dt

Measured heat is compensated during the PC-DSC testing with electric energy,
by increasing or decreasing an adjustable Joule’s heat.

4.4.2 Heat-Flux DSC (HF-DSC)

A very common method used for calorimetric measurements of PCMs is the heat-
flux DSC (HF-DSC), where heating or cooling can be performed at a constant rate
(dynamic method). The HF-DSC is also known as the Boersma DTA (Klančnik
et al. 2010). This instrument belongs to the class of heat-exchanging calorimeters in
which a measurement of the heat flow rate between test sample and surroundings is
performed and heat exchange with the environment takes place via a well-defined
heat conduction path with known thermal resistance (Höhne et al. 2003).
The HF-DSCs instruments are further classified into three basic types such as:
• Disk-type measuring system,
• Turret-type measuring system, and
• Cylindrical-type measuring system
Since the DSC allows measuring the heat of fusion and its changes at charac-
teristic temperatures with high accuracy, it could be useful to obtain thermo-physical
properties of PCMs. These properties are specific heat (cp) for solid and liquid
phases, melting temperature (Tm), and phase-change enthalpy (Δh) (Höhne et al.
2003; Castellón et al. 2008).
118 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

The HF-DSC measures the temperature difference between the reference mate-
rial and the PCM sample with equal heat input. The HF-DSC determines the
amount of heat absorbed by a sample during a temperature change. The temperature
within the sample placed in the furnace is compared with temperature of the ref-
erence. In the HF-DSC, a temperature sensor is placed on the surface of the furnace.
Heating of the test sample leads to a deviation of the sample temperature from the
reference temperature. This temperature difference is monitored and used to
determine the heat flux between the sample and the furnace. From this indirectly
measured heat flux, the specific heat cp(T) can be obtained as a function of tem-
perature. Following this calculation, the enthalpy (Δh) (the storage capacity) can be
derived from the specific heat values by integration over temperature (T). The
following equation can be used for this purpose (Wunderlich 2005; Castellón et al.
2008).

ZT
hðTÞ ¼ cp ðsÞds ð4:7Þ
T0

Temperature T0 used in the above equation as the start point of the integration
range can be chosen freely to normalize h(T) curves. In HF-DSC, temperature
difference DT between the reference and the test sample is proportional to the heat-
flux difference. At the same time, the rate of heat flux ðdH=dtÞ is proportional to the
sample specific heat capacity. That is why the PCM specific heat capacity cp can be
computed by the following equation:
   
1 dH dT
cp ¼ : ð4:8Þ
m dt dt

where cp is the PCM specific heat capacity, ðdT=dtÞ is the temperature change per
unit time, and m is the mass of the PCM sample.

4.4.3 Different Modes of DSC Operation

DSC can operated using (i) a dynamic ramp mode or (ii) an isothermal step-testing
mode (Höhne et al. 2003; Castellón et al. 2008). These two test modes are discussed
in detail in the following sections.

4.4.3.1 DSC Dynamic Ramp Mode

The DSC dynamic ramp mode is the most widely used for PCM testing technique.
It consists of heating and cooling segments performed at steady temperature change
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Material-Scale Testing 119

0.6 40
____ DCS signal
0.5 -------- temperature
30
DSC signal [mW/mg]

temperature [oC]
0.4
20
0.3

0.2 10

0.1
0
0.0

-10
0 20 40 60 80 100
time [min]

Fig. 4.5 Chart showing a typical heat flow and temperature evolution during a dynamic DSC
measurement with constant heating rate (see Günther et al. 2009)

rates (Höhne et al. 2003; Castellón et al. 2008). Since the method involves con-
tinuous heating or cooling processes, the duration of this type analysis can be
relatively short. An example of a typical temperature ramp during the heating
process and measured DSC signal is depicted in Fig. 4.5.
With use of the DSC apparatus, the PCM enthalpy (h) can be experimentally
determined by performing the following three dynamic tests:
1. The reference sample is tested against the empty crucible to determine the
thermal response of the crucible.
2. The reference needs to be compared with the standard calibration material
(usually sapphire).
3. Finally, the reference is tested against the PCM material of interest.
Then, the resulting specific heat of the sample as function of temperature cp(T) is
given by the following formula (see Günther et al. 2009)
 
Usample  Uempty msample
cpsample ðTÞ ¼ cpreference ðT Þ ðT Þ ð4:9Þ
Ureference  Uempty mreference

where,
m masses of the sample and reference material
U voltage signals of empty, sample, and reference run
Since the DSC dynamic ramp involves continuous heating or cooling processes,
there are some related uncertainties to the dynamic mode which are discussed next.
The effect of different heating/cooling rates and the sample size can be clearly
seen in Fig. 4.6 (Günther et al. 2009), which shows that the sample weight, as well
the speed of the heating ramp, may significantly affect the shape of the enthalpy
curve. Please also keep in mind that in DSC analysis it is assumed that the tested
120 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Fig. 4.6 Effect of different sample masses and different heating rates (see Günther et al. 2009)

sample has to be in isothermal stage at the beginning and at the end of the test. If the
sample is not in the isothermal state during these two periods, these thermal stages
cannot be properly characterized and the heat supplied cannot be accurately deter-
mined, which may compromise the overall measurement accuracy (see Höhne et al.
2003). When the PCM sample is exposed to the dynamic ramp, with continuous
heating (or cooling) applied, the temperature gradient across the sample originates.
This gradient varies consequently as the heating or cooling rates vary, or the sample
mass changes. As a result, the measured values during the heating process can be
overestimated or similarly underestimated during the continuous cooling. As a
consequence, significant inaccuracies can be generated during these tests.
Another potential source of inaccuracies during the DSC testing of PCMs is
nonlinear temperature distribution within the test sample. In a DSC apparatus, the
temperature sensors are placed on the surface of the DSC furnace. However, as
shown in Fig. 4.7, the measured temperature at the surface of the furnace is higher
than the average sample temperature for heating and lower than the average sample
temperature for cooling runs. Thus, the effect of continuous heating and cooling of
the dynamic mode may lead to temperature variation across the sample thickness
(see Wunderlich 2005; Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Castellón et al. 2008).

Nonlinear temperature distribution

within the test samples Cooling process

Heating process Theoretical temperature profiles

Fig. 4.7 Nonlinear temperature distribution within the test sample which may appear during the
continuous heating or cooling testing
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Material-Scale Testing 121

That is why the resulting enthalpy values generated by DSC during the heating
and (or) cooling ramps can be systematically shifted to higher and/or lower tem-
perature regions. This effect can be observed in Fig. 4.6. Theoretically, during the
dynamic ramp DSC testing, the temperature profile within the tested material
should be linear (solid lines—Fig. 4.7). In reality, due to the transient heat transfer
character, the temperature profile across the sample is not linear (dashed lines).
Therefore, in case of PCMs, the speed of heating or cooling needs to be slow
enough to assure thermodynamic equilibrium within the test sample. If not, the heat
supplied at each data recording (dH = dQ) cannot be assigned to the temperature
measured at this time, because it may lead to notable errors in estimation of the heat
stored by the test sample (see Höhne et al. 2003). Due to this reason and because the
exact form of the gradient is not known, it cannot be assumed that the real value is
indeed at the center of the test sample. Therefore, the distance between heating and
cooling curves may be used to evaluate the uncertainty of this type of measurements
(Mehling and Cabeza 2008; Castellón et al. 2008).

4.4.3.2 DSC Step-Testing Method

The DSC step-testing procedure was designed to ensure that measurements are
made during the time when thermal equilibrium is present in the test sample (see
Günther et al. 2009). In this method, continuous heating or cooling is not applied to
the sample. Instead, a series of isothermal step temperature changes, followed by
the time periods of constant temperature, are applied to the test sample. Since at the
beginning and at the end of each heating or cooling ramp thermal equilibrium can
be achieved, measurements are significantly more accurate than for the dynamic
ramp method. The final resulting signal is the sum of these heating/cooling ramps.
Using this procedure, it is possible to increase the temperature resolution of the
stored heat measurement. Hence, the method is more precise than the dynamic ramp
method because the uncertainty in the temperature is confined to the step size.
In this method, the resolution of the temperature is proportional to the magnitude of
the temperature steps. An example of a temperature history for the DSC step
method and the resulting measured signal is presented in Fig. 4.8.
During the DSC step testing, the sample is heated (or cooled) in stepwise
intervals in the predetermined temperature range. These steps are followed by the
predetermined time delay without heating (or cooling) such that the heat exchange
with the test sample and the reference is zero at the end of each step and the
measured signals return to zero.
In order to evaluate the accuracy of this test method, pure PCM samples are used
for calibration of the DSC apparatus. Calibration of the DSC apparatus is usually
performed by dynamic performance comparisons against enthalpy data available
from the literature for chemically pure PCM. To ensure accuracy of measurements,
instrument calibration needs to be repeated periodically.
122 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

0.6 35
____ DCS signal
0.5 -------- temperature steps
DSC signal [mW/mg]
0.4
30

temperature [oC]
0.3

0.2
25
0.1

0.0

20
0 20 40 60 80
time [min]

Fig. 4.8 Graph showing a typical heat flow and temperature recorded during an isothermal step
DSC measurement (see Günther et al. 2009)

4.4.4 DSC Accuracy Studies for Dynamic PCM Testing

It is well known that good understanding of thermo-physical characteristics and

overall system performance is essential for proper design of building envelope
technologies using PCMs. In this case, a determination of PCM enthalpy as a
function of temperature is an important enabling task, which is usually necessary in
the early design stages. Please keep in mind that PCM thermal characteristics provide
only preliminary information about dynamic thermal behavior of a building system
containing PCM. During the subsequent building design tasks, associated with
thermal analysis, energy performance optimization, and overall building design,
thermal characteristics of the entire system containing PCM are much more useful.
As stated earlier, DSC testing is the most widely used experimental methodology
for thermal performance analysis of PCMs and homogenous PCM-based products.
The accuracy of DSC measurements is discussed in detail by Richardson (1997),
Rudtsch (2002), Mehling and Cabeza (2008), and Günther et al. (2009). In general,
DSC with standard heating rates is not optimal for high-resolution measurements of
PCMs, since in enthalpy determination its accuracy is highly dependent on the
heating/cooling rates. The fact is that during a dynamic DSC measurement, the PCM
sample can be often far away from thermal equilibrium while changing its phase.
Further, most PCMs used in buildings demonstrate a relatively low thermal con-
ductivity. That is why, during DSC testing, in contrast to materials without a phase
change or with high thermal conductivity, a significant temperature gradient is
usually created inside the PCM sample. This can lead to significant inaccuracies in
estimations of the heat storage capacity with respect to temperature. The magnitude
of these errors depends primarily on the sample size and heating/cooling rates,
followed by the sample’s heat storage capacity and thermal conductivity.
4.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Material-Scale Testing 123

The IEA Task 42/Annex 24—Energy Conservation through Energy Storage and
Solar Heating and Cooling Programme “Compact Thermal Energy Storage” per-
formed a series of DSC tests using different types of test equipment. The main
objective of this work was to compare measurement results from different labora-
tories and to determine major sources of errors in estimations of PCM melting
enthalpy as well as in analysis of melting and solidification behaviors. The other
factors studied at that time were the influence of the DSC apparatus configuration,
the impact of the sample preparation, and the size and shape of the test crucibles.
Results show that good agreement for enthalpy measurements can be achieved in
heating mode, but high discrepancies were observed in case of cooling mode
measurements (see IEA 2011).

4.5 T-history Method

In 1980s, a number of research methods were developed, which allowed experimental

analysis of larger test samples. The following test methods are considered today as
predecessors of the T-history method.
• Vlasov et al. (1980) proposed an experimental method for determination of
thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity in both the liquid and solid phases.
This method also allows determination of latent heat during the phase-transition
processes. During the testing, a cylindrical sample of PCM is heated until it is
completely melted. An array of thermocouples is used to measure temperature
distribution within the sample during the test (Oró et al. 2010).
• The test method introduced by Carré and Delaunay (1985) allows the simultaneous
measurement of thermal conductivity, specific heat, and the latent heat of PCM.
This instrument utilizes the guarded hot-plate apparatus as a major component.
Thermo-physical properties of PCMs are measured in three different regimes as
follows: (1) steady-state intervals to measure thermal conductivity, (2) transient
period between two stationary regimes to measure the variation of the specific heat
as a function of temperature, and (3) test interval where the two phases coexist to
measure latent heat of melting. The authors compared results generated by their
instrument against the DTA testing, using commercial wax samples.
• An improved method for testing the thermal performance of PCMs was proposed
by Demirel and Paksoy (1993). They tested the thermal performance of encap-
sulated heat storage materials using two identical temperature-controlled baths,
which were heated by electrical resistance heaters. This method allowed mea-
surements of heating and cooling enthalpies and heat transfer characteristics
between the test sample and the different types of working liquids. During these
experiments, temperatures of the working liquids and the test samples could be set
between 0 and 200 °C. Assuming that the electrical energy input to the heating
resistor is totally converted to heat, the power inputs of the baths were easily
calculated. In order to evaluate accuracy of their measurements, the authors used
DSC measurements for comparison.
124 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Following the above developments, the T-history test method was introduced to
measure the latent heat, specific heat, and thermal conductivity of a PCM (Zhang
1999). Simple, general-use laboratory equipment was utilized for this purpose. In
addition to enthalpy measurements, the T-history method enabled analysis of the
effect of super-cooling. The samples containing PCMs were required to melt to
the liquid state and have a Biot number less than 0.1 (temperature distribution
within the test sample was considered as uniform). The Biot1 number is defined as
Bi ¼ hr=2k where r is the test tube radius, k is thermal conductivity of the PCM,
and ℎ is the free convection heat transfer coefficient. The lumped heat capacity
method was used to analyze heat transfer, and the results obtained were accurate
enough for engineering needs. The main advantages of the T-history method are as
follows:
• Due to the larger sample sizes, it can be used for testing of encapsulated or
composite PCMs and PCM-based products.
• The ranges of heating and cooling rates and temperature are large enough to fit
PCM for many different applications.
• Instrumentation configuration is relatively simple and inexpensive.
PCM testing with the use of the T-history method involves recording of tem-
perature change during the time of phase transition. It also requires for performance
comparisons with a well-characterized reference, usually distilled water. This
method is mainly used to determine the PCM freezing point, specific heat, latent
heat, thermal conductivity, and heat diffusion coefficient. After its introduction in
1990, the T-history method became essential for thermal analysis of a large number
of non-uniform PCM products. Because of larger size of the test samples, the
T-history method fulfilled the industry’s stipulation to characterize a large number
of commercial products containing PCMs. In case of PCM-enhanced building
technologies, this method helped in generation of more realistic results, which
better reflected PCM’s thermal behavior in real-life, whole building conditions.
Keep in mind that sample size is an important factor when experimentally deter-
mining thermo-physical characteristics of PCM-enhanced building materials.
A small sample usually results in a decrease in the response time of the test
apparatus, and hence leading to the higher temperature resolution. However, since
the building products containing PCMs are usually non-homogenous, the larger the
test sample the more representative test results are. In that light, thermal perfor-
mance data obtained for small quantities may be sometimes misleading.
As shown in Fig. 4.9, test equipment used for the T-history method testing is
very simple. The experimental device usually consists of the heating equipment
(flume) that provides a constant temperature water bath to absorb heat from, or
release heat to the test samples. One of major advantages of the T-history testing

1
The Biot number is a dimensionless quantity, which determines a magnitude of the temperature
differences across an analyzed sample, while it is heated or cooled over the time. It was named
after the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774–1862).
4.5 T-history Method 125

Sample temperature
TW,S measurements
TW Air TS
Cooling coil

Chamber heating elements

Measured specimen

Reference water specimen

Chamber
insulation Chamber temp. measurement
TCh

Fig. 4.9 Schematic of the T-history measurement device

methodology is that it allows measurements of several materials at the same time. In

this case, a number of tested samples are only limited by the size of the water bath
and a number of available data acquisition channels.
As shown in Fig. 4.9, during the T-history method measurements, tested
materials are placed in laboratory glass tubes. At least one glass test tube is filled
with tested PCM, while a second one contains a reference material (usually purified
water). It is critical that both samples had the same mass.
Figure 4.10 shows an example of T-history curves which can be generated for
distilled water and PCM samples during dynamic cooling ranging over the PCM
solidification temperature. In case of the freezing process measurements, test
samples need to be heated first to a temperature T0 , where T0 [ Tm (Tm is the phase
transition temperature). When the temperature of the two materials reaches T0 , the
test tubes need to be rapidly chilled down to temperature Ta ðTa \Tm Þ and allowed
to stabilize their temperatures. It is important to remember that uneven distribution
of the tested material inside the test tube may lead to uneven temperature distri-
bution affecting measurement accuracy.
Dynamic measurements performed with the use of the described above equip-
ment enable detailed analysis of material thermal characteristics during the phase-
transition processes. In this case, thermo-physical properties can be obtained from
the thermodynamic equations that describe basic phase-transition curves (see
Fig. 4.10). If PCM is one of the tested materials, a typical T-history curve (a relation
between temperature T and enthalpy H) can be generated for the phase-transition
process. Since water is used as a reference, the T-history curve for the water sample
is created as well. For PCMs without supercooling effect, the energy equations that
describe this can be noted as follows:

ms Hm þ m0 Cp0 ðTm1  Tm2 Þ ¼ hBA2 ð4:10Þ

m0 Cp0 þ mw Cpw ðT0  Tm1 Þ ¼ hBAw1 ð4:11Þ

126 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

T ( oC) T ( oC)
T0 T0

Water reference PCM sample

T m1 T m1
Aw1 T m2
Tb A1 A2
Aw2 Tb
T t w2 T
t w1 T(s) t1 t2 t 3 T(s)

Fig. 4.10 Typical T-history curves generated during cooling process for distilled water and PCM
samples

where,

t1w
Z
Aw1 ¼ ðT  T1 Þdt ð4:12Þ
0

t2
Z
A2 ¼ ðT  T1 Þdt ð4:13Þ
t1

In equation (4.10), the latent heat Hm of the PCM sample can be described with
use of the following formulas:

m0 Cp0 þ mw Cpw
Hm ¼ ð4:14Þ
ms

where, m0, ms, and mw were the mass of the glass tube, tested PCM, and water,
respectively; cp0 was the specific heat of the test tube, cpw was the specific heat of
water, and B was the convection heat exchange area of the test tube.
Similar equations can be derived for PCMs or PCM composites demonstrating
supercooling effect (Zhang 1999). Marin et al. (2003) proposed an improved
mathematical formula for enthalpy analysis as a function of temperature.
Since 1990s, many researchers have been successfully using the T-history
method to analyze variety of PCMs and PCM-based products. Zeng et al. (2006)
tested the latent heat of n-octadecane (C18H38) using T-history and DSC testing.
They reported less than a 5 % difference between DSC and T-history method
measurements. However, testing performed on emulsions containing micro-
encapsulated n-octadecane resulted in notable larger differences. Günther et al.
(2009) used a T-history apparatus to test PCM samples approximately 1000 times
larger than the typical DSC samples. Next, they used for comparison the DSC
dynamic ramp mode and DSC isothermal step mode. It was found that the step
method and the dynamic ramp method (with the heating rate 0.5 K/min) yielded the
temperature measurement uncertainty of about 2 and 1 K, respectively. During this
series of tests, the T-history method yielded similar measurement precision as DSC
4.5 T-history Method 127

Fig. 4.11 Experimental

comparisons between
T-history method DSC
thermal ramp testing and DSC
isothermal step procedure
(see Günther et al. 2009)

testing with significantly smaller sample sizes. The test results obtained by using the
above three methods are depicted in Fig. 4.11 (see Günther et al. 2009). Test results
comparisons of the enthalpy determinations of bulk PCM samples with the use of
the DSC heat ramp method, DSC isothermal method, and T-history testing are
shown there. Both heating and cooling curves are presented for each method.
In addition, Rady et al. (2010) evaluated the T-history method for character-
ization of granular PCM composites. Furthermore, Li et al. (2012) reported that the
maximum discrepancies between T-history measurements of eutectic salt mixtures
and the results of DSC testing were less than 8 %.
Although DTA and DSC methods are well developed, their shortcomings in case of
testing of PCM-enhanced building materials are quite obvious. First of all, the samples
required by these instruments are relatively small (1–10 mg) so that the test-generated
thermo-physical properties are not usually representative of the bulk materials used in
real building applications. A major reason for this difference is that PCM-enhanced
building products are typically non-homogenous. In addition, the size of the test
sample may impact phase-transition characteristics. For example, for liquid–solid
phase-change processes of most composite PCMs, especially salt hydrates, if the
phase-change material is put into a small container, the degree of supercooling of the
PCM is increased while the degree of phase segregation can be decreased.

4.6 Dynamic Heat Flow Meter Apparatus (DHFMA)

Testing Method

Different types of PCMs have been tested as dynamic components in buildings for
at least four decades. PCMs in the building envelope and internal fabric are utilized
to store energy, control temperature profiles, and mitigate temperature gradients
throughout thermal envelopes. They are remaining at a nearly constant temperature
during the melting and solidifying processes. A large number of laboratory and field
experiments performed worldwide have already demonstrated that PCM-enhanced
128 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

composite boards, membranes, arrays of PCM containers, and blends of insulation

and PCM can be utilized as lightweight thermal mass components in low-energy
buildings. It is expected that these types of dynamic thermal systems will contribute
to the reduction of overall energy usage and peak load shifting in future buildings.
Today, detailed thermo-physical data for these novel building materials are nec-
essary for whole building simulations, energy analysis, and energy code work. The
transient characteristics of PCM-enhanced products depend on the PCM content
and quality of the PCM carrier. In the past, the only existing readily available
methods of thermal evaluation utilized DSC testing, or sometimes T-history method
measurements for limited number of materials. Unfortunately, the DSC method
required small, relatively uniform test samples. This requirement is unrealistic in the
case of many PCM-enhanced building envelope products. Small samples are not
representative in case of PCM-based blends or composites, since these materials are
not homogeneous. That is why a new laboratory-scale testing procedure enabling
testing of significantly larger samples was introduced in late 2000 for the analysis of
dynamic thermal characteristics of PCM-enhanced materials (Kośny et al. 2006,
2009a, b). It is using the conventional HFMA, which has been already widely used
for steady-state thermal conductivity measurements according to the ASTM C 518-
04 standard—Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission
Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter 4Apparatus (ASTM 2011a). The
DHFMA method is an upgrade to the previously developed rapid temperature ramp
methodology that was developed to test PCM-enhanced fiber insulations and
allowed for more accurate test data analysis (see Kośny et al. 2009a; Kośny et al.
2012; Shukla et al. 2013).
As mentioned previously, a conventional HFMA is typically used to measure
steady-state thermal properties of thermal insulations and building materials. In gen-
eral, a HFMA consists of two isothermal plates with one or more heat-flux transducers
bonded to each plate. The plate temperatures are usually controlled using thermo-
electric elements and water chillers. In principle, the dynamic heat flow meter appa-
ratus (DHFMA) test method is similar to the step mode DSC testing, but it is applicable
to larger-scale samples making possible the testing building products. At the beginning
of DHFMA test, the top and bottom plates are set to the same temperature, unlike the
conventional HFMA where top and bottom plates are set to different temperatures to
impose a temperature gradient on the sample. DHFMA analysis utilizes temperature
and heat-flux analysis to determine the dynamic thermal characteristics of PCM-
enhanced building components. These upgrades improved the accuracy of the results
with minimal modification to the existing equipment and requiring no costly hardware
upgrades. Based on the described above research and development work, a new testing
standard has been developed in 2013—ASTM C1784-13 Standard Test Method for
Using a Heat Flow Meter Apparatus for Measuring Thermal Storage Properties of
Phase Change Materials and Products (ASTM 2013).
In principle, a phase-transition event in a PCM-enhanced material system can be
studied using the heat-balance equation for the material system with the consid-
eration of temperature-dependent specific heat. The one-dimensional heat transport
equation for such a case is as follows:
4.6 Dynamic Heat Flow Meter Apparatus (DHFMA) Testing Method 129

 
@ @ @T
ðqhÞ ¼ k ð4:15Þ
@t @x @x

where, ρ and λ are the material density and thermal conductivity, respectively, T and
h are temperature and enthalpy per unit mass, respectively.
Considering a constant pressure during the thermal event, the effective heat
capacity, ceff, is defined as the derivative of the enthalpy (including latent and
sensible heats) with respect to the temperature:

@h
ceff ¼ ð4:16Þ
@T

For most PCMs, enthalpy profile with temperature depends on the direction of
the phase-change process, and often, enthalpy profile during the melting process is
different than that during solidification. Therefore, it is important to consider sep-
arate temperature-dependent specific heat functions for melting and solidification in
the thermal design of the PCM-enhanced material. Effective heat capacity for a
material which is a blend of a solid carrier and PCM may be expressed as follows:

ð100  aÞ a
ceff ¼ ccarr þ ceff PCM ð4:17Þ
100 100

where, α denotes the weight percent content of PCM, ccarr is the specific heat of the
carrier material without PCM, and ceff PCM is the effective heat capacity of PCM.
During dynamic step testing with the use of the HFMA, temperature profiles and
top and bottom plate heat flow rates, QT and QB, are recorded at time interval, τ, by
thermocouples and heat-flux transducers, respectively, for each plate (see Kośny
et al. 2006; Alderman and Yarbrough 2007). Each temperature step is allowed to
continue until the thermal equilibrium condition is reached. Considering a constant
pressure, enthalpy, H (in terms of heat per unit square of surface area), is deter-
mined by integrating heat flow rates over time as follows:
X
H¼ fHi þ ½ðQTi  QTfinal ÞST þ ðQBi  QBfinal ÞSB sg ð4:18Þ

where, Ti and Tfinal are beginning and ending temperatures, respectively, for each
temperature step, QTfinal and QBfinal are the residual heat flow signals from the
upper and lower plates, respectively, at equilibrium that are subtracted from the
signal of interest to eliminate drift caused by usually small flanking heat losses, and
ST and SB are the calibration factor for top and bottom plates, respectively.
A series of dynamic thermal measurements were simultaneously performed with
the use of DSC and DHFMA in order to estimate the accuracy of the DHFMA test
method (see Fig. 4.12). A test sample of the bio-based shape-stabilized PCM
(ss-PCM) was used for this purpose, because it can be synthesized both as small
pellets and as larger-scale flat sheets, allowing a direct comparison between the
above two methods (Shukla et al. 2013). As depicted in Fig. 4.13, a peak of the
130 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Fig. 4.12 Examples of experimental apparatus employed to determine dynamic thermal properties
of PCM-enhanced materials: a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and b heat flow meter
apparatus (HFMA)

35

Ramp-10°C/min
30
Ramp-5°C/min
Ramp-1°C/min
Specific Heat (J/g-K)

25 Ramp-0.2°C/min
Step
20 HFMA

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Temeprature (°C)

Fig. 4.13 Specific heat as a function of temperature measured for shape-stabilized (ss) PCM with
the use of the DSC and DHFMA testing methods (Shukla et al. 2013)

specific heat data, generated during the DSC testing for PCM melting as a function
of temperature, is shifting to lower temperatures with slower temperature changes.
Correspondingly, for the solidification event, it is shifting to higher temperatures.
This is due to the fact that DSC sample has a finite thermal mass, causing its
thermal response lag. Slower ramps allow test sample more time to reach thermal
equilibrium. This statement can be verified by comparing the DSC data recorded
during the slowest test ramp (0.2 °C/min) against the DSC step test data. Next,
DHFMA tests were performed on 0.4-cm-thick sheet of the ss-PCM. Two separate
measurements for melting and solidification processes were performed using 1.5 °C
4.6 Dynamic Heat Flow Meter Apparatus (DHFMA) Testing Method 131

temperature steps. As shown in Fig. 4.13, specific heat as a function of temperature

measured by the DHFMA method was found to be in very good agreement with
DSC’s slowest ramp results (Shukla et al. 2013).

4.7 Dynamic Hot-Box Testing Method

The hot-box testing methodology has been used and perfected for decades. His-
torically, the hot-box test method was developed to measure the overall steady-state
heat transfer through the full-size, system-scale building envelope assemblies.
However, some hotboxes with cooling capability of the meter side can be used to
obtain transient experimental data. There are two major types of hot-box testing
devices—the guarded hotbox (GHB—an absolute test method) and the calibrated
hotbox (CHB—a secondary method). The CHB apparatus is similar in form to the
GHB; however, it requires calibration with the use of the calibration sample of well-
characterized thermal conductance. The main difference between these two methods
is that the GHB apparatus has a metering box inside a guard box (see Fig. 4.14)2.
This reduces the heat loss through the metering box to a minimum as the metering
box and the guard box temperatures are kept the same. The first GHB was built in
the late 1930s (see Zarr 2001). Hot-box measurements are usually performed to
measure the thermal performance of opaque and transparent building envelope
components such as walls, floors, roofs, and windows. The hot-box test method can
be used to measure either thermal transmittance (or U-value) which determines the

Guard box Specimen frame

Radiant screens Climate box
Conditioning

Electric
System

Heater Cooling
System

Meter box Test specimen

Fig. 4.14 A schematic of the guarded hotbox on the left side and a photograph of the
commercially available hotbox on the right side

2
http://www.taurus-instruments.de/en/products/hotbox-test-stations/taurus/tdw-4040-thermal-
resistance-of-brickwork.html?cat=19&cHash=9272b7b5e8ee54ec1ae8903418149687
132 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

overall heat transfer through a structure; or thermal resistance (R-value), which is

associated with heat flow within the structure.
Hotboxes, used in full-scale laboratory experiments worldwide, are usually
designed in accordance with ASTM C1363-11 (2011b), ISO 8990 (1994), or ISO
12567-1 (2000). As shown in Fig. 4.14, the GHB test rig is mainly composed of
two chambers: (i) climate chamber and (ii) guarded chamber with meter box placed
inside. Climate chamber is sometimes called the “cold box” and is equipped with
cooling units and fans to control the required low temperature inside. For PCM
measurements, this part of the hotbox needs to be capable to rapidly change the
internal temperature. During the conventional steady-state testing, the temperature
in the cold box is kept at a constant value of sometimes −20 °C and on the opposite
side at around +30 °C (this gives about 50 °C temperature difference across the test
sample). The warm side of the GHB apparatus usually comprises the meter box
which is surrounded by the thermal guard. The meter box functions as the main
measurement cell, inside which electric heaters and fans are used to provide
required temperature. The electric heating elements in the thermal guard chamber
are used to control and maintain the air temperature on the same level as for the air
inside the meter box. This ensures no heat transfer through the metering box walls.
According to the energy balance during the steady-state measurements, the amount
of heat which is generated inside the meter box needs to be equal to the heat
transferred through the test sample. In the most advanced GHB test chambers,
usually the meter side may have additionally cooling capability, which can be
necessary for measurements of highly insulated building envelope assemblies (since
electric fans may produce too much heat). On both sides of the hotbox, electric fans
and radiant screens need to be designed in such way that uniform temperature
distribution and air flow characteristics are achieved on both surfaces of the test
sample. In the calibrated hotbox, there is no inner metering box. The outer walls of
the hot chamber are made with very thick insulation to minimize the conduction
heat losses. In hot-box testing, the size of the test sample is usually in excess of
1.5 m × 1.5 m. As shown in Fig. 4.15, the full-size test assemblies are installed into
a sample frame that is mounted on a moveable dolly. Next, the sample frame with

Fig. 4.15 Full-size wall assemblies installed into the hot-box frames which are supported by the
moveable dolly—Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, testing (authors archive)
4.7 Dynamic Hot-Box Testing Method 133

test wall assembly is inserted between two chambers of identical cross-sections.

Since the test wall assembly is located between the meter and climate chambers,
their temperatures can be controlled independently.
Thermal characteristics of roof, attic, and floor assemblies can be tested in
horizontal hotboxes. In this case, test sample is installed on the horizontal frame.
Figure 4.16 shows the large scale climate simulator (LSCS) used by ORNL, USA.
The LSCS apparatus allows relatively large horizontally mounted roof and floor
systems to be tested at extreme environmental conditions. In addition, this hot-box
apparatus contains solar simulator, which makes possible testing of roof assemblies
in summer conditions.
Dynamic thermal characteristics for building envelope components (such as heat
storage capacity or time of thermal response) can be generated during dynamic hot-
box tests or by using analytical calculation methods. One of the first dynamic test
methods for determining transfer function coefficients for complex wall samples
using calibrated hotbox was developed by National Institute of Standard and Tech-
nology, USA (NIST) (see Burch et al. 1990). Following this work, the dynamic heat
transmission characteristics of seven generic walls were measured by NRC Canada
using a guarded hot-box procedure—ASHRAE Research Project 515-RP (NRC
Canada 1991). First dynamic hot box tests of PCM-enhanced building envelopes
were introduced by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA. For this purpose,
a combined experimental and theoretical method for analyses of dynamic thermal
characteristic of building envelope assemblies was developed (see Kossecka and
Kośny 1997; Kośny et al. 1998a). A series of dynamic hot-box tests have been
performed on complex massive wall configurations (Kośny et al. 1998a, b).
A dynamic hot-box test typically consists of the following three basic stages:
• steady-state stage (steady temperatures on both sides of the wall),
• thermal ramp (rapid change of the temperature on the one side of the wall), and
• stabilizing stage (wall is kept under the second set of steady boundary tem-
peratures until steady-state heat transfer occurs).

Fig. 4.16 Horizontal hotbox with solar simulator—large-scale climate simulator (LSCS) used by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
134 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

This unique experimental/theoretical measurement technique can be utilized to

generate dynamic thermal performance characteristics of building envelope
assemblies, including response factors, structural factors, z-transfer function coef-
ficients. A precise knowledge of these dynamic thermal characteristics is critical for
accurate whole building energy simulations. Numerous wall assemblies containing
conventional thermal mass have been studied using dynamic hot-box testing and
transient heat conduction simulations (see Kossecka and Kośny 2001; Kośny and
Kossecka 2002). In case of building envelope assemblies containing PCM, usually
the following transient thermal characteristics are of major interest:
• total sensible heat storage capacity of assembly,
• phase-transition heat storage capacity of assembly,
• phase-change temperatures,
• thermal response time,
• peak load shifting characteristics, and
• damping rates for thermal excitations, etc.
One of the first tested by the author material configurations was gypsum-based
stucco containing 20 % by weight of micro-encapsulated paraffinic PCM. The 2.4-
m-by-2.4-m test wall, which contained about 15.9 kg of PCM (in a 1.9-cm-thick
layer of the composite stucco), was constructed and tested with the use of the
ORNL hotbox (Kośny et al. 2007a). Typical wood framing and fiberglass wall
cavity insulation were used in this research.
Subsequently, a novel wood frame wall assembly used the multilayer insulation,
containing several layers of the PCM-enhanced open-cell polyurethane foam, and
aluminized plastic foil was evaluated by the same research team (see Fig. 4.17).
In this research, the major role of the plastic foil sheet was to control moisture

Aluminized Plastic Foil

Two Layers of 0.3-cm PU Foam

Containing PCM

Aluminized Plastic Foil

Two Layers of 0.3-cm PU Foam

Containing PCM

Aluminized Plastic Foil

RSI -2.29 Fiberglass

Wall Cavity Insulation
Wood Stud

Fig. 4.17 Configuration details for the dynamic hot-box test of the wood-framed wall containing
multilayer PCM-enhanced PU foam insulation and reflective foils (Kośny et al. 2007a)
4.7 Dynamic Hot-Box Testing Method 135

migration inside the wall cavity and additionally a limited mitigation of radiation
heat transfer, considering existence of small air spaces between insulation layers
and a notable optical depth of the fiberglass insulation—as measured by Pelanne
(1968, 1978). In total, the polyurethane foam contained about 0.49 kg/m2 of PCM
for the surface area (see Kośny et al. 2007a). The PCM melting point was about
25.5 °C, and its total phase-change enthalpy was about 140 J/g. From six identical
wall cavities, three were insulated with unfaced RSI-2.29 [m2 K/W] fiberglass batts.
In three other cavities, the RSI-2.29 fiberglass batts were combined with the mul-
tilayer insulating facing. All cavities used conventional 1.3-cm oriented strand
board (OSB) sheathing on one wall side. On the opposite side, 1.3-cm-thick gyp-
sum board was installed. The part of the wall containing PCM (of surface area
*6 m2) had a total heat storage capacity of about 202.6 kJ. Keep in mind that,
because two different wall assemblies were tested next to each other during this
experiment, major heat flow measurements had to be performed with the use of
heat-flux transducers. This dynamic hot-box experiment was initiated with about
60 h of steady-state heat flow in the wall, and it was followed with series of
temperature ramps performed on both wall surfaces. All major temperature changes
performed on the cold and warm sides, during the described above dynamic hot-box
experiment, are listed in Table 4.1.
Since the PCM wall warmed much more slowly than the conventional wall, the
temperature difference between the hot-box meter side air and the surface of the
PCM wall was higher compared to the conventional wall (Kośny et al. 2007a).
Therefore, the heat flux on the warm side of the PCM wall was significantly higher
as well. This difference in heat fluxes is presented in Fig. 4.18 as a “Cooling
potential of the PCM wall.” A side-by-side thermal performance comparison of the
PCM part of the test wall containing multilayer insulation facing and the traditional
wood frame wall assembly demonstrated a potential for steady-state and dynamic
energy savings. After integration over the time, the heat fluxes measured on the cold
side of the wall during the time just after the thermal excitation on the warm side
demonstrated a difference of about 40 %. This value translates directly to a potential
of 40 % reduction in the wall-generated peak-hour cooling load. Measurements of
heat fluxes during periods of time with a steady-state heat flow enabled compari-
sons of the R-values of both parts of the test wall. The measured steady-state heat-
flux difference was about 20 %, which was caused by the additional thermal
resistance provided by the PCM–foam–foil facing.

Table 4.1 Temperature profiles of the dynamic hot-box test of the wood-framed test wall
containing DRI and traditional fiberglass batt insulation
Initial steady-state Ramp on the cold Rapid warmup Cooldown
period (°C) side (°C) ramp (°C) ramp (°C)
Warm side 23 26 35 20
Cold side −6.6 19 20 19
136 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

Heat Fluxes (warm up ramp)

22.1
Construction of the test wall
18.9
Cooling potential Solidifying
of PCM wall
PCM phase of PCM
change
15.8

12.6 PCM wall warm surface

W/m2

Conventional wall warm surface Thermal lag time

9.5
Conventional wall cold surface
6.3

3.1 ORNL hot-box

PCM wall cold surface

0.0
95.0 95.5 96.0 96.5 97.0 97.5 98.0 98.5 99.0 99.5 100.0 100.5 101.0
Time (hours)

Fig. 4.18 Heat flows measured on the PCM and non-PCM sides of the wood-framed test wall,
during the dynamic hot-box testing (Kośny et al. 2007a)

Following the dynamic measurements described above, the ORNL research team
performed a series of similar dynamic hot-box experiments where thermal perfor-
mance of PCM-enhanced cellulose fiber, used as a wall cavity insulation, was
measured (Kośny et al. 2007b). A similar experimental procedure was used for
testing of the wood frame wall assembly containing PCM-enhanced fiberglass
(Kośny et al. 2010).
Analogous dynamic wall experiments were performed with the use of the guarded
hotbox by NTNU, Trondheim, Norway (Cao et al. 2010). In this work, a series of
measurements of a well-insulated wood frame wall with and without PCM layer was
studied with respect to different interior conditions (generated heat and air velocity
along the interior surface of the tested wall). Commercially available composite
board product, containing shape-stabilized PCM, was used in these tests. Emphasis
was put on the fluctuations in the interior air and wall surface temperatures. The
PCM boards were installed just under the gypsum boards on the interior wall side.
Temperature, heat flux, air velocity, and electrical power were recorded during
thermal excitations. By applying well-distributed thermocouples, the influences of
the PCM layer on the interior temperatures can be shown. As in ORNL testing, heat-
flux transducers were used to measure the energy storage effects in test walls.
In addition to dynamic wall testing, dynamic hot-box experiments were per-
formed on a residential attic module insulated with PCM-enhanced cellulose
(Kośny et al. 2007b). The attic module was tested under periodic temperature
changes in the ORNL LSCS (see Fig. 4.18). Two concentrations of micro-encap-
sulated PCM were used in these experiments (5 and 20 wt%). The main goal of
dynamic attic tests was the evaluation of thermal response time of the PCM-
enhanced attic floor insulation. During summer months, charging of the PCM
material is not a problem, because of the intensive fluctuations of the attic air
temperature (caused during the day by a rapid increase in temperature caused by the
4.7 Dynamic Hot-Box Testing Method 137

sun and during the night by intense irradiation from the roof surface to the clear
sky). In a well-designed PCM application, 100 % of the PCM material should be
able to fully discharge its energy before daytime operation the next day.
During these dynamic LSCS tests, the model of the residential attic was sub-
jected to periodic changes of temperature (18 °C for about 16 h, rapid temperature
ramp to 49 °C, and exposure to 49 °C for about 4 h, followed by natural cooling
back to 18 °C). Please notice that during this test, hot-box climate side was warmer
from the meter side, because of unique capabilities of the ORNL LSCS. The array
of thermocouples installed at app. 2.5-cm intervals was used to monitor temperature
distribution across the attic insulation. Figure 4.19 shows temperature profiles
recoded with the use of the attic module during dynamic hot-box test in the LSCS.
Please notice that recorded temperature fluctiations within the LSCS were slightly
different from initial assumptions.
One of the interesting findings from the analysis of temperature fields within the
PCM-enhanced attic floor insulation was that only layers located higher than 10 cm
from the bottom of the attic were involved in the phase-changing process. It took
about 6–8 h to fully discharge the energy stored in these layers. It is interesting that
analysis of the temperature profiles demonstrated visual evidence of charging and
discharging of PCM even in case of attic insulation containing only 5 wt% of PCM.

Periodic climate chamber temperature changes: 21 oC 49 oCand 57oC,

meter chamber temperature was kept constant at app. 20 oC
60

54

Discharging
49
of PCM
Temperature [o C]

43
Temperature range
38 for Charging and
Discharging of PCM

32

27

21

16
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72
Hrs into Test
Test time [h]
Ceiling 2.5 cm. up 5.1 cm. up 7.6 cm. up
10.1 cm. up 12.7 cm. up 15.2 cm. up 17.8 cm. up
20.2 cm. up 22.9 cm. up 25.4 cm. up 27.9 cm. up
30.5 cm. up 33 cm. up Attic air Climate chamber air

Fig. 4.19 Temperature profiles recorded inside the PCM-enhanced attic floor insulation during the
dynamic full-size attic hotbox test performed with the use of the ORNL large-scale climate
simulator (Kośny et al. 2007b)
138 4 Laboratory Thermal Testing …

4.8 A Need for Development of Testing Standards

for Dynamic Thermal Analysis of PCM-Enhanced
Building Materials and Systems

Thermal control and energy storage applications in buildings including PCM-based

building envelopes are important technologies for energy efficiency. PCMs in
buildings improve their performance by adding thermal inertia to the building
structure and controlling transient heat flows through the envelope. Since an
application of the PCM-enhanced building technologies means intense use of the
melting and freezing enthalpies to store or to release thermal energy, it is crucial to
well characterize all used building materials containing PCM. Proper design of
building envelopes utilizing PCMs is essential for their effectiveness, cost, and
long-term performance. That is why it is so important to be able to accurately
characterize their thermo-physical characteristics (phase-change enthalpy, thermal
conductivity in solid and liquid phases, and density, etc., as functions of temper-
ature). Consider that access to the trustful thermal performance data is necessary for
PCM-enhanced building envelope materials and systems to be used by designers
and builders. As discussed in previous sections, for the purpose of design, code
work, and energy analysis of the whole building PCM applications, dynamic
thermal characteristics need to be primarily developed for PCM-enhanced building
envelope products, both in material and system scales. Lack of respected and
comparable performance data for PCM-enhanced building materials is one of key
barriers listed by IEA Task 42—Annex 24 for the future market acceptance of these
technologies (IEA 2011).
DSC is one of the most widely used analytical methods for thermal analysis of
PCMs. However, a requirement of small and uniform samples makes difficult testing
of PCM-enhanced building envelope materials. That is why a new laboratory-scale
testing procedure for significantly larger samples was developed for the analysis of
dynamic thermal characteristics of PCM-enhanced materials (see Kośny et al. 2006,
2009b; Shukla et al. 2013). It is using the conventional HFMA. In 2013, ASTM
introduced ASTM C1784 test standard for dynamic HFMA measurements (ASTM
2013). Following this work, a similar standard method needs to be developed now
for analysis of the long-term thermal performance of building materials, insulations,
and board products containing PCM. In addition, dynamic thermal characteristics
for full-size building envelope assemblies can be generated during the dynamic hot-
box tests. Although hotboxes are used worldwide for full-scale steady-state exper-
iments, an official standard method for hot-box measurements of dynamic thermal
characteristics of full-size building envelope assemblies containing PCM has not
been developed yet. This would be an indispensable step enabling, in the future,
commercialization of many PCM-enhanced building envelope technologies.
References 139

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Kośny J, Christian JE, Desjarlais AO, Kossecka E, Berrenberg L (1998b) Performance check
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Chapter 5
Examples of Full-Scale Field
Experiments—Test Huts and Whole
Buildings Containing PCM-Enhanced
Building Envelope Components

5.1 Introduction

Full-scale field testing of building envelope components containing PCMs is very

often a critical last step before market implementation of new products utilizing latent
heat. From the other side, a development of numerical tools, necessary for analysis of
these technologies as well as validation of these tools is also used, is an important
justification for full-scale field testing. Finally, energy code developments, energy
performance demonstrations, and long-term durability questions for PCM-enhanced
products may also require long-term full-scale field testing. This chapter will focus
only on two basic forms of these experiments: test hut testing and whole-building
experiments. It is good to mentions that for some internal building applications, many
research centers have been using test rooms, which are not discussed herein. Only
examples of the most current experiments are presented below. Due to a large number
of commercial demonstration projects with use of PCMs, currently taking place
around the world, only a limited selection of experiments and demonstration projects
from different geographic regions are discussed in this publication.

5.2 Test Hut Field Testing

Test hut field testing is a convenient and relatively inexpensive way of getting
system energy, thermal, and hygrothermal performance data for specific climatic
conditions. Well-designed test hut experiments enable almost calorimetric type of
dynamic measurements. In case of using a baseline hut and a test hut, usually it
makes possible a separation of performance behavior effects generated only by a
single system of interest, which is difficult in whole-building testing. Another
advantage of hut experiments is a fact that due to limited sizes of these structures,
construction and instrumentation costs are only a fraction of similar expenses in

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 143

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_5
144 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

case of the whole-building testing. In case of an application of several test huts in a

single experiment (to enable comparisons), it is critical that all construction and
thermal parameters (i.e., geometry, dimensions, insulation levels, and air leakage),
as well as utilized space conditioning systems are identical. Additionally, test huts
allow testing of different building proportions, different types of roofs, attics,
glazing, etc. Any necessary changes in orientation, tested system configuration, or
instrumentation can be done very fast—within hours or days. Figure 5.1 presents
two types of test huts used by Fraunhofer CSE for field testing of PCM-enhanced
envelopes and other advanced building components. They are used to carry out
long-term field evaluations in a semiarid climate of Albuquerque, NM, USA.
When passive solar systems, double facades, or solar fenestration systems are the
main objective of research, very often southern opaque wall of the test hut is replaced
by a large single window or glazing. At Concordia University, Canada an outdoor test
facility has been developed with two configurations of the double façade. Athienitis
et al. (1997, 2005), Charron and Athienitis (2003) performed an experimental anal-
ysis on a test room with a selection of passive and active building envelopes con-
taining PCMs. Figure 5.2a shows the test hut with two configurations of the double
façade with integrated photovoltaic panels and PCM heat storage. PV panels are
forming the outside layer of the opaque wall section and airflow behind them. A
similar rooftop test hut was developed by the Fraunhofer ISE in Freiburg, Germany,

Fig. 5.1 Fraunhofer CSE field testing with use of the test huts in Albuquerque, NM, USA

Fig. 5.2 Test huts with large southern-oriented glazing systems: a Concordia University test hut
(Athienitis et al. 2005). b Fraunhofer ISE climate chamber (http://www.enob.info/en/new-
technologies/projects/details/climate-active-heat-storage-in-construction-materials/)
5.2 Test Hut Field Testing 145

for testing of climate-active heat storage in construction materials (see Fig. 5.2b).
Field measurements for PCM-enhanced floors, walls, and ceilings were performed in
Freiburg under controlled conditions. Integration included microencapsulated PCM
that can be mixed with plaster, gypsum board, or other building products that can be
applied to interior surfaces (Schossig et al. 2004).

5.2.1 Test Huts Built by the Alberta Research Council Inc.,

Canada

During 2000–2003, the Alberta Research Council Inc. (ARC), Canada, worked on
the development of thermal solar systems that were designed for application in
residential housing for the purpose of space heating. As a result of this research
activity, a cost-effective thermal solar collector with direct heat storage (DHS) was
developed and field tested (see Fig. 5.3). In the experimental system, three walls of
the test hut (east, south, and west) were equipped with DHS panels. Plastic mats
containing PCM of melting temperature around 29 °C and latent heat capacity of
190 kJ/kg were used for heat storage. During the 2004–2005 winter season, the
prototype DHS solar system installed on the external walls of the test hut was
extensively tested at different levels of the solar irradiation and at different ambient
temperatures (Szymocha 2005). To perform an evaluation of the DHS system, two
reference surfaces (black painted metal plate and standard vinyl siding) were also
introduced into the testing system. The experimental huts were electrically heated
and the internal temperature was controlled by thermostats set at 20 °C. It was
observed that the temperature of the wall equipped with a PCM panel even on a
short, semi-cloudy winter day can be kept at over 20 °C through most of the night
(until 7 am of the next day). Recorded winter field test results have demonstrated
that DHS solar thermal panels can reduce space heating energy consumption by
about 50 % compared to traditional residential housing construction technology.

PCM heat sink

Winter sun

Air gap

Glazing

Absorber
Wall

Enclosure

Fig. 5.3 Thermal components of the PCM test hut tested by the Alberta Research Council Inc.
(ARC), Canada (Szymocha 2005)
146 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

5.2.2 University of Kansas Test Huts, Lawrence, KS, USA

A series of field experiments was performed using two small-scale test huts located
on West Campus of the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas, USA. The main
focus of this research was different methods of inclusion of PCMs into the wood-
framed walls and structural insulated panel walls (Zhang et al. 2005; Medina et al.
2008; Medina and Stewart 2008; Medina and Zhu 2008; Fang 2009). The PCM was
integrated into test walls using direct mixing of the PCMs with cellulose insulation
and macro-encapsulation. Two 1.83 m × 1.83 m × 1.52 m nominally identical test
huts were built for these experiments using typical North American wood-frame
wall construction practices (Fig. 5.4a, b). Both test huts were air-conditioned using
fan coil units. A small refrigeration chiller produced cold water that was used for
space conditioning (Zhang et al. 2005). Both test huts were instrumented to monitor
and record space cooling and space heating energy consumption, indoor air and
surface temperatures, indoor air relative humidities, outdoor surface temperatures,
and wall heat transfer. One house was used as a control house and the other as a
retrofit house.
In first Univ. of Kansas experiments, PCM was introduced to the wall using
copper pipes (macro-encapsulation). The internal structure of the wall, showing the
structural stud framing and PCM piping, is presented in Fig. 5.4c. A paraffin-based
PCM with a phase transition range between 20 and 30 °C was selected for this
research. During this experiment, 10 and 20 % percent PCM concentrations of the
PCM were tested and evaluated during the summer season. Liquid PCM was
encapsulated in copper pipes, which were later placed just behind the interior
sheathing layer in all four walls (all orientations). Recorded date showed that the
peak-hour heat fluxes through the PCM wall were substantially lower than for the
conventional wood-framed wall. The overall cooling loads were reduced by 8.6 to
10.8 % for the 10 and 20 % PCM concentrations, respectively. The following
research performed by the University of Kansas team, was focused on an appli-
cation of the PCM-cellulose insulation mix (Fang 2009). From the experimental

Fig. 5.4 Field testing performed by the University of Kansas, USA with use of two test huts—
Source Medina et al. (2008). a Test huts. b Wood-framing construction method used for walls. c
Macro-encapsulation of PCM using copper pipes
5.2 Test Hut Field Testing 147

results using a 30 % PCM concentration in the PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation

(direct mixing), it was found that the PCM could lower and shift the peak-hour heat
fluxes generated by the wall. On average, for the east wall, the absolute peak heat
flux was reduced by 38.5 %; for the west wall, the reduction was 22.3 %; for the
south wall, the reduction was 19.0 %; and for the north wall, the reduction was
27.4 %.

5.2.3 University of Auckland Test Huts—New Zealand

An array of identical wood-framed test huts was built on the Tamaki Campus,
University of Auckland, New Zealand (Khudhair and Farid 2004, 2007; Tardieu
et al. 2011). The single-story building dimensions were 2.60 × 2.60 × 2.60 m,
giving floor area of 5.76 m2 each. Their wooden frames were made of 9.8 × 6.3 cm
solid pine wood profiles. Windows were installed on the north facing walls and
doors on the east facing walls. The 1.25-cm-thick sheets of plywood were used as
the exterior wall sheathing. The wall cavities were filled with fiberglass thermal
insulations. As shown in Fig. 5.5, the test huts were elevated from the ground. In
one of research projects, the PCM-enhanced gypsum boards were field tested and
seasonal energy performance of this technology was analyzed using whole-building
energy simulations (Tardieu et al. 2011). For the purpose of this project, gypsum
boards were impregnated with 27 wt% of PCM with a melting range of 18–23 °C
and a latent heat of fusion of 134 kJ/kg. The impregnation of the gypsum boards
was realized by capillarity absorption of the PCM. Whole-building energy simu-
lations using EnergyPlus software were conducted to predict the thermal their
energy performance. The long-term measurements conducted for these test struc-
tures showed a good agreement with the simulation results. Both the simulation
results and actual field test data have shown that the use of PCM-enhanced gypsum
boards improves the thermal inertia of buildings. One of the observations was that
the additional thermal mass of the PCM can reduce the daily indoor space tem-
perature fluctuation by up to 4 °C on a typical summer day.

Fig. 5.5 Wood-framed test huts built for PCM testing on the Tamaki Campus, University of
Auckland, New Zealand (Khudhair and Farid 2007)
148 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

5.2.4 Tianjin University Test Huts—Tianjin, China

Shilei et al. (2006) tested in field conditions of Tianjin, China, gypsum wall boards
impregnated with organic PCM. In this experiment, a PCM-enhanced wall boards
contained about 26 % PCM by weight. A mixture of 82 % of capric acid and 18 % of
lauric acid of approximate melting point of 23 °C has total enthalpy around 150 kJ/
kg. The field measurements of latent heat of PCM wallboards were performed in a
5 m × 3.3 m × 2.8 m test hut containing a 1.5 m × 1.5 m window in the south wall and
a l m × 2 m wooden door in the north wall (Shilei et al. 2007). During the experi-
ment, energy performance of conventional gypsum boards was compared to the
performance of PCM-impregnated gypsum boards. 4.0-cm layer of glass wool was
used to insulate the test hut. Compared with an ordinary room, it was found that the
PCM wallboard can store about 5.7 % more energy compared to the conventional
wallboards. It was also demonstrated that PCM room could greatly reduce the energy
cost of HVAC systems and notable shift electric consumption peak.

5.2.5 University of Lleida Test Huts (Cubicles)—Lleida,

Spain

Several interesting field studies investigating the inclusion of PCM into concrete,
bricks, insulations, and other building envelope materials were performed by a
research team of the University of Lleida, Spain. In the first study which was
performed during 2005/2006, PCM-enhanced concretes were mostly analyzed
(Cabeza et al. 2007). PCM concrete was used to build one of the two identically
shaped test huts (see Fig. 5.6). The other test hut was built with conventional
concrete for reference. Whole-building energy model TRNSYS using the PCM
subroutine developed by the University of Lleida and validated based on the lab-
oratory experimental results (Ibanez et al. 2005) was utilized for energy perfor-
mance analysis. The paraffinic PCM with a melting point of 26 °C and a phase-
change enthalpy of 110 kJ/kg was used in this work. The recorded results showed
that PCM inclusion in the concrete helped to reduce the temperature on the test hut
containing PCM. Temperature difference between a reference hut and PCM hut was
about 4 °C. Also, the air in the reference hut reached the same day peak temperature
(36 °C) about 2 h earlier comparing to the PCM hut.
In the following research in Lleida, PCM-enhanced bricks, alveolar bricks, and
foam enhanced with macro-packaged PCM were analyzed (Castell et al. 2009,
Castellón et al. 2010). These test huts were constructed using 4 concrete pillars, also
with reinforcing bars, one in each edge of the test hut. The foundation was made of
a concrete base (3 × 3 m) with crushed stone base and steel reinforcement. The
walls were constructed of multicore bricks (29 × 14 × 7.5 cm) with a layer of
insulating material (depending on the test hut) on the external side and plaster on
the internal side. The external finish was made with hollow bricks and a cement
5.2 Test Hut Field Testing 149

Fig. 5.6 Field testing of PCM-enhanced building materials performed by the University of Lleida,
Spain, using an array of test huts (Cabeza et al. 2007). Top pictures show concrete test huts and
concrete panels used for their construction. Bottom picture presents a panoramic view of the
University of Lleida outdoor test facility

mortar finish. There was a 5 cm air cavity between the multi-core bricks and the
hollow bricks there. The roof structure was made of the precast concrete beams and
5 cm of concrete slab. Plaster was used as the internal wall finish. Roof insulation
was placed directly over the concrete. Roof slope was about 3 %. Roof surface was
finished with cement mortar and double asphalt membrane from the top.
In another two test huts built in Lleida, 5-cm-thick spray polyurethane foam was
used as a major insulation. One of these hut had an additional layer of paraffinic
PCM located between the multi-core bricks and the polyurethane foam (on the
southern and western walls and on the roof). An array of internal space temperature
sensors was installed during this experiment. Recorded filed test results indicated a
very strong relationship between the PCM melting point and internal space tem-
perature set point. Best performance was recorded for the lowest temperature dif-
ference between PCM melting point and internal space temperature. This
observation from Lleida confirms earlier findings from the field testing of the PCM-
enhanced cellulose insulation (Kośny 2006, 2008).

5.2.6 Oak Ridge National Laboratory Roofing Testing

Facility—Oak Ridge, TN, USA

An array of steep-slope attics with shed-type roofs was constructed by the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, USA (Fig. 5.7a) for a side-by-side field test perfor-
mance comparison between different types of roof and attic assemblies (Miller et al.
2010a, b; Kośny et al. 2010). The test attics are adjacent to one another, and their
150 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Fig. 5.7 Roof testing facility at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA. a Array of test attics—
south view. b Installation of foil pouches with inorganic PCM on top of the roof deck insulation—
visible over-the-deck ventilation channel

shed roofs face directly south. The footprint for each attic is about 4.9 m long by
1.5 m wide. Roof slope was set at 1 cm of rise for every 3 cm of run (18.4° pitch).
All test modules had ridge and soffit vents for ventilating the attic; the vent opening
to the attic floor area was approximately 1–300 (Miller et al. 2007). A conventional
attic covered with asphalt shingles of solar reflectance—0.093 and a thermal
emittance of 0.89 were used as a control assembly for comparing the thermal
performance of the prototype roof systems. All assemblies were equipped with heat
flux transducers embedded in the roof deck and in the attic floor.
Since 2004, several generations of novel roof designs have been developed and
tested by the ORNL research team (Miller et al. 2008). A variety of PCMs and
PCM applications have been investigated in that time, starting from PCM-
impregnated foams and fabrics, arrays of aluminum foil containers with inorganic
PCM (Fig. 5.7b), and plastic foil mats containing organic PCM. In general,
recorded test data demonstrated about 95 % reductions of peak-hour cooling loads
generated by the attics and over 30 % overall cooling load reduction comparing
with traditional roof designs of the same insulation R-value Kośny et al. (2010,
2012). In addition to PCMs and conventional insulations, some of these novel roof/
attic systems utilized cool coatings, over-the-deck ventilation, and reflective insu-
lation. Figure 5.7 shows a view of the ORNL attic testing facility and installation of
foil pouches containing inorganic PCM on one of the test roofs.

5.2.7 Arizona State University Test Huts—Tempe, AZ, USA

Muruganantham et al. (2010) tested in field conditions several wall, floor, and attic
systems containing bio-based PCM packaged in arrays of plastic foil containers.
This experiment was performed by the Arizona State University during the entire
2008 calendar year in climatic conditions of Tempe, AZ, USA. The primary reason
5.2 Test Hut Field Testing 151

Fig. 5.8 Arizona test huts field experiment (Muruganantham et al. 2010): a bio-based PCM
packaged in arrays of plastic foil containers, b installation of PCM on the ceiling, and c east view
of the test huts

for choosing Arizona location, as the testing location, is because of its abundant
availability of solar insolation, dry almost desert weather, and very little precipitation
during the year. The experimental setup consisted of two identical test huts
(4.9 m × 3.7 m × 2.4 m) made of wood-framed construction as shown in Fig. 5.8.
One of two test huts was traditionally insulated, while the second one had added
plastic mats containing PCM. Fiberglass batt insulation was used for both attics and
walls. The structures had enclosed attic spaces with RSI-5.30 fiberglass batt between
0.6-m on center (o.c.) ceiling framing. Half-inch OSB roof sheathing was covered
with roofing felt and standard three-tab fiberglass desert tan shingles. Walls were
constructed with 2 × 4 (9-cm-thick) studs 0.4-m o.c. with RSI-2.30 fiberglass insu-
lation, composite wood siding, and 1.2-cm-thick finished gypsum board. A wooden
door and a single-pane glass window were located on the east side of both huts. The
test huts were equipped with identical heat pumps and connected to separate three-
phase electricity meters in order to monitor the electric consumption by the HVAC
system. In the test hut containing PCM, plastic foil mat with PCM containers with
approximate heat storage density of 21 kJ/m3 was installed in all walls between the
fiberglass insulation and gypsum board. In addition, about 37 kJ/m3 of PCM was
installed in both the ceiling and floor of the PCM test hut. During the 2008 summer
season, recorded cooling energy savings were oscillating between 25.9 % in Sep-
tember and 12.1 % in June. Similarly, the maximum and minimum heating energy
savings were observed for November—29.3 % and March—9.2 %.

5.2.8 University of Twente Test Boxes—Enschede, Overijssel,

The Netherlands

Entrop et al. (2011) and Prins et al. (2012) tested and analyzed PCM-enhanced floor
systems in four plastic containers with dimensions approaching 1.0 m × 1.0 × 0.5 m
see Fig. 5.9. These sizes made the test boxes approximate a scale of 1 to 5, compared
152 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Fig. 5.9 University of Twente test boxes for PCM floor testing—University of Twente, Enschede,
Overijssel, The Netherlands

to the reference Dutch residential city buildings. Inside of each experimental con-
tainer, thermocouples were installed to monitor temperature profiles across building
shell components. Two out of the four test containers had the floors containing
microencapsulated paraffinic PCM, of melting temperature around 23 °C. Two
levels of container thermal insulation were used (heavy and light insulation). The
experiment has shown that indoor peak space temperatures can be reduced with up to
4.0 and 3.7 °C in the test containers using PCM-enhanced floors, for heavy and light
insulated envelope configurations, respectively.

5.2.9 PCM Roof Testing at Kuwait University—Safat, Kuwait

Alqallaf et al. (2012) performed a field experiment with 1.2 × 1.2 × 1.8-m test huts
dedicated to thermal analysis of a concrete roof containing PCM. The experiment
was performed in Safat, Kuwait, climate, during May–September summer season.
The experimental roof consisted of a 15-cm-thick concrete slab with vertical
cylindrical holes filled with PCM to reduce the solar heat gain by absorbing the
incoming energy by melting the PCM before it reaches the indoor space. Two
different dimensions of the cylindrical holes were investigated with diameters of
10 and 14 cm and with holes’ depths 15 and 7.5 cm, respectively. Paraffinic PCM
with melting point approximately 39 °C was used in this experiment. The hole
surfaces were sealed with metallic foil to prevent the leakage of the liquid PCM into
the concrete slab. Thermocouples were placed and distributed along each cross
section of the test roof. The thermal effectiveness of the analyzed roof PCM system
was determined by comparing the heat flux at the indoor surface to a roof without
the PCM. A parametric study was conducted to assess the effects of the PCM
geometry. The results showed maximum 28 % reduction of the roof-generated heat
fluxes for the roofs containing PCMs.
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 153

5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing

As mentioned above, field hut testing has a lot of advantages, mostly due to limited
sizes of test structures allowing a lot of design flexibility and a relatively low cost.
In case of projects where main interest lays in performance of building technologies
containing PCMs, these types of measurements serve the best analysis performed in
a system scale. However, one of the major benefits of using PCM-enhanced
envelopes is their interaction with other building components (through thermal load
mitigation and peak load shifting). Thermal response of PCM-enhanced building
envelope is usually significantly slower comparing to, for example, loads generated
by fenestration. So, it is very common that they may cancel each other, causing
so-called free cooling effect (Kośny et al. 2012). Unfortunately, these dynamic
interactions are very difficult to analyze without whole-building experiments. That
is why, whole-building testing is critical for full performance analysis of many
building envelope applications with use of PCMs. There is a large number of
whole-building demonstrations in area of PCM-enhanced building envelops
worldwide. The following section presents a selection of field test projects from
different geographic regions. Most of these projects use either PCM-enhanced wall
boards, internal plasters containing PCM, or ceiling panels with PCM.

5.3.1 BASF 3-L PCM House—Ludwigshafen, Germany

The 3-L house project was launched in 2001 in Ludwigshafen, Germany, as a

housing unit for BASF employees.1 The “3-Liter house” is a future-oriented,
environmentally friendly house model, introduced by BASF. It maintains optimum
temperatures of internal space with consumption of only 3 L of heating fuel per
m2 per year, utilizing energy-efficient construction technologies, highly efficient
insulation materials, and a fuel cell system. The main project focus was whole-
building energy retrofit of the building constructed during the 1950s and conversion
into a low-energy multifamily house (Fig. 5.10). Initially, the main project goal was
to lower the heating oil consumption to 7 L of heating oil per square meter per year.
In practice, this energy-saving target was exceeded by an application of high
R-value exterior opacified foam sheathing, installation of triple-glazed windows,
passive solar heating from large newly glazed sunspaces, a controlled ventilation
system with 85 % heat recovery, efficient heat and electricity generation by a new
miniature power plant in the basement, and an application of PCM-enhanced
gypsum boards or internal plasters. Three-year-long energy monitoring demon-
strated that, an average consumption in the 3-L house is 2.6 L of heating oil per
square meter per year. The 3-L house has since attracted considerable attention
worldwide.

1
http://construction.basf.us/files/resources/3LH_%20Brochure_e_EV_12_08_08.pdf.
154 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Fig. 5.10 The 3-L house—Ludwigshafen, Germany—Source BASF

Fig. 5.11 BASF 3-L house—Kyonggi, Korea—Source BASF

5.3.2 BASF 3-L House—Kyonggi, Korea

A similar demonstration project was realized in Kyonggi, approximately 40 km from

Seoul, Korea (Fig. 5.11). The two-story, approximately 125-m2 house is the first
“3-Liter house” in South Korea.2 This low-energy building has been specially
designed for the Korea’s housing market. It introduces European energy saving
know-how, novel materials, and innovative building technologies. The house was
built as a result of collaboration between BASF Company Ltd., FuelCellPower Inc.,
and Daelim Industrial Co., Ltd (construction company). Low-energy consumption
target was achieved by an application of high R-value wall thermal insulation,
PCM-enhanced internal gypsum plasters, high-performance windows, thermal
exchange ventilation system, and efficient fuel cell co-generation system.

2
http://www.energyefficiency.basf.com/ecp1/Show-houses/show_houses_korea.
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 155

5.3.3 Haus der Gegenwart—Munich, Germany

In 2001, one hundred renowned architectural firms, mostly from Germany were
invited to participate in an architectural competition organized by the German
newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung. The competition topic was to develop a modern-
day family house (in German—Haus der Gegenwart)3—a home for four people for
around EUR 250,000 (building costs only). House size was limited to around
200 m2. It was suppose to be placed on a 500-m2 flat lot. By the end of June 2001
deadline, 34 designs had been submitted. As a result of this competition, in January
2005, the Haus der Gegenwart was opened in Munich, Germany. It was built
according to the plans from the Munich firm Allmann, Sattler, Wappner (ASW).
This futuristic lightweight structure represents prize-winning floor plan with four
autonomous living boxes joined by stairways. Three 32-m2 wooden boxes are
located on the ground floor. Each individual box can be subdivided and has its own
entrance, its own bath and its own mini-garden extending to the boxwood hedge.
Also, each box has its own passage upward to the 100-m2 common kitchen/living
room.
The individual boxes were constructed of wood using post and beam con-
struction method. The walls and the ground of the largest box are insulated with
20 cm of mineral wool, while the roof required 40 cm. The walls of the three
apartment boxes have the 15-cm-thick insulation and roofs—about 20-cm-thick
layer of mineral wool insulation. The foundations of the apartment boxes are
insulated with polystyrene foam. Windows’ U-value was around 1.1 W/m2K. Built
in classical lightweight construction, the detached residential house incorporates a
total of 600 m2 of PCM-enhanced gypsum boards with melting temperature 23 °C
to help with the internal space temperature management. This is equivalent to about
1800 kg of PCM, which yields a total PCM heat storage capacity of about 198 MJ
after assuming phase-change enthalpy of 110 kJ/kg.

5.3.4 BASF House—Nottingham, England

The BASF House, located on the university campus in Nottingham, England, was
built in 2008 with a UK’s first-time home buyer’s budget in mind. The BASF
House is intended to demonstrate performance of new building materials and
systems in full-scale field conditions and to showcase modern innovations and
system integration. Lifetime cost and energy use analyses were performed in order
to select building materials and to balance the first cost of the building with the
requirement to make the house affordable to a first-time buyer. A use of alternative
construction methods allowed reduction of cost, construction time, and eliminated a

3
http://www.hausdergegenwart.de/.
156 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

need for expensive skilled labor. The house was designed using PassivHaus
Standard to have near-zero carbon emissions, relying heavily on features such as
passive solar energy design, a ground air heat exchanger, and a rainwater collection
tank. The BASF house is part of the University of Nottingham’s “Creative Energy
Homes Project.” It is a unique showcase of innovative state-of-the-art energy-
efficient home of the future made with today’s materials.
The BASF House is an 82-m2 single-family home which can be extended to a row
of terraces on demand. It has been inhabited by University of Nottingham’s students
and faculty since 2008. A low-carbon emission target was set for the house. The
house complies with the PassivHaus standard requirement of energy consumption of
15 kWh/m2. Actual measured energy consumption is 12.5 kWh/m2/year, including
hot water. The BASF House can be called a 1.5-L house—an average consumption
of 1.5 L of heating oil equivalent per square meter per year.
A combination of insulation materials and products has been used on this project
to demonstrate their potential for an application in affordable low-energy buildings.
In order to minimize energy losses and infiltration through an opaque building
envelope, structural insulated panels (SIPs) with closed-cell polyurethane foam core
and insulated concrete forms (ICFs) were selected for the first floor and ground
floor exterior walls, respectively. Similarly SIPs were used for construction of the
roof. Thermal insulation on the ground floor was provided for by the use of ICFs
made of opacified expanded polystyrene foam produced by BASF. ICF blocks are
filled with lightweight concrete mixture, which generates tiny air cells during first
hours of concrete setting, resulting in improved concrete thermal resistance. All of
this helped to achieve overall RSI-value of about 6.7 m2 K/W for the walls and roof.
In addition, roof was covered with metal panels containing cool coating to reduce
solar-generated cooling loads during the summer time.
The BASF House can naturally maintain comfortable temperature range for
indoor space by combining solar gains, natural ventilation, and thermal mass
provided by PCM-enhanced gypsum boards. PCM wallboards are produced with
use of microencapsulated PCM. Melting temperature is 23 °C and phase-change
enthalpy—110 kJ/kg. As shown in Fig. 5.12, there is a south-oriented, fully glazed,
adjustable two-layer sunspace. The sun warms the air in the sunspace and acts as
the primary heating source for the house. Windows between the solar area and the
main part of the house can then be opened to enable the warm air to flow around the
rest of the house. An affordable ground air heat and cooling exchange system and a
biomass boiler are used to provide an effective, affordable heat, and cooling for the
house as well.

5.3.5 Kingspan Lighthouse—Watford, Hertfordshire, UK

The Kingspan Lighthouse was built in 2007, at Building Research Establishment

Ltd. (BRE) Innovation Park in Watford, Hertfordshire, UK. BRE Innovation Park is
an urban field test facility with selection of experimental buildings. Designed by
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 157

Fig. 5.12 The BASF House, located on the University of Nottingham campus, England—Source
BASF

Sheppard Robson, the Kingspan Lighthouse was a 100-m2 single-family home built
by Kingspan Off-Site and Arup. It was the first home to meet level 6 guidelines of
the UK Code for Sustainable Homes (net zero carbon emission home).4
During five years long field demonstration the Kingspan Lighthouse served as a
demonstration and prototype house for the standard which will become mandatory
for all UK residential buildings in 2016. High-performance building materials were
used for construction of the Lighthouse with low U-values for all building shell
components—0.07 W/m2K (RSI-14.3 m2K/W) for the windows, 0.11 W/m2K for
the opaque envelopes, with airtightness of 1.0 m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa. The walls and
roof were made of 2 layers of structural insulated panels. The windows were wood-
frame gas filled with triple glazing. The home was built using recycled and
reclaimed materials when possible. In addition, the ratio of glazing to the wall area
in the Lighthouse was 18 % as opposed to 25–30 % in traditional UK houses.
The Lighthouse utilized variety of low and high technologies coupled with a
strong integrated design approach.5 In order to increase the thermal inertia of house
and to achieve a low-energy and zero carbon emission status, PCM-enhanced
wallboards using microencapsulated PCM have been included in suspended ceil-
ings and south-facing walls. Melting temperature of microencapsulated PCM used
in the Lighthouse was 23 °C and phase transition enthalpy was 110 kJ/kg.
PCM-enhanced ceiling and southern wall surfaces helped absorb daytime heat and
then give it up to cooler nighttime purge ventilation.

4
http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/code_for_sust_homes.pdf.
5
http://www.kingspanlighthouse.com/.
158 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Fig. 5.13 Roof and arch ceiling construction details for the Crossway House—designer Richard
Hawkes, Staplehurst in Kent, UK

5.3.6 Crossway Eco-House—Staplehurst in Kent, UK

Located near Staplehurst in Kent, England, the Crossway Eco-House was the first in
the UK to use PV–thermal systems and has officially been named as Kent’s first
zero-carbon house. Since 2008, it has been a family home of its visionary architect,
Richard Hawkes. One of several innovative energy-saving features in the project
was the installation of shape-stabilized PCM boards manufactured by DuPont. For
over 2 years, about 127 m2 of PCM boards with melting point 21.7 °C have been
tested in the Crossway House. The monitoring analysis performed by Cambridge
University, UK, shows that an application of PCM boards helped in reduction of
summer peak temperatures by on average 4 °C.6
Building probably the world’s largest vaulted wood–brick arch incorporates
26,000 handmade red brick tiles, fabricated from local clay within 4 miles of the
site. It spans 20 m and is 9 m high. Arch’s thermal mass provides thermal inertia
during summer months and the clay’s hygroscopic properties help maintain a
healthy internal environment. As shown in Figs. 5.13 and 5.14, the 12-mm-thick
tiles are bonded together with a mortar without a formwork.
The Crossway House hosts an experimental 580 -L PCM heat storage unit linked
to the UK’s first PV–thermal system. Heat storage helps buffer the solar-generated
thermal energy during periods of cloudy days. Crossway’s annual PV electricity
generation is about 5500 kWh. At the same time, 1800 kWh of solar thermal energy
is produced each year by integrated solar thermal part of the system. The PV–
thermal panels are supported by an 11-kW wood pellet boiler.

6
http://energain.co.uk/Energain/en_GB/assets/downloads/documentation/references/ref_Daily_
usage_of_Energain.pdf.
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 159

Fig. 5.14 Front and side elevations of the Crossway House—designer Richard Hawkes,
Staplehurst in Kent, UK

Four-year-long monitoring by University of Cambridge has shown Crossway’s

primary energy consumption to be 54.59 kWh/m2 per year with annual heating load
of 14.82 kWh/m2.

5.3.7 Academic Office Building, Charles Sturt

University—New South Wales, Victoria, Australia

Charles Sturt University (CSU) located in New South Wales, Victoria, Australia, is
a developing, dynamic model of how communities can address environmental
concerns and sustainable living in inland Australia. The $4.2 mln. Academic Office
Building at CSU Thurgoona Campus is the first building which was constructed in
2008 as a part of the Albury-Wodonga Campus relocation program (AWCRP).7
It was designed by Wayne McPhee Architects and constructed by Zauner
Constructions. Architects and CSU worked with BASF to develop together a new
approach for achieving super-low-energy office buildings, with use of microen-
capsulated PCM in floors and through an application of the PCM-enhanced gypsum
boards. PCM ceiling boards with melting point of 23 °C have been used on the first-
and second-floor ceilings. The PCM microcapsules have been embedded in the
concrete floor throughout. Due to PCM applications which effectively doubled the
buildings thermal storage capacity, operating temperatures inside the building were
between 21 and 23 °C in winter and 23–26 °C in summer. It is good to mention that
the use of microencapsulated PCM in the concrete floor was in 2008 one of the first
world’s applications of that type! This building had also a first in Australia office
buildings’ application of PCM in ceilings.

7
http://news.csu.edu.au/uploads/documents/Briefing%20on%20Building%20AA3.pdf.
160 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Both above PCM applications were integrated with the radiant space condi-
tioning system. Hydronic tubing that has been imbedded into the concrete slabs is
freezing PCM during summer nights using off-peak power for release during the
warm days. During the warm days, PCM’s role is to stabilize the interior space
temperature. PCM-enhanced concrete floors and ceilings act as oversized radiators
to cool or heat the internal occupied office spaces. During a summer’s day, as the
ambient air temperature increases, the temperature of the building components
remains relatively constant at 23 °C due to PCM’s heat storage capacity. No re-
frigerative cooling is used. Integrated evaporative cooling system chilling the water
for hydronic system is working mostly during the nights to maximize efficiency of
the system.
This 880-m2 building was constructed using lightweight steel framing technol-
ogy. That is why the low-mass building structure, thermal mass of massive concrete
slabs, and precast walls were integrated together with PCM’s heat storage capacity
into a well-insulated building fabric, minimizing fluctuations of temperature and
humidity (see Fig. 5.15). Building design team paid a lot of attention for reduction
of potential energy losses through the building envelope. As a result, roof had RSI of
5.6 m2K/W and walls RSI-3.6 m2K/W. Natural ventilation was achieved through the
use of windows to control heat and air flow. Window sizes and position have been
optimized for daylighting; thermal performance; and the creation of a natural,
healthy, and yet productive office environment.
A network of temperature sensors has been installed in the strategic positions in
order to monitor actual building performance and long-term behavior of the various

Thermal insulation

Hydronic tubing
PCM gypsum PCM gypsum
boards boards
PCM floor PCM floor
Hydronic tubing
PCM gypsum PCM gypsum
boards boards
PCM floor PCM floor
Hydronic tubing

Fig. 5.15 Academic Office Building at CSU Thurgoona Campus, New South Wales, Victoria,
Australia—Source—Charles Sturt University
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 161

Fig. 5.16 SARL Busipolis company building constructed in 2010, in Metz, France

materials and systems throughout the structure. In 2009, the Academic Office
Building at the CSU Thurgoona site has been awarded six green stars and “world
leader” status for its environmentally sustainable features by the Green Building
Council Australia (GBCA). According to GBCA, the principles used in buildings at
Thurgoona demonstrate a unique environmentally sensitive process that spans from
site planning to selection of non-conventional materials and applications. One of the
innovative aspects of the building that received special attention from GBCA was
reduction of carbon dioxide production and energy consumption by about 65 %,
compared to similar conventional office buildings in Australia.

5.3.8 SARL Busipolis Company Building—Metz, France

Since construction in 2010, the SARL Busipolis company building, in Metz,

France, has received several awards for its excellent energy performance. This
1950-m2 office building has a total energy consumption of 38 kwh/sqm per year.
One of the awards was from the PREBAT competition for Lorraine region and the
other from the “Lorraine Qualité Environnementale.” This contemporary architec-
ture building (Fig. 5.16) with steel and glass structure8 incorporates more that
500 m2 of shape-stabilized PCM boards with melting point 21.7 °C.9 The PCM
used in the Busipolis company building has been installed behind the gypsum
wallboards and within the suspended ceilings in order to bring the required thermal
inertia and increase the comfort in the building. It is manufactured by DuPont and
has latent heat storage capacity of 515 kJ/m2, for phase-change temperature range
between 18 and 24 °C. Special ventilation system is used to help with discharging
PCM panels.

8
http://lqe.fr.
9
http://energain.co.uk/Energain/en_GB/assets/downloads/documentation/references/ref_Busipolis_Metz.
pdf.
162 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

Fig. 5.17 PCM test house—PCM-enhanced double-wall system and attic designed by Jan Kośny
for the Oak Ridge field experiment (Miller et al. 2010a). a Framing work. b PCM house during
construction. c Completed PCM house

5.3.9 Oak Ridge PCM House—Oak Ridge, TN, USA

Several high-performance building envelopes have been studied and monitored in

actual homes as part of a collaborative research project sponsored by the US
Department of Energy and Tennessee Valley Authority. This project was a part-
nership between Oak Ridge National Laboratory and building materials and con-
struction companies to demonstrate and develop new energy-efficient technologies
for US homes. Four homes were constructed in 2009/2010 using four different
envelope systems in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA (Miller et al. 2010a). One of the
test houses was designed to demonstrate thermal performance of high R-value walls
and attic containing PCM-enhanced thermal insulation developed jointly by ORNL,
Advanced Fiber Technologies (thermal insulation company), and Microtek (man-
ufacture of PCM). The PCM house is a two story construction with total floor area
of 253 m2 (Fig. 5.17). The building is equipped with over 250 sensors and an on-
site weather station. Airtightness of the building was 3.5 air changes per hour at
50 Pa. Windows in the PCM house are argon gas filled triple pane vinyl units that
have a U-value of 1.25 W/m-K and a solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of 0.17.
Inside surfaces of exterior and middle panes are low-e surfaces.
The house has a conventionally framed attic with dynamic solar ventilation and
PCM-enhanced insulation installed on the attic floor and attic gable walls. The attic
floor is insulated with 10.2-cm-thick layer of PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation on
top of 25.4 cm of regular cellulose insulation. Approximately 9 cm of PCM-
enhanced cellulose insulation was installed on the attic gable walls and all internal
partitions. An infrared reflective painted metal shake was used as the roofing
material with solar reflectance and thermal emittance of 0.34 and 0.85, respectively.
A tapered EPS insulation was inserted under the metal shakes to minimize roof-
generated peak-hour thermal loads. The reflective OSB boards were used on the
roof deck. Low-e aluminum foil surface is facing attic space. Solar-powered gable
ventilators are installed on the attic gables to reduce attic generated cooling loads.
Figure 5.17a, b shows the PCM test house during construction, while Fig. 5.17c
shows completed PCM house. It has double walls filled with PCM-enhanced cel-
lulose insulation. The wall studs are made of 2 × 4 laminated strand lumber (LSL)
5.3 Whole-Building Field Testing 163

and are spaced 0.60 m o.c. As shown in Fig. 5.18, the studs from one layer of
framing are offset by 0.30 m from the other wall’s studs. The interior framing is
supported on top of the bottom plate that is fastened through floor sheathing and
floor truss, while the exterior framing is supported on the sill plate and is fastened to
the floor truss. A wide top plate was used to tie the two walls together for lateral
strength. It is anticipated that this double-wall system functions as composite
system. The interior frame will act as the structural wall component responsible for
transmitting gravity and lateral force to the foundation. However, since the two
double-top plates are mechanically connected and wall sheathing is provided in the
exterior wall, a portion of lateral load is carried by the exterior walls as well. In
double walls, thermal bridging at the corners is minimized by applying double-stud
corner practice with insulation surrounding it (Fig. 5.18).
As depicted in Fig. 5.18, fiber fabric is stapled between the two sets of 2 × 4
studs to separate and hold two different types of blown cellulose insulation. The
wall interior cavity is insulated with conventional dense-packed cellulose, while
20 % by weight of microencapsulated bio-based PCM was added to blown cellulose
fibers in the exterior framed cavity (Miller et al. 2010a). Since 2002, the ORNL and
Fraunhofer CSE research teams have analyzed several configurations of building
envelope board products and insulations blended with microencapsulated and
shape-stabilized PCMs (Kośny et al. 2006, 2007, 2012; Fallahi et al. 2012; Childs
and Stovall 2012; Shukla et al. 2012).

5.3.10 TrekHaus—Portland, OR, USA

TrekHaus is a small building successfully completed in 2012 by a design-and-build

team headed by architect Robert Hawthorne, of PDX Living, LLC, and builder Bart
Bergquist of Willamette Valley Remodeling in Portland, Oregon, USA. The two
adjacent homes in this project divide the space under the roof. The unit floor plans

100 mm
2x4 0.6 m wide cavity with blown cellulose insulation
2x4 0.6 m wide cavity with blown PCM insulation
13 mm
interlocking

16 mm gypsum board

19 mm floor deck board

Studs corner arrangement

Interior wall framing
200 mm masonry foundation

Fig. 5.18 Internal framing layer during construction and cross sections of double-wall assembly
designed by Jan Kośny for the PCM house
164 5 Examples of Full-Scale Field …

are mirror images, each with about 155 m2 of conditioned space, which includes
three bedrooms and two baths, plus a 13-m2 semi-conditioned workshop (see
Fig. 5.19).
High-performance building envelope components are used throughout the
TrekHaus to minimize winter heat losses and cooling loads during the summer.
Thermal resistance is RSI-6.7 for the floor slab insulation, RSI-8.6 for the exterior
walls, and RSI-14.6 for the roof. Airtightness came in at 0.34 air changes per hour at
50 Pascals pressure difference. Triple-glazed Thermotech fiberglass-framed win-
dows are used throughout. Mechanical systems in the TrekHaus units include a
heat-pump water heater, a minisplit heat-pump for space conditioning, and a heat-
recovery ventilation system. The TrekHaus is expected to operate at net zero energy
with three people in each unit. Building is designed with two independent 4.14-kW
roof-mounted photovoltaic systems, which are monitored for performance. Another
energy-saving component of the building is BioPCM—a soy-based phase-change
material. This PCM product is manufactured by Phase Change Energy Solutions
from Asheboro, North Caroline, USA. Arrays of BioPCM pouches packed in
plastic foil have been installed behind the drywall of one unit’s interior walls and
second-floor ceiling. Construction costs, excluding the land and PV system but
including everything else, came to $1.500 per m2.
In order to monitor its energy performance, the TrekHaus building is equipped
with a system of sensors and data acquisitions system installed by the Green
Building Research Laboratory, of Portland State University. The overall energy
performance of the building, the performance of the building envelope, and the
building’s mechanical systems will be monitored during coming years. In addition,
the effects of occupant behavior on the building’s performance will be analyzed.

Bio-PCMmade
of soybeans -
used in walls
and second
floor ceiling

Fig. 5.19 Construction details of the TrekHaus duplex building constructed in 2012 in Portland
Oregon, USA—designer Robert Hawthorne, of PDX Living, LLC (http://www.trekhauspdx.com/
home/reaching-for-net-zero-energy-2)
References 165

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four different residential envelopes. In: Proceedings of 2010 ACEEE summer study on energy
efficiency in building, Pacific Grove, California, 15–20 Aug 2010
Miller WA, Kośny J, Shrestha S, Christian J, Karagiozis A, Kohler C, Dinse D (2010b) Advanced
residential envelopes for two pair of energy-saver homes. In: Proceedings of 2010 ACEEE
summer study on energy efficiency in building, Pacific Grove, California, 15–20 Aug 2010
Murugananthama K, Phelan P, Horwath P, Ludlam D, McDonald T (2010) Experimental
investigation of a bio-based phase-change material to improve building energy performance.
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Phoenix, Arizona, USA, 17–22 May 2010. http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/
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Chapter 6
Thermal and Energy Modeling
of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes

6.1 Introduction

Energy storage in building envelopes can be accomplished by means of sensible and

latent heat accumulation. Latent heat storage using PCMs has been the focus of
multiple building studies, due to its relatively high thermal energy storage capacity
per volume, compared to sensible storage available in conventional construction
materials. PCM-enhanced building envelopes are widely considered as a prospective
building enclosure technology which can help in the near future in peak-hour load
reductions and cutting of HVAC energy consumption. Currently, there is a great
variety of commercially available PCM products that vary in PCM types (salts,
paraffins, fatty acids, etc.) and in packaging and encapsulation options (i.e., PCM
pouches, containers, macro- and microencapsulation). In addition, PCMs can be
differentiated based on their melting temperatures, which together with PCM location
and its quantity, are essential for designing of PCM building envelope applications.
Most typically, PCMs used in building envelope applications, need to go
through a complete phase transition during 24-h time periods in order to be fully
effective. This is why it is critical that the temperature in the location where PCM is
installed fluctuates (possibly daily) above and below the PCM functional temper-
ature range. As depicted in Fig. 6.1, the PCM functional temperature range starts
usually at the lowest temperature limit of the solidification process. Similarly, it
ends at the highest temperature of the melting process.
Ideally, the entire heat transported should be available at approximately the same
temperature for both, melting and solidification processes. However, in real live,
this situation only occurs for the paraffinic PCMs. That is why, for well-designed
PCM systems, it is crucial that this temperature range be as narrow as possible. One
of the complications is an existence of the temperature hysteresis between PCM
melting and solidification. Figure 6.1 depicts a situation when the melting point of a
PCM-enhanced material is well above its solidification point. In addition, in most
of inorganic and some organic PCMs the supercooling effect can be observed.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 167

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_6
168 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

PCM functional temperature range

50
Freezing point
40
30
Freezing temperature range
20
10
Δ h [J/g]

Supercooling
0
-10
-20
Melting temperature range
-30
-40
Melting Freezing Melting point
-50
16 18 20 22 24 26
Temperature[oC]

Fig. 6.1 Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) data for microencapsulated organic PCM
showing the temperature range necessary for PCM to be fully functional

The scale of supercooling can be significantly different for different types of PCMs.
It can be also affected by the size of the PCM microcapsules, or through the usage
of additives (like nucleation aid agents or fire retardants). In order to make the PCM
presented in Fig. 6.1 fully efficient, a temperature in place of its location needs to
cycle above 25 °C and below 18 °C. This simplified strategy can be used for initial
selection of PCMs for specific building envelope applications.
During the last decades, numerous research studies focused on low-energy
buildings utilizing latent heat storage took place. A large number of numerical heat
transfer applications and whole-building energy programs enabling thermal and
energy performance analyses of building fabric components containing PCM have
been used. In a recent IEA Annex 23 work based on the survey of over 250 research
publications, it was concluded that the general confidence in currently used numerical
models is still too low to use them for designing and code purposes. In addition, it was
found that in many cases, thermal characteristics of PCMs are poorly known, which
creates inherent sources of inaccuracies in computer simulations (IEA Annex 23
2011). Please keep in mind that in building envelope applications, pure PCMs are
rarely used. Instead, PCM-enhanced materials, microencapsulated PCMs, or arrays
of small containers with PCMs are utilized, which yields a need for even more
theoretical data with complex thermal characteristics, before numerical analysis can
be implemented. Moreover, due to common complex geometries of arrays of PCM
containers (which are sometimes used in building envelopes), heat flow is not one-
dimensional in their vicinities. If combined with thermal bridging caused by struc-
tural and attachment details, most often, heat transfer in building fabric components
containing PCM has a strong three-dimensional character (Kośny et al. 2009a; Childs
and Stovall 2012). These facts make thermal and energy analyses of PCM-enhanced
6.1 Introduction 169

Test assembly of PCM

pouches and fiberglass

z
1

2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
y 6 6
x
d 7 7
Fiberglass 8 8
c Air pocket
b PCM
a Foam 3-D finite difference
4.45-cm. 4.45-cm. computer model
1.20-cm.

Fig. 6.2 Test specimen used in dynamic heat flow meter apparatus measurements and schematic
of three-dimensional finite-difference computer model used by Kośny et al. (2009a)

building envelopes even more challenging. Figure 6.2 shows a complex array of PCM
pouches packed in thermal insulation. This PCM assembly was dynamically tested
with the use of the heat flow meter apparatus and simulated using three-dimensional
finite-difference computer model (Kośny et al. 2010a). Good agreement was reported
for comparisons between experimental and simulation results.
Another important factor effecting accuracy of thermal modeling in the case of
PCM-enhanced building systems is quality of the enthalpy data used in the
numerical analysis. Most often, enthalpy as a function of temperature is generated
from DSC measurements for pure PCMs. If this data is used in thermal analysis of
building envelopes or in whole-building energy simulations, it could be a source of
significant inaccuracies, because of the following six reasons:
1. PCM-enhanced building products are not homogenous. This limits an application
of DSC data for development of thermal characteristics, necessary for thermal
simulations.
2. Due to cost limitations, organic PCMs used in building envelopes are seldom
high-quality, pure substances. Typically, they contain a wide range of different
impurities and may sometimes include additional PCMs of different melting
temperatures.
3. Usually, PCM-enhanced building envelopes utilize PCM products which can be
complex mixtures with fire retardants, nucleation additives, thickening agents,
and thermal conductivity enhancers.
4. It is a common practice that PCMs used in building envelopes are mixed with
porous structural materials (such as concrete, gypsum), thermal insulations, or
other structural PCM carriers. This gives final products of significantly different
thermal characteristics than the original PCM.
170 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

5. In addition, in building envelops PCMs are commonly used as packaged, or

encapsulated products. It is well known that the size of the PCM encasement as
well as thermal conductivity of a shell material can affect PCM’s phase-tran-
sition characteristics.
6. Finally, heat exchange between individual PCM packages, capsules, or arrays of
pouches has usually three-dimensional character.
All above factors show how important is to use only phase-change enthalpy data
generated for actual PCM-enhanced building products. As mentioned in earlier
sections, the T-history method or heat flow meter apparatus testing can serve for
development of more accurate thermal characteristics of PCM components used in
building envelopes. In addition, transient three-dimensional modeling needs to be
applied in cases of complex envelope assemblies.
Several research centers, using different types of testing equipment and different
sizes of PCM samples, have performed measurements to verify that the isothermal
step method provides the enthalpy as a function of temperature and results of these
measurements are independent of a rate of temperature changes and a size of a test
specimen (Castellón et al. 2008; Günther et al. 2009; Lazaro et al. 2013; Shukla et al.
2012). It is also good to remember that, during the phase-change process, the latent
heat is not evenly absorbed and released along the phase-change temperature range
estimated during traditional way of DSC testing, utilizing simple heating or cooling
ramps (see Fang and Medina 2009). Furthermore, PCMs in building envelopes will
typically not be operating under theoretical assumption that the entire phase-change
transition occurs during each diurnal cycle. In fact, typically the phase-change pro-
cess will begin from a partially melted state, resulting from incomplete nighttime
solidification, partial daytime melting, or temperature fluctuations throughout the
day. These facts are not fully understood for PCM-enhanced building envelopes yet.
More experimental and theoretical work is needed in this area.
One often reported problem is lack of validation for computer programs used in
performance analyses of PCM-enhanced technologies. According to the IEA Annex
23, many numerical models have not been experimentally verified, which, in
conjunction with often used too simplified modeling parameters, makes it difficult
to realistically describe the complex phase-transition physics needed to predict the
actual performance of PCMs added to a building (IEA Annex 23 2011).
Another factor, which is seldom taken into account during performance analysis
of building envelope products containing PCMs, is their multi-functional nature. As
mentioned in previous chapters, PCM-enhanced building envelopes are typically
considered as thermal storage components and sometimes, as an engineering means
of achieving local temperature control or thermal load shaving and shifting.
However, more realistically, PCM-enhanced building envelopes act in a whole-
building scale, helping in thermal load management for the entire internal space and
involving dynamic interactions between many building fabric components (Kośny
et al. 2013) (SE). This tells that limited system-scale thermal models should not be
used in long-term energy performance analysis of these technologies. They can be,
however, very helpful during analysis of test results, or they can support designing
6.1 Introduction 171

stage of the PCM-enhanced building components. The same conclusion refers to

economical predictions, which should be based on whole-building energy con-
sumption simulations.
In that light, a considerable portion of published literature, forecasting energy
and economical performance of the PCM-enhanced building envelopes and based
only on material- or system-scale analyses, can be incomplete and misleading.
Consequently, conclusions regarding energy performance of PCM-enhanced
building envelopes cannot be based only on numerical analysis of local thermal
effects and later extended to the whole-building scale. According to IEA Annex 23
(2011), coordinated international activities need to be undertaken as soon as pos-
sible to create international standard model benchmarks for PCM-enhanced
building technologies that will improve the confidence of the users of the numerical
methods.

6.2 Heat Transfer Through a Building Envelope Assembly

Containing PCM

The thermal energy storage systems containing PCMs have been widely recognized
as one of the most advanced technical means of improving the energy efficiency and
environmental impact of buildings. A very useful feature of PCMs is that they can
store both latent and sensible energy. The systems incorporating PCMs benefit also
from the isothermal nature of the phase-change process. The optimization of
material properties within PCM-enhanced building envelopes and the analysis of
their thermal performance are very important during their designing stage. At the
same time, reliable whole-building energy models can numerically facilitate an
optimized design of the PCM-enhanced building component without a need for
time consuming and expensive whole-building field experiments. Heat transfer in
PCMs during the phase-change processes is quite complex due to its nonlinear
nature and, in addition, because of the fact that the simulated material has different
thermo-physical characteristics for solid and liquid phases (see Lamberg et al.
2004). When the PCM undergoes a phase transition, both the solid and the liquid
phases are present and they are separated by a moving interface. The difficulty in
solving a phase-change problem is the presence of a moving boundary or region in
which heat and mass balance conditions have to be met.
The solid–liquid phase-change problem can be described analytically with the
use of partial differential equations for a particular kind of solid–liquid boundary
definition, where the phase boundary can move with time. This physical process has
been initially studied by Clapeyron and Lamé (1831) during analysis of the Earth’s
crust formation. An analytical solution for phase transition was first found by Franz
Neumann, who introduced it in his 1835–1840 lecture notes (see Brillouin 1930).
Later in 1889, this physical phenomenon was studied by the Slovenian physicist
Jožef Stefan for the case of the water freezing (Stefan 1889). According to Stefan
172 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

and followers, predicting of the thermal behavior in case of materials with phase
transition is difficult due to its inherent nonlinear nature at moving interfaces, for
which displacement rate is controlled by the latent heat lost or absorbed at the
boundary. The Stefan problem can be described by the following set of equations
for temperature distribution u(x, t) (Stefan 1889; Tikhonov and Samarskii 1963):

@u @2u
cs qs ¼ ks 2 when:0 \ x \nðtÞ; t [ 0; ð6:1Þ
@t @x

@u @2u
cl ql ¼ kl 2 when:0 \ x \nðtÞ; t [ 0 ð6:2Þ
@t @x

with the following boundary condition: u(o, t) = us = const > T and t > 0; and with
the initial condition: u(x, o) = ul = const > T and t ≥ 0 (where T is the temperature).
As shown in Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2), for the case of one-dimensional heat transfer,
the interface between the solid and liquid phases of matter (during melting or
solidifying processes) can be described by a function ξ = ξ(t), combined with the
temperature distribution, which is expressed as u = u(x, t). An expression describing
the law of motion of the solid–liquid interface and expressed as a law of energy
conservation under phase transition is called the Stefan condition. The following
theoretical formulas can be used for the phase-change process:

u½nðtÞ  0; t ¼ u½nðtÞ þ 0; t ð6:3Þ

dnðtÞ @u½nðtÞ  0; t @u½nðtÞ þ 0; t

kqs ¼ ks  kl for:nð0Þ ¼ 0 and t [ 0; ð6:4Þ
dt @x @x

In Eqs. (6.3) and (6.4), λ represents the latent heat of fusion divided by unit of
mass, ρ is the density, k is the thermal conductivity, and t is time. Finally, s and
l indexes refer to solid and liquid phases.
Analytical solutions for the phase-change processes in pure PCMs are discussed
in Evans (1951), Douglas (1957), Carslaw and Jaeger (1959), Friedman (1964),
Rubibstein (1971), Crank (1984), and Hill (1987). Today, the solution of the Stefan
problem is widely considered as one of the mostly used analytical solutions for one-
dimensional solid–liquid phase transition (Ogoh and Groulx 2010).

6.2.1 Heat Transfer Model for PCM-Enhanced Porous

Materials and Thermal Insulations

As mentioned above, PCMs used in building envelopes are seldom homogenous

layers of pure substances. Very often porous building materials or thermal insu-
lations are mixed with PCMs. The heat storage capacity for such PCM-enhanced
6.2 Heat Transfer Through a Building Envelope … 173

product is a key factor that controls dynamic thermal performance. A theoretical

model of the material with temperature-dependent specific heat can be used to
calculate phase-change processes in most common materials (Heim and Clarke
2004; Kissock and Limas 2006).
The one-dimensional heat transport equation for such a case is as follows:


@ @ @T
ðqhÞ ¼ k ð6:5Þ
@t @x @x

where ρ and λ are the material density and thermal conductivity, T and h are
temperature and enthalpy per unit mass. Heat flux q is given by

@T ðx; tÞ
qðx; tÞ ¼ k ð6:6Þ
@x

The enthalpy derivative with respect to temperature (at constant pressure) rep-
resents the effective heat capacity, with phase-change energy being one of the
components:

@h
ceff ðT Þ ¼ : ð6:7Þ
@T

Only few types of PCMs demonstrate isothermal phase-change processes. For a

large number of PCMs, variations of enthalpy with temperature depend to some
extent on the direction of the phase-transition process and are different for melting
and solidification.
Figure 6.3 depicts an example of temperature-dependent enthalpy and enthalpy
differences curves for microencapsulated PCM, generated using a differential
scanning calorimeter. In this material, the melting process takes place around 27 °C
and solidification around 26 °C. The total phase-change enthalpy, Hm, within
temperature interval [20°, 29°] is 122 J/kg.

(a)180 (b) 45
ENTHALPY DIFFERENCE [J/gK]

150 30
ENTHALPY [J/g]

120 15

90 0

60 -15

30 -30

0 -45
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
TEMPERATURE [oC] TEMPERATURE [oC]
melting solidification melting solidification

Fig. 6.3 Calorimetric data for the microencapsulated PCM: a enthalpy as a function of
temperature, b enthalpy difference curves for melting and solidification processes
174 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Effective heat capacity, ceff, for a material which is a blend of insulation and
PCM may be expressed as follows:

ceff ¼ ð1  aÞcins þ aceffPCM ; ð6:8Þ

where α denotes the weight fraction of used PCM, cins the specific heat of insulation
without PCM, and ceffPCM is effective heat capacity of PCM.
For PCM-enhanced thermal insulations, thermal conductivity is the most
important thermal parameter, which determines their thermal performance in dif-
ferent thermal conditions. Earlier research performed on PCM-enhanced cellulose
insulations showed that an addition of microencapsulated PCM does not always
result in a significant increase of thermal conductivity of the PCM–insulation blend
(Kośny et al. 2009b). For cellulose fiber insulation, linear dependence of conduc-
tivity on temperature has been observed (Kośny et al. 2009a, b):

kð T Þ ¼ k0 þ b  T ð6:9Þ

where k0 ¼ 0:03575; b ¼ 0:00013.

Equation (6.9) can be used in numerical analysis of PCM-enhanced building
envelopes, if numerical heat transfer algorithm allows variable temperature-
dependent thermal conductivity.

6.2.2 Thermal Balance for a Wall Containing PCM-

Enhanced Material

In 2009, a theoretical heat transfer model for PCM-enhanced building envelopes

using insulation-PCM blends was introduced by Kossecka and Kośny (2009). The
model describes heat transfer within building materials impregnated or mixed with
either pure or microencapsulated PCMs. The one-dimensional model presented here
is for a wall construction. However, a similar set of theoretical formulas can be
applied for attics and roofs.
Let us consider a plane multilayer wall construction with thickness L and
composed of different materials. Please also assume that some of these materials
have phase-change capability. Linear boundary conditions at the internal (x = 0) and
external (x = L) surface of the wall may have the following form:

1
qð0; tÞ ¼ ½Ti ðtÞ  T ð0; tÞ ð6:10Þ
Rsi

1
qðL; tÞ ¼ ½T ðL; tÞ  Te ðtÞ ð6:11Þ
Rse

where Ti and Te are ambient temperatures, and Rsi and Rse and surface film resistances.
6.2 Heat Transfer Through a Building Envelope … 175

In the following equations, Ri−x and Rx−e are used to denote the resistances for
heat transmission from the point x in the wall to the internal and external envi-
ronment, respectively. Similarly, Ru expresses the total resistance for heat trans-
mission through the wall. For thermal conductivity along the wall’s thickness x,
which is represented by the function of λ(x), the wall resistances can be described
by the Eqs. (6.12)–(6.14):

Zx
dx
Rix ¼ Rsi þ ð6:12Þ
kð x Þ
0

ZL
dx
Rxe ¼ þ Rse ð6:13Þ
kð x Þ
x

ZL
dx
Ru ¼ Rsi þ þ Rse ð6:14Þ
kð x Þ
0

By integrating a product of the Eq. (6.5) and the function Rx−e with respect to
x over the thickness L of the wall, we can obtain the following formula:

ZL ZL  
@h @ @T
q  Rxe dx ¼ k  Rxe dx
@t @x @x
0 0
  x¼L ZL ð6:15Þ
@T  @T
¼ k  Rxe  þ dx
@x x¼0 @x
0
¼ Rse  qðLÞ þ R0e  qð0Þ þ ½T ðLÞ  T ð0Þ

In Eq. (6.15), temperatures T(0) and T(L) can be eliminated with the use of
Eqs. (6.10) and (6.11). This leads to the following formula, representing the heat
flux at the internal wall surface:

ZL
1 @h Rxe
qð0Þ ¼ ðTi  Te Þ þ q  dx ð6:16Þ
Ru @t Ru
0

Analogously, a formula for the heat flux at the exterior wall surface q(L) can be
obtained by integrating by parts a product of Eq. (6.5) and Ri−x.
As shown in Eq. (6.17), the impact of time-dependent variations of enthalpy
h along the thickness of the wall, on the heat flux across the surface x = 0, depends on
the factor Rx−e/Ru. This factor has values close to 1, in the vicinity of the wall internal
176 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

surface x = 0, and low values, close to 0, in the vicinity of the opposite surface x = L.
This means that in local heat-flux calculations, only time-dependent enthalpy vari-
ations near the considered surface play an important role. At the same time, thermal
effects of enthalpy variations near the opposite wall surface are relatively small.
Let us assume now that densities and conductivities are temperature independent
and thus constant in time. This has to be only understood as an approximation;
especially for materials as described in Eq. (6.9). Next, Eq. (6.16) can be integrated
with respect to time, over the time interval [t1, t2]. After interchanging of the
integration order, the following formula can be obtained:

Zt2
Qð0; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ qð0; tÞdt ð6:17Þ
t1

Zt2 ZL Zt2
1 @h Rxe
Qð0; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ ½Ti  Te dt þ q  dtdx ð6:18Þ
R @t Ru
t1 0 t1

In Eq. (6.18), the time integral in the second term represents the enthalpy dif-
ference Δh, which can be expressed as follows:

Zt2 Zt2 TZðx;t2 Þ

@h @h @T
Dhðx; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ dt ¼ dt ¼ ceff ðx; T ÞdT ð6:19Þ
@t @T @t
t1 t1 T ðx;t1 Þ

Keep in mind that integration of ceff(x, T) over temperature can be conducted

when the final temperature distribution in the plane wall is known. For particular
heat transfer processes, it is possible to determine the enthalpy difference Δh without
performing detailed simulations. Taking into account Eq. (6.18), the total heat flow
in time interval [t1, t2] across the internal wall surface x = 0 is given by

Zt2
1
Qð0; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ DTie ðtÞdt þ DHs0 ð6:20Þ
Ru
t1

DTie ðtÞ ¼ Ti ðtÞ  Te ðtÞ ð6:21Þ

ZL
Rxe
DHs0 ðt1 ; t2 Þ ¼ q Dhðx; t1 ; t2 Þ  dx ð6:22Þ
Ru
0

In Eq. (6.22), ΔHs0 represents that part of the total enthalpy difference in a wall
which is due to the heat flow across the surface x = 0. It is good to remember that in case
of long-term cyclic processes, combined with an assumption of a perfectly performing
6.2 Heat Transfer Through a Building Envelope … 177

PCM (no loss of heat storage capacity with time), ΔHs0 = 0, if time integration is over
the integral number of cycles. In this case, the total heat flow depends mainly on the
difference between internal set point temperature and mean ambient temperature.

6.2.3 Time Constant of a Building Assembly

Containing PCM

One of the most important characteristics of PCM-enhanced building envelopes is

their ability to shift peak thermal loads. It is expressed by a time constant τs, which
can be easily computed for a large number of simple building envelope assemblies
with one-dimensional heat transfer. The time constant represents a time of thermal
response on the surface of the wall, roof, or slab after a step thermal excitation on
the opposite side. The following section will bring a simplified methodology for
estimating the time constants for simple building envelope assemblies containing
PCM. A slab example is used for this purpose.
Let us assume that temperature on the exterior side of the slab was rapidly
increased. The heat flux q(t), and its changes across the unit surface area on of the
opposite side of the slab, can be expressed as a function of time t. This process may
be approximately described as a thermal relaxation of the slab (cooling), with the
time constant τs. While considering a step function temperature excitation on the
exterior side, the time constant τs can be approximated with the use of the following
expression (Kossecka and Kośny 2008, 2009):

 
DT t
qð t Þ  1  exp  ð6:23Þ
R ss

The total heat flow in time interval [0, t] is given by

  
DT t
Q ðt Þ  t  ss 1  exp  ð6:24Þ
R ss

For sufficiently long time t, as compared with τs, the steady state of heat flow is
attained, and Q(t) may be approximated by

DT
Q ðt Þ  ðt  ss Þ ð6:25Þ
R

Comparison of Eqs. (6.20) and (6.23) yields

DHs0
ss ¼ R  ð6:26Þ
DT
178 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Fig. 6.4 Heat fluxes across 0

the surface of an insulation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
layer after temperature jump -1
at the opposite surface

HEAT FLUX [W/m 2]

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
TIME [h]
0% PCM 30% PCM

In earlier work of Kossecka and Kośny (2008), a similar analysis was used for
estimating the time constants for conventional non-PCM assemblies, for purposes
of the hot-box test measurements. However, in the case of a PCM specimen, the
time constant is strongly dependent on its enthalpy difference within the tempera-
ture interval taken into account.
In addition, Kossecka and Kośny (2009) performed analysis a conventional
building envelope assembly containing two following types of thermal insulation:
(I) conventional blown cellulose insulations and (II) PCM-enhanced cellulose
insulation. Figure 6.4 depicts comparison of heat fluxes across surfaces of insula-
tion layer of thickness 0.14 m. Thermal performance of insulation with no PCM is
compared against thermal insulation with 30 % content of the microencapsulated
paraffinic PCM. Thermal response after a rapid temperature jump, from initial
temperature of 14 °C to final temperature of 44 °C, was analyzed in this case. The
time constant, τs, estimated using Eqs. (6.19), (6.22), and (6.26), was close to
56 min for pure insulation and about 153 min for the same insulation with 30
weight % of PCM.

6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced

Opaque Building Components

6.3.1 An Overview of Numerical Models’ Developments

Energy performance improvements due to inclusion of PCMs into the building

fabric depend on a number of factors, which include the amount of the PCM and its
thermal characteristics, the location of the PCM, climatic conditions, overall design
of the building, and details of the space-conditioning system. Therefore, a series of
detailed energy simulations combined with analysis of associated local thermal
effects within the building are necessary to evaluate the actual benefits of the PCM
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 179

application. Dynamic thermal behavior of PCM-enhanced building envelopes can

be numerically investigated using system-scale thermal models and whole-building
energy simulations. Considering that PCMs placed in building components
dynamically interact with the entire building fabric and the mechanical systems, it is
essential that energy performance analysis of these technologies is performed with
the use of a whole-building energy model.
A number of analytical solutions are available today for heat transfer with phase
transition. They can be found in advanced heat transfer publications such as those
by Evans (1951), Douglas (1957), Carslaw and Jaeger (1959), Friedman (1964),
Rubibstein (1971), Crank (1984), Dalhuijsen and Segal (1986), Hill (1987),
Alexiades and Solomon (1993), and Ozısık (1993). Please keep in mind that the
analytical solution for a perfect case of isothermal phase transition may not provide
a complete representation of PCM technologies used in buildings. PCMs in these
systems are usually modified by a number of additives improving their durability,
increasing thermal conductivity, or reducing flammability. In addition, these tech-
nologies may sometimes contain a mixture of different PCMs. These factors mean
that phase-change processes in PCM-enhanced building envelopes are not iso-
thermal and they usually occur across a temperature range. In that light, some of the
above-referenced analytical solutions may provide useful guidance but may be
impractical for actual PCM applications in buildings.
Approximate numerical solutions are usually used in practice to handle this class
of heat transfer problems. The numerical methods for addressing phase-transition
problems have been reviewed in the following publications: Basu and Date (1988),
Idelsohn et al. (1994), Hu and Argyropoulos (1996), Voller et al. (2006), Dutil et al.
(2011), Tabares-Velasco (2012), AL-Saadi and Zhai (2013). One of the earliest
theoretical techniques for solving phase-transition problems is so-called the heat
source method, introduced by Eyres et al. (1946) in mid-1940. In this method, the
total enthalpy is split into the specific heat and latent heat and the latent heat is
considered as a heat source. Most recently, Costa et al. (1998) implemented a
similar numerical scheme to simulate the thermal performance of phase-changing
thermal storage.
During the 1970s and 1980s, theoretical foundations for numerical analysis of a
heat transfer problem with incorporated phase transition has been laid by Fox
(1975), Furzeland (1980), Crank (1981), Voller and Cross (1983), Pham (1985), and
others. In early theoretical analyses, solid–liquid phase-transition problem had been
usually numerically solved using finite-difference or finite-element methods. Later,
finite-volume and control-volume finite-element methods were also employed. The
most common numerical methods in solving nonlinear phase-change behavior
include the enthalpy method, the heat capacity method, and their modifications.
The enthalpy method deals with a total amount of energy required during the
phase-change process, which includes both sensible and latent heat. The enthalpy
method was first time introduced by Eyres et al. (1946) to deal with variations of
thermal properties with respect to temperature. It is one of the most commonly used
today fixed-domain methods for solving so-called the moving boundary problem,
also known as the Stefan problem (Stefan 1889; Sharma et al. 2006, 2009;
180 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Ogoh and Groulx 2010; Jayalath et al. 2012). This method presents heat capacity in
terms of its integral form, H(T), with respect to the temperature. Alexiades and
Solomon (1993) have presented several numerical methods for solving phase-
transition problems that use the enthalpy method and using both linear and non-
linear approaches. Similar enthalpy formulations have been extensively investigated
by many authors for numerical analysis of building-related phase-change problems
(Swaminathan and Voller 1993; Costa et al. 1998; Brousseau and Lacroix 1998;
Chen and Sharma 2006; Chen et al. 2008a, b). In addition, Knoll and Keyes (2004)
examined various novel approaches utilizing nonlinear solvers to solve the Stefan
problem. In particular, Knoll introduced an algorithm to solve the Stefan problem
using the Jacobian-free Newton–Krylov method for both ideal phase transition with
isothermal melting and non-isothermal cases where melting process occurs over a
range of melting temperatures. Furthermore, several alternative methods using the
enthalpy approach and combined with an application of linear solvers, such as
Gauss elimination or tri-diagonal algorithm or iterative methods and the Gauss–
Seidel method, were proposed by Patankar (1980), Shamsunder and Sparrow
(1975). Finally, an iterative Newton linearization scheme, using the solution pro-
cess similar as that of Shamsunder, was introduced by Furzeland (1980). However,
several authors reported that iterative methods such as Gauss–Seidel are too slow to
be used in practical applications (AL-Saadi et al. 2013). Therefore, a number of fast
numerical schemes have been introduced to improve the computational efficiency
(see Pham 1985; Voller 1990; Swaminathan and Voller 1993). In addition, the
ability of the enthalpy method to correctly account for the subcooling effect was
discussed by Günther et al. (2007).
The heat capacity method describes the temperature change T(x, t) using the heat
capacity Cp(T). Within the temperature range of a phase transition, this method deals
with heat capacity as a function of temperature (between melting and solidification).
It numerically imitates the effect of enthalpy (sensible and latent heat) by controlling
the heat capacity value during the phase-changing stage. Two following theoretical
approaches can be identified with the heat capacity method: (i) the apparent heat
capacity (Idelsohn et al. 1994; Hu and Argyropoulos 1996; Voller 1997) and (ii) the
effective heat capacity (Minkowycz et al. 2006; Muhieddine et al. 2009; Heim 2010;
Poirier 1988). In the heat capacity method, the calculation is controlled for PCMs by
temperature and total latent heat. The key in this approach lies in the heat capacity
approximation that combines sensible and latent heat contributions.
The apparent heat capacity method was introduced by Hashemi and Sliepcevich
(1967) to solve a one-dimensional heat transfer with phase change in a mushy region.
This method is relatively popular today because during simulations the temperature
is the only independent variable that needs to be solved in discretized form. In
apparent heat capacity method, experimental results can be used to form an empirical
expression to approximate the heat capacity. In order to generate high-quality
enthalpy and heat capacity data necessary for numerical analysis, dynamic mea-
surements can be performed for pure PCMs and homogenous PCM products, with a
use of the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) utilizing the step-testing method
(Castellón et al. 2008; Günther et al. 2009; Lazaro et al. 2013). For example, Fang
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 181

and Medina (2009) used DSC test results to develop a mathematical formula for the
heat capacity of the paraffinic PCM. In cases of non-uniform PCM-enhanced
materials and PCM composite blends, T-history method (Zhang 1999), or dynamic
heat flow meter apparatus measurements (Kośny et al. 2009a, b; Shukla et al. 2012)
need to be applied. Apparent heat capacity can be also estimated using numerical
methods (Lemmon 1981; Voller 1997). A numerical technique was applied by
Comini et al. (1974) to determine the heat capacity as a derivative of enthalpy with
respect to temperature. Later and Morgan (1978) has adjusted this numerical tech-
nique to avoid the convergence problems. However, Voller (1997) found that the
apparent heat capacity approximations, based on the direct test-generated relation-
ships, are more accurate than the Morgan’s approximation method.
The effective heat capacity method assumes that the PCM can be out of phase-
change temperature range only in two cases: when it is fully charged or discharged
(Heim 2010). During simulations with the use of the effective heat capacity method,
the heat capacity value is usually computed for the specific node with a help of the
discretization equations based on the corresponding nodal temperature. However,
since the relationship between heat capacity and temperature is highly nonlinear
during phase transition, an explicit scheme is often used. This may cause some
inaccuracies in situation of sharp heat capacity changes with respect to temperature
(Sadasivam et al. 2011).
In addition to the enthalpy and heat capacity methods, there is also a large group
of modified methods using either components from one or both above-described
numerical algorithms. For example, Pham (1985, 2006) introduced a new numerical
scheme which combines the features of the enthalpy and heat capacity methods.
This hybrid method is popularly called the quasi-enthalpy method. It consists of
two following numerical steps: (i) a temperature prediction step and (ii) a tem-
perature verification and correction step. In the prediction step, the nodal temper-
ature is predicted based on guessed initial values. Next, the predicted temperatures
are checked for consistency against the enthalpy–temperature curve and corrected if
necessary. This method, after implementation of accuracy improvements proposed
by Swaminathan and Voller (1993), has been recently introduced as one of the
alternative PCM simulation algorithms in ESP-r, a whole-building energy simula-
tion program (Sadasivam et al. 2011).
In order to overcome time and spatial limitations of the heat capacity method, a
novel temperature transforming scheme was introduced by Cao and Faghri (1990).
This simulation procedure was later called the improved temperature-based
equivalent heat capacity method (Zhanhua and Yuwen 2006). Initially, this
numerical algorithm was tested against several benchmark examples. Preliminary
comparisons showed inconsistent results, especially when mass transfer through the
PCM was considered. After a series of enhancements, this numerical model has
been used in a number of projects (Zeng and Faghri 1994a, b; Zhanhua and Yuwen
2006). Today, this method is not in common use; however, it offers an alternative
solution to the apparent heat capacity method. A list of numerical methods used in
the most popular whole-building energy simulation tools, with capability of mod-
eling phase transition, is given in Table 6.1.
182 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Table 6.1 Numerical methods used in best-known numerical tools which can be used for phase-
change simulations in buildings
Whole-building Numerical Discrete Heat capacity References
computer tool method form computations
ESP-r Effective heat capacity Finite Explicit Heim and Clark
volume (2004)
TRNSYS Type 204, Effective heat capacity Finite Crank–Nicholson Jokisalo et al.
combined with Type 56 element (2000)
TRNSYS Type 222, Indirect calculations Ibanez et al.
combined with Type 56 (2005)
TRNSYS Type 241, Enthalpy method Finite Schranzhofer et al.
combined with Type 56 difference (2006)
TRNSYS Type 260, Effective heat capacity Finite Explicit Kuznik et al.
combined with Type 56 difference (2010)
TRNSYS Type 399, Two different methods Finite Crank–Nicholson Dentel and
combined with Type 56 available based on the element Stephan (2013)
heat capacity approach
MATLAB Enthalpy method Finite Crank–Nicholson Sadasivam et al.
volume (2011)
EnergyPlus Enthalpy method Finite Implicit Pederson (2007)
difference

In building applications, PCMs are usually either encapsulated, or packed in very

tight containers, which makes very common a situation where all locally enclosed
PCM is going through the phase transition at the same time. In larger PCM con-
tainers, internal convection, during liquid phase, may impact overall system effec-
tiveness. Internal axial convection within a PCM encasement was analyzed by
Beasley and Clark (1984). A study by Ahmad et al. (2006) demonstrated that
complexity of thermal model does not always yield improvements in simulation
accuracy. In this work, numerical predictions generated by a complex thermal model
considering a solid–liquid interface and results of a simpler model using the effective
heat capacity algorithm were compared. Recorded results showed that a simpler heat
capacity approach was more accurate. In another similar study, finite-element
computer simulations were performed to compare accuracies of the enthalpy and
heat capacity methods (Lamberg et al. 2004). When compared to experimental data,
more accurate results were obtained with a use of the heat capacity method.
Today, only few commercially available computer models use separate
enthalpy–temperature curves for melting and freezing. A large number of com-
mercially available whole-building energy tools use simplified algorithms consid-
ering identical thermal characteristics for melting and freezing processes.
Unfortunately, among commonly used PCMs, this simplification only works for
paraffins, which nucleate without noticeable subcooling. Consequently, for a large
number of non-paraffinic organic and inorganic PCMs, an application of simplified
algorithms which do not include hysteresis may lead to substantial inaccuracies.
A numerical study performed by Kuznik and Virgone (2009) concluded that sep-
arate enthalpy curves for PCM melting and freezing should be included in
numerical simulations in order to improve their overall accuracy. In a separate
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 183

research focused on a sandwich wall system, containing a layer of the PCM-

enhanced lightweight concrete, PCM behavior was numerically analyzed with the
use of COMSOL 4.01 and WUFI 5.02 simulations (Baghban et al. 2010). The
authors have also found that it is essential to use separate melting and freezing
characteristics, to achieve good agreements between experimental results and
numerical predictions during PCM modeling.

6.3.2 Numerical Research Studies of PCM-Enhanced

Building Products: Historical Outline

A large number of numerical studies, which have been recently performed in dif-
ferent countries, helped in better understanding of the physics behind the
PCM-enhanced building products and their potential energy performance. For
decades, different types of PCM-enhanced building boards and plasters have been
the most popular objects of computer simulations. Earliest numerical studies started
during late 1970s and had been continued till 1990s. They were mainly focused on
gypsum wallboards impregnated with paraffin (Solomon 1979; Drake et al. 1987;
Tomlinson and Heberle 1990; Kedl 1990; Stovall and Tomlinson 1995; Stetiu and
Feustel 1996; Kissock et al. 1998). A combined experimental–numerical work was
performed by Athienitis et al. (1997), who conducted an extensive field testing
followed with one-dimensional numerical analysis of a full-scale outdoor test hut
with PCM-enhanced gypsum board installed as an inside wall sheathing.
In more recent projects, PCM wallboards and plasters containing microencap-
sulated PCMs (Hawlander et al. 2002; Darkwa and O’Callaghan (2005), Schossig
et al. 2005; Kendrick and Walliman 2007; Poulad et al. 2011) have been studied.
In addition, thermal performance of shape-stabilized PCM board products has been
analyzed using numerical methods (Kuznik et al. 2007; Virgone et al. 2009;
Constantinescu et al. 2013). Due to flammability concerns about paraffinic PCMs, a
number of numerical models have been utilized recently to analyze thermal per-
formance of boards and insulation products thermally enhanced with bio-based
alternatives to paraffins (Rozanna et al. 2005; Riza 2007; Kośny et al. 2009c;
Dhanusiya and Rajakumar 2013).
In addition to the material research cited above, several numerical studies have
focused on numerical optimization of PCM wall systems and their thermal char-
acteristics. Numerical work with the use of one of the first PCM algorithms for
TRNSYS3—a whole-building energy code, was performed in early 1990 by Stovall
and Tomlinson (1995). It concluded that surface film coefficients on the wall

1
http://www.comsol.com/products.
2
http://www.wufi.de/index_e.html.
3
http://www.trnsys.com/.
184 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

internal surface may notably impact the overall performance of walls containing
PCM-enhanced gypsum boards. In a similar project performed about 15 years later,
Liu and Awbi (2008) have compared natural convection on the interior side of a
conventional wall and a wall containing PCM. The authors developed a numerical
model to evaluate several convective heat transfer correlations available from the
literature, for natural, mixed, and forced convection flows. In another project,
Kuznik et al. (2007) have performed a thermal optimization of a wallboard con-
taining PCM. They have concluded that a thickness of the PCM-enhanced board
should be determined based on the time interval of thermal excitation and desired
system time response. Similarly, Zhou et al. (2007, 2008) have analyzed the
optimum location for the PCM-enhanced wall panels, concluding that the internal
surface location is most thermally effective.
Since the majority of passive PCM ceiling applications use either PCM
enhanced boards, membranes, or arrays of PCM containers (see Fig. 6.2), it was
assumed that from the thermal perspective, they should work in a similar way to the
internal PCM wallboard technologies. That is why analogous numerical models can
be utilized for their performance analysis. Examples of transient thermal analysis of
the passive ceiling systems containing PCM can be found in Stritih and Butala
(2010), Oyeleke (2011), Jaworski and Poplawski (2013). Additional example of
transient simulations, performed on the active ceiling technologies using night
precooling, can be found in Corgnati (2007). Thermal performance of the PCM
ceiling systems integrated with the hydronic heat exchangers was also investigated
numerically by Schossig et al. (2003, 2005) and Kalz et al. (2007). Comparing to
passive ceiling applications, active ceilings with PCMs require more complex
numerical models, enabling analysis of mechanical systems and heat exchangers. In
different reports, Antonopoulos and Tzivanidis (1997), and Antonopoulos et al.
(1998) describe an application of the T-history experimental method and a
numerical procedure to solve the three-dimensional transient problem of night
precooling of the ceiling thermal system using PCM and hydronic tubing.
All of the cases of numerical analysis discussed above focused on building
applications using relatively thin layers of PCM products. However, there is also a
second group of thicker PCM applications utilizing either PCMs dispersed in
porous materials, or PCMs blended with thermal insulations or composites. These
applications started in 1970s from an introduction of the concrete and gypsum
impregnated with salt hydrates or paraffinic hydrocarbons (Balcomb et al. 1983;
Hawes and Feldman 1992). Since that time, PCM-enhanced wall masonry products
have been extensively investigated around the world as dynamic building envelopes
for residential and commercial buildings (Hawes et al. 1990; Salyer et al. 1995;
Romanowska et al. 1998; Lee et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2004; Bentz and Turpin
2007; Castell et al. 2009). A numerical study which utilized a new numerical
subroutine enabling PCM modeling, combined with an existing software package,
was performed by Ibanez et al. (2005). In this case, the TRNSYS program was used
to simulate the energy effects of incorporating microencapsulated PCM into the
concrete wall structures. Detailed configurations of test huts used in supporting field
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 185

experiments and recorded test results for similar PCM technologies were presented
in Cabeza et al. (2007) and Castell et al. (2010). A review of available literature on
PCM applications in concrete building technologies was presented by Jayalath et al.
(2012). They utilized finite-element modeling for analyzing the thermal perfor-
mance of the PCM–concrete composite in building applications.
In addition, PCM-enhanced natural stones and aggregates have been used in
buildings for external façades and internal space applications. Numerical thermal
performance analysis of agglomerate floor tiles containing 20 wt% of encapsulated
octadecane has been performed by Lee and Hittle (2005). In this work, dynamic
whole-building energy simulations were performed using BLAST, a whole-build-
ing computer program.4 Several research studies focused on the natural stone
impregnated with PCM have been performed in southern Europe. Examples of
experimental projects supported by the numerical performance analysis can be
found in Katsourinis et al. (2010) and Romero-Sánchez et al. (2012). They used
PCMs for thermal enhancement of a natural stone in order to improve its thermal
performance as a building material.
Apart from direct building energy applications, PCMs in concrete can be used
for durability reasons as well. The National Institute of Standards (NIST), Gai-
thersburg, MD, USA, investigated experimentally and numerically an application of
the microencapsulated PCM as a concrete additive, reducing the temperature rise
(and subsequent rate of temperature decrease) in large concrete sections during the
concrete curing processes (Bentz and Turpin 2007). The main goal of this appli-
cation was to minimize thermal cracking in concrete slabs. In addition, a potential
reduction of a number of freeze/thaw cycles experienced by concrete decks exposed
to a winter environment was investigated by the same authors using one-dimen-
sional finite-difference computer model (Bentz and Turpin 2007).
As mentioned earlier, PCMs can be also blended with thermal insulations and
composite materials. In building envelope applications, thermal insulations con-
taining PCM help in reduction of space-conditioning loads and enable significant
shifting of peak-hour thermal excitations, transmitted through the opaque building
shell components (Halford and Boehm 2007; Kossecka and Kośny 2010; Tabares-
Velasco 2012; Kośny et al. 2013a). One of the first experimental and analytical
projects focused on PCM-enhanced building insulations was performed by Petrie
et al. (1997). The PCM used was hydrated calcium chloride dispersed in the light-
weight perlite aggregate working as dynamic ceiling insulation. Extruded polystyrene
(XPS) foam was the insulation below and above a layer of the PCM–perlite blend.
Finite-difference computer modeling was used in this study to enable comparisons to
the behavior of the conventional insulation. Petrie reported that with PCM-enhanced
perlite, the total daily energy flow into the conditioned space below the test cells was
reduced and the peak heat flow rate was delayed in time and decreased in magnitude.
In building envelopes, plastic foam insulation can be used as a carrier for PCMs.
Plastic foams can be applied in form of a rigid sheathing, thin flexible lining, or as a

4
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/.
186 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Fig. 6.5 Field testing of brick structures (a), insulated with polyurethane foam (b), and containing
PCM panels attached to the exterior surface (c)—Source Castell et al. (2009)

layer of the sprayed foam product. As mentioned in earlier sections, the University
of Lleida, Spain, constructed a series of test huts for field experiments with different
PCM-enhanced building envelope technologies (Cabeza et al. 2007). Some of these
technologies were also analyzed using numerical methods. A unique application of
a thin PCM layer installed together with polyurethane foam was tested in field
conditions of Lleida, Spain (Castell et al. 2009). In this case, PCM containers were
directly attached to the sprayed polyurethane foam (see Fig. 6.5). Ceramic bricks
were used as a base wall structure in this experiment.
Several configurations PCM-enhanced foams were successfully analyzed on
wood frame walls by using dynamic hot-box experiments at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, USA (Kośny et al. (2007a). In a separate project, small-scale
field testing was performed on a novel retrofit strategy for masonry walls using
PCM-enhanced foam insulation, reflective aluminum facing, and vented air cavity
(Kośny et al. 2010a). A series of finite-difference simulations were used to select
PCM and optimize the insulation configuration in this case. To enable direct per-
formance comparisons, PCM wall insulation was installed next to the conventional
foam insulation of equivalent R-value—as shown in Fig. 6.6. During the summer
2007, this design of the PCM-enhanced wall insulation yielded about 60 %

Fig. 6.6 Field wall testing with PCM-enhanced foam insulation containing reflective foil facing—
source authors archive. a Installation of PCM–foam insulation with reflective surface,
b conventional foam insulation (left) and PCM-enhanced foam insulation (right), and c front
view of completed conventional foam insulation section (left) and PCM-enhanced foam insulation
section (right)
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 187

Fig. 6.7 Field testing of the vented metal roof assembly containing two different PCMs—Source
authors archive. a Multilayer sandwich of PCM-enhanced foam and fabric, b vented air cavity
with reflective surface providing thermal break and enabling removal of excess heat during the
summer, and c installation of the metal panels on top of the roofing assembly

reduction of the peak-hour cooling load, comparing to the conventionally insulated

south-oriented concrete masonry wall of the same R-value (Kośny et al. 2008a, b).
Following the wall testing, thermal performance of one of the first PCM roofing
applications, utilizing materials of different melting temperatures, was analyzed in
field conditions by Kośny et al. (2008b) and Miller et al. (2010). A multilayer
sandwich made of the PCM-impregnated foam and fabric had two different melting
temperatures. As shown in Fig. 6.7, it was a ventilated roofing system with over-
the-deck heat sink. Layers of foam and fabric containing PCMs were installed in
conjunction with the air-vented cavity and were surfaced with reflective insulation.
A series of finite-difference computer simulations were utilized for numerical per-
formance comparisons of the above PCM application with other conventional
sloped roof configurations without PCM (Kośny et al. 2010b). In addition, whole-
building energy analysis of building envelopes with thin layers of building products
containing PCM was performed with the use of the EnergyPlus computer program5
by Kośny et al. (2010a).
Between 2002 and 2013, a number of novel PCM blends with thermal insula-
tions were introduced, tested, and numerically analyzed in the USA. Different
arrangements of PCM–cellulose (Kośny 2008) and PCM–glass fiber insulation
(Kośny et al. 2010c) have been used by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA,
as a cavity insulation in framed walls and for attic floor insulation. In addition,
several methods for mixing the microencapsulated and shape-stabilized PCMs with
aerogel insulation have been analyzed by Aspen Aerogels and Fraunhofer SCE
during a US Department of Defense research project.6
Examples of finite-difference numerical analysis of the wall systems containing
fiber insulations blended with PCM can be found in Kośny et al. (2010c, 2012a, b),
Kośny and Kossecka (2013) and Childs and Stovall (2012). In addition,

5
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research and Development Center, Phase I, Contract #
W9132T-12-C-0012.
6
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/10-11/Schools/Model.html.
188 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Table 6.2 A list of example references available for laboratory and field experiments combined
with thermal modeling of PCM-enhanced thermal insulations
Test method References: Testing References: Simulations
1 Small material-scale testing Kośny et al. (2007a, b, Kośny et al. (2009a, c)
using dynamic heat flow meter 2012b), Alderman and
apparatus Yarbrough (2007),
Shukla et al. (2012)
2 System-scale laboratory testing Kośny et al. (2007b, Kośny et al. (2008b, 2010b, c)
with the use of the dynamic hot- 2008b)
box experiments for walls
3 System-scale laboratory testing Petrie et al. (1997), Petrie et al. (1997), Kośny et al.
with the use of the dynamic Kośny et al. (2010b) (2009b)
hot-box experiments for attics
and roofs
4 System-scale field testing of Kośny (2008), Kośny et al. Kośny et al. (2010c, 2012b),
walls (2010c), Medina and Fallahi et al. (2012), Childs and
Stewart (2008) Stovall (2012), Tabares-Velasco
(2012)
5 System-scale field testing of Miller et al. (2010), Kośny Kośny et al. (2010b, c),
roofs and attics et al. (2010a, 2012a) Fallahi et al. (2012)

Fig. 6.8 Examples of system-scale test assemblies, constructed by the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, USA, containing PCM-enhanced insulations—Source Author’s archive. a Installation
of the PCM-enhanced cellulose inside the test frame, before dynamic hot-box wall testing, b test
attic with PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation installed on the attic floor, prepared for climatic
chamber testing, and c PCM-enhanced fiberglass insulation installed on the attic floor of the test
attic, prepared for field testing

whole-building computer models like EnergyPlus and ESP-r7 have been utilized for
detailed system optimization and for energy consumption analysis in buildings
containing PCM-enhanced wall systems (Kośny et al. 2010a, b; Tabares-Velasco
(2012). Table 6.2 summarizes major US references available for testing and
modeling of PCM-enhanced thermal insulations.
Figure 6.8 presents examples of laboratory and field experiments with the use of
PCM-enhanced fiber insulations, performed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
USA. In late 2000, a new dynamic testing method was introduced for thermal

7
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/10-11/Schools/Model.html.
6.3 Numerical Performance Analysis of PCM-Enhanced … 189

performance analysis of non-uniform composites and blends containing PCM

(Kośny et al. 2007a, 2009a; Alderman and Yarbrough 2007; Kossecka and Kośny
2009; Shukla et al. 2012). In these tests, finite-difference simulations have been
often used to support transient analysis of PCM-enhanced insulations (Kośny et al.
2010a). Analytical formulas for analysis of PCM content in PCM-enhanced thermal
insulations were given by Kossecka and Kośny (2009).

6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling

In buildings, a scale of thermal behavior improvements attributable to an intro-

duction of PCM-enhanced building envelopes depends on a number of factors. This
includes, for example, the amount of PCM and its physical properties, climate
conditions, and design of the building. Therefore, a comprehensive numerical
analysis of thermal and energy effects in buildings using PCMs is essential for
evaluation their energy benefits. Detailed numerical models, developed for system-
scale thermal simulations of PCM-enhanced envelopes, may capture more physics
of heat transfer process and with higher accuracy than less accurate algorithms used
in most of whole-building energy simulation tools. However, simplified models can
be sometimes preferred because of their ease to use and due to the fact that they can
yield quick estimates of the PCM’s thermal performance.
With respect to PCM-enhanced building envelopes, thermal design and opti-
mization processes require detailed performance simulations. Numerical system-
scale modeling is usually a first step in the process of designing of the material
configuration for the PCM-enhanced building system. This process frequently
includes decisions about the following: (i) sequence of materials, (ii) location of
PCM, and (iii) amount of PCM. Thermal design decisions also include estimation
of the optimal phase-change temperature range, which leads directly to selection of
a specific PCM. One-dimensional simulations work well for a large number of
PCM-enhanced building products, including boards, foils, bulk insulations, or
composites containing PCMs. Multilayered and sandwich systems are good
examples of building envelopes for which one-dimensional analysis can be used.
Please keep in mind that one-dimensional models are only useful for analysis of
simple building envelopes without thermal bridging generated by structural mem-
bers. In case of buildings having framing members, or other highly conducting
structural components imbedded into the building envelopes (i.e., wood and steel
framing walls, post-and-beam concrete and steel structures), three-dimensional
simulations would be preferable. However, there is also a second group of the
PCM-enhanced systems utilizing arrays of small-size PCM containers or PCM
pouches packed in plastic or aluminum foils. These assemblies require detailed
multi-dimensional thermal simulations, because of the complex character of their
internal heat transfer. In such situations, structural thermal bridging may only add
further complication to the entire thermal analysis. It is good to remember that
building envelopes need to be designed from the hygrothermal perspective as well.
190 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Areas with internal thermal shorts or spaces with lower local temperatures, like in
case of some PCM applications, can be susceptible to water condensation which
may lead to durability problems. That is why, a process of thermal optimization of
PCM-enhanced building envelopes needs to be most often accompanied with hy-
grothermal simulations.
A second important area for system-scale numerical applications is associated
with laboratory thermal testing of PCM-enhanced building products and system. In
this case, numerical analysis can be useful for numerous purposes including (i)
PCM optimization, (ii) accuracy analysis, (iii) estimation of actual amounts of PCM
in tested assemblies, or (iv) analysis of recorded test data.
Reliable whole-building-scale models can help in thermal and energy performance
analyses without a need for time consuming, full-scale experiments. In whole-
building energy simulations, numerical analysis of PCM components is quite chal-
lenging due to discussed earlier difficulties associated with multi-dimensional heat
transfer effects. Please bear in mind that in whole-building energy simulations,
complex geometries of conductive components, which are common in building
envelopes, need to be accurately represented by one-dimensional whole-building
algorithms (see Kossecka and Kośny 1997, 2001; Lamberg et al. 2004; Regin et al.
2009). Numerous analytical solutions, which have been developed for commercially
available whole-building energy models, deal only with one-dimensional geometries
and simple boundary conditions. In 2001, ASHRAE evaluated a theoretical procedure
for conversions of complex building components with three-dimensional heat
transfer, into thermally equivalent one-dimensional representations, which can be
used in whole-building energy simulations (see ASHRAE RP-1145 2001).
As discussed earlier, the Stefan problem is one of the best-known formulations
for one-dimensional solid–liquid phase transition (Stefan 1889; Sharma et al. 2009;
Ogoh and Groulx 2010; Jayalath et al. 2012). Typically, phase-change heat transfer
problems are numerically solved with the use of finite-difference, finite-element,
finite-volume, or control-volume algorithms. The enthalpy and heat capacity
methods are the most common computational methods used today for nonlinear
phase-transition behavior. It is also good to remember that, from all PCMs used in
buildings, only paraffins exhibit either no or insignificant subcooling. This allows for
systems using paraffins, an application of only a single set of phase-change char-
acteristics in transient whole-building simulations. However, great majority of non-
paraffinic organic and almost all inorganic PCMs show notable hysteresis, often
combined with supercooling. That is why more advanced computer models usually
enable incorporation of subcooling effect and enthalpy hysteresis (Bony and Cith-
erlet 2007; Bedecarrats et al. 2009a, b).
A large number of numerical models have been used worldwide for analysis of
PCM-enhanced building envelopes. In addition, quite a few computer models
developed for non-building applications have been adopted for analysis of PCM-
enhanced building components as well. In research project sponsored by the US
Department of Energy, a comprehensive comparison of functionality, computa-
tional speed, accuracy, and various other features of about 20 building energy
simulation tools was presented (Crawley et al. 2005). In addition, several other
6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling 191

authors discussed a number of research and commercial models, coming from

various engineering fields and having a potential for applications in buildings area
(see Zalba et al. 2003; Caldwell and Kwan 2004; Verma et al. 2008; Regin et al.
2008; Kośny et al. 2009a, b, c, d; Agyenim et al. 2010; Dutil et al. 2011; AL-Saadi
and Zhai 2013). Among a large number of currently available numerical tools for
thermal and energy simulations in building components; HEATING, RADCOOL,
COMSOL, METLAB, BSim, DeST, IDA ICE, ANSYS Fluent, PowerDomus, and
SUNREL are considered as capable to deal with phase-transition problems (see
Crawley et al. 2005; Pedersen 2007; Rose et al. 2009). The following sections will
discuss examples, of most referenced commercially available computer models,
used for this purpose.

6.4.1 PCM Simulations with the Use of Finite-Difference

and Finite-Element Computer Codes

In past decades, several novel designs of PCM-enhanced building envelopes have

been introduced worldwide. Usually, before full-scale application, these technolo-
gies require system-scale analysis to ensure that design thermal performance
parameters are met. This task can be performed either through experimental work,
or with the use of system-scale numerical analysis. Frequently, both methods are
simultaneously used. Experimental results are often utilized for validation of
computer models, which can later help with system optimization. An application of
numerical analysis is usually a cost-saving approach comparing to expenses asso-
ciated with experimental analysis. While majority of numerical tools developed for
PCM-enhanced building envelope allow only one-dimensional analysis, more
detailed, two- and three-dimensional heat transfer approaches have been utilized as
well. It is critical that thermal models used in PCM analysis provided quality
approximations of the system geometry and physics in phase-transition processes.
However, very often a trade-off between speed of calculation and the accuracy has
to be made. Several commercially available computer tools, that have been created
using well-established and validated numerical algorithms, are available today for
thermal analysis of PCM technologies. This group offers good accuracy and
modeling flexibility combined with acceptable speed of computations. Below, some
of the most referenced commercial analysis tools are discussed and examples of
system-scale numerical analyses are presented.
Starting from 1980s, several research projects focused on phase-change latent
heat systems have been performed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA.
Some of these projects involved numerical analysis. Since, starting from 1940, Oak
Ridge, TN, USA, has been a national center for nuclear research, very often
computer models used for analysis of PCM building technologies, utilized
numerical algorithms developed earlier for thermal analysis of nuclear systems. For
example, in the early 1990, A. Solomon et al. used WALL88, a computer code for
192 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

two-dimensional transient simulations of the gypsum board impregnated with PCM

(Tomlinson and Heberle 1990). In this computer code, the PCM-enhanced building
products could be either represented as a blend with the matrix material, or in the
form of discrete PCM pellets distributed randomly throughout the solid support
matrix with the use of a random number generator. This computer model utilized
earlier developed numerical algorithms for transient thermal transport and storage
of both sensible and latent heat (Solomon et al. 1984, 1986, 1990). The WALL88
numerical model was validated against analytical solution and experimental labo-
ratory results. The model was found to give an excellent agreement with experi-
mental results only after allowing the PCM to melt over a temperature range rather
than at a specific temperature.
HEATING8 is the second computer program, which has been initially developed
for designing of the equipment for nuclear facilities, by the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. It has been later adopted for analysis of building envelope technologies
including PCM-enhanced systems. During the last two decades, different research
groups from the U.S. have used this program for numerical analysis of PCM-enhanced
building technologies. HEATING (Heat Engineering and Transfer in Nine Geome-
tries) has been extensively validated by the author against dozens hot-box tests of
lightweight and massive wall systems (Christian and Kośny 1995). It served for
development of the ASHRAE modified zone method for R-value calculations of steel-
framed wall systems (Kośny and Christian 1995). In addition, ASHRAE project
RP-1145 performed by Enermodal, Canada, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and
Polish Academy of Sciences, demonstrated with use of HEATING an excellent
agreement between hot-box test results and numerical heat transfer predictions of the
wall assemblies with complex geometries (ASHRAE RP-1145 2001; Kośny and
Kossecka 2000). In this project, the equivalent wall method—developed earlier,
numerical procedure enabling conversion of complex three-dimensional wall
assemblies into the thermally equivalent one-dimensional multilayer configurations,
was utilized in terms of application into whole-building energy simulations (Kossecka
and Kośny 1996, 1997; Kośny et al. 1998).
HEATING is a multi-dimensional, general-purpose, finite-difference, heat
transfer code, which solves steady-state and/or transient problems in one-, two-, or
three-dimensional Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates. Transient heat-
conduction problems can be solved in HEATING using several numerical tech-
niques including the following:
1. The implicit technique, which can range from Crank–Nicolson to the classical
implicit procedure. In implicit scheme, system of equations is solved by point-
successive-over-relaxation iteration.
2. The classical explicit procedure using the Levy explicit method.
Heating simulations may include multiple materials, and the thermal conductivity,
density, and specific heat of each material may be both time- and temperature-

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6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling 193

dependent. Thermal conductivity may be anisotropic. The mesh spacing may be

variable along each axis. Heating allows up to five changes of phase for transient
calculations. Boundary temperatures may be either time-, or position-dependent.
Boundary conditions include specified temperatures or any combination of prescribed
heat flux, forced convection, natural convection, and radiation. The boundary con-
dition parameters may be time- and/or temperature-dependent. In HEATING, the
heat-generation rates may be dependent on time, temperature, or position.
One of the first research projects, where HEATING was utilized for analysis of
the PCM-enhanced attic floor insulation, was performed by Petrie et al. (1997). The
PCM used was hydrated calcium chloride dispersed in the lightweight perlite
aggregate working as a dynamic insulation. In order to specify the configuration of
PCM–perlite blend and conventional insulation that achieves optimum thermal
performance enhancement, a transient numerical model had to be used to perform
parametric variations. The purpose of this modeling was to reproduce the experi-
mentally measured temperature profiles in several configurations of the test cells
and their heat fluxes, thereby verifying understanding of the heat transfer and phase-
change phenomena occurring during this experiment. In addition, three-dimen-
sional HEATING simulations were used to enable thermal behavior comparisons
with conventional insulation. Petrie reported an excellent agreement between
numerical predictions and experimental data.
HEATING was also used for development of the dynamic heat flow meter
apparatus testing (DHFMA) procedure for laboratory thermal measurements of
PCM-enhanced building products and PCM blends with thermal insulations (Kośny
et al. 2009a). A series of the DHFMA tests were performed on PCM-enhanced fiber
insulations. Experimental results were compared against the HEATING predictions
with a very good agreement (Kośny et al. 2009a, b). Developing a numerical model
in two- or three-dimensional domain is complicated and difficult to be generalized
for different geometries, PCM applications, and physics. A series of three-dimen-
sional HEATING simulations were employed to analyze the results of the DHFMA
tests of the complex arrays of the PCM pouches packed in the plastic foil (Kośny
et al. 2009d). Results of this analysis were later used for development of thermally
equivalent one-dimensional numerical model of the wall assembly containing
arrays of the PCM pouches. This simplified model was utilized in the whole-
building energy simulations with the use of the EnergyPlus whole-building energy
code (Kośny et al. 2010a). In 2012, as a part of the research sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Energy, Kośny et al. (2013) and Childs and Stovall (2012) used
HEATING transient simulations for the thermal performance analysis of the PCM-
enhanced thermal insulations. In addition, HEATING has been used as a standard
benchmark numerical package to validate the finite-difference algorithm used for
PCM modeling in EnergyPlus (Tabares-Velasco 2012).
A number of existing simulation packages such as COMSOL9 or FEMLAB
(COMSOL’s predecessor) has been lately used for analytical and design work.

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COMSOL is a finite-element simulation package that allows multi-physics mod-

eling for many engineering applications. Although COMSOL is widely known as a
highly flexible numerical model, it has not been fully explored yet as a tool for heat
transfer processes with latent heat storage.
A research team from the Helsinki University of Technology—Espoo, Finland,
has used FEMLAB commercial package (in later version—COMSOL multiphys-
ics) to develop a numerical model of the wall assembly containing PCM (Lamberg
et al. 2004). In this project, phase-transition simulations were performed using both
the enthalpy method and the heat capacity method. Simulation results generated
with the use of both numerical procedures were compared against experimental
results. It was found that both used methods yielded good approximations of the
phase-transition processes. However, it was also found that for narrow phase-
change temperature ranges, the heat capacity method was found more precise.
In another numerical study performed by the Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, COMSOL has been used to analyze several
configurations of multilayer building envelope systems containing PCM (Baghban
et al. 2010). A three-layer sandwich structure contained two layers of lightweight
concrete with and without PCM and a thin layer of silica aerogel were used in
numerical analysis. In this work, the numerical results generated by COMSOL were
compared with WUFI-5.010 simulations performed for identical structures. WUFI
family of hygrothermal programs was developed by the Fraunhofer IBP, Germany.
WUFI-5.0 allows realistic calculation of one- and two-dimensional heat and
moisture transport in multilayer building components exposed to natural
weather conditions. It also permits a use of materials with temperature-dependent
heat capacity. Good agreement was reported for results generated by both simu-
lation programs, for identical configuration of the PCM-enhanced building
envelope.

6.4.2 PCM Simulations with the Use of MATLAB/Simulink

MATLAB/Simulink has recently become the universal numerical tool in large

number of universities and research centers worldwide. In terms of phase-change
material analysis, METLAB simulation environment allows a development of
either self-standing numerical models, or relatively simple simulation components
collaborating with more complex whole-building energy models like ESP-r or
TRNSYS. Several advantages of the MATLAB/Simulink modeling platform,
which can be useful in parametric analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes,
are listed as below:

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6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling 195

• The simulator provides toolboxes and blocksets adequately for setting up almost
any complex system configuration.
• The initialization process at the start of any simulation for all parameters of
system components is automatic and simulation perimeters can be easily
modified.
• Numerical data including any simulation parameters and the numerical results
can be easily stored for later processing using MATLAB toolboxes.
Sadasivam and Almeida utilized the MATLAB simulation environment to
develop a simple one-dimensional, finite-volume, numerical model for analysis of
PCMs (Sadasivam et al. 2011; Almeida et al. 2011). It was using a corrective
iterative scheme, based on the enthalpy linearization, which was introduced by
Swaminathan and Voller (1993). This METLAB PCM model was compared
against ESP-r simulations. For a series of simultaneous simulations performed with
the use of PCM and the BESTEST11 Case 600 model of the lightweight building
containing PCM-enhanced structural components. The METLAB simulations have
proven to be relatively accurate while using ESP-r results as a benchmark. In
another project, Chen et al. (2008b) utilized MATLAB for development of an
implicit one-dimensional finite-difference model. This model was later used for
thermal performance analysis of the PCM-enhanced wallboard, ceiling, and floor.
In this development, the heat capacity method was used. The discretized equation
was solved using the Gauss–Seidel iterative method.

6.4.3 PCM Simulations with the Use of ANSYS Fluent

and Other CFD Codes

Several commercially available computational fluid dynamic (CFD) tools have been
used in the past for numerical analysis of building technologies using PCMs, both
in the system scale and for the whole buildings. CFD models are typically used to
predict air flow and temperature fields in indoor environments by numerically
solving the Navier–Stokes set of partial differential equations for mass, energy, and
momentum. These equations are linearized, discretized, and applied to finite vol-
umes in the solver to obtain a detailed numerical solution, including velocity and
temperature fields. In PCM applications, CFD analysis is very often combined with
TRNSYS whole-building energy simulations—as discussed in Gowreesunker et al.
(2013). ANSYS Fluent is one of the general-purpose CFD tools which has been
used for thermal analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes. It solves the
approximate form of the governing equations in order to provide different solution
fields for a particular domain.

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196 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

As in all CFD tools, the accuracy of phase-transition simulations with the use of
CFD models varies depending on the level of model discretization. However, more
refined the model, the longer computer time is required. In case of building
envelopes containing PCMs, CFD codes, most often, solve phase-transition prob-
lems through the enthalpy porosity method (Susman et al. 2011). This method
assumes, in its default state, a linear enthalpy–temperature relationship and ignores
enthalpy hysteresis. Susman et al. (2011) and Ye et al. (2011) employed the
enthalpy–porosity method to simulate PCM sail and plate units and found rea-
sonable accuracy in temperature predictions for internal building space. PCM sail is
a foil or fabric containing PCM hanging from the ceiling and working as a passive
heat exchanger. It is usually fabricated with the use of commercially available
PCMs and lightweight composite carriers.
An application of the enthalpy–porosity method may yield inaccuracies in
dynamic simulations where local envelope and air temperatures are of a prime
interest (see Gowreesunker et al. 2013). In order to improve accuracy of transient
PCM simulations with the use of CFD commercial packages, Gowreesunker et al.
(2013) proposed a new method of simulating phase-change processes in conduc-
tion-dominant heat transfer cases, through a use of source terms that considers
hysteresis and varying enthalpy–temperature relationship. A series of cyclic sim-
ulations of boards containing PCM were used to validate above-described numer-
ical algorithm. According to Gowreesunker et al. (2012), an application of the
newly developed method can improve simulation accuracy by about 10 %, over the
enthalpy–porosity model. In his work, Gowreesunker experimentally estimated the
enthalpy–temperature relationship using DSC testing, since nonlinear enthalpy–
temperature function and hysteresis are very important during periodic transient
simulations. For dominant conduction heat transfer cases of buildings envelopes
using solid boards containing PCM, the governing energy equation was expressed
in the following simplified form (Gowreesunker et al. 2012):


d dT
ðqH Þ ¼ k þ SE ð6:27Þ
dt dx j

where

SE represents a user-defined function approximating test-generated freezing and

melting curves.
For a commercially available 13-mm-thick clay board, impregnated with 21 %
(by volume) with microencapsulated paraffinic PCM, Gowreesunker et al. (2012)
developed two separate formulas for melting and freezing:

SE;melting ¼ 12:78 T 3  10932:54 T 2 þ 3117074:92 T  296256708:90 ð6:28Þ

SE;freezing ¼ 13:02 T 3 þ 11055:07 T 2  3129090:90 T þ 295246573:26

ð6:29Þ
6.4 System-Scale Thermal Modeling 197

In author’s opinion, a serious demand for CFD modeling of PCM-enhanced

building envelopes may come together with an increasing need for accurate analysis of
building shell components containing airspaces and vented air cavities. In these
applications, PCM thermal storage is only a single component. Enclosed spaces and air
cavities within building envelopes may also use reflective surfaces. Analysis of the
above systems is additionally complicated by the fact that a local mass transport usually
takes place there as well (Karagiozis 1993; Hens 1996). Today, thermal performance of
these dynamic systems is usually approximated using simplified analytical methods
and limited testing. Initial laboratory and field testing of similar technologies contain-
ing PCM demonstrated great potential for reduction of building thermal loads (Miller
and Kośny 2008; Kośny et al. 2010b; Kośny and Kossecka 2013).

6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling

A large number of above-discussed system-scale numerical studies have been

focused on understanding the physics behind PCM applications in building enve-
lopes. System-scale models combined with laboratory or test room experiments
were very useful in projects investigating temperature distributions or potential
heat-flux reductions in PCM-enhanced building envelopes. Some other studies
attempted to analyze the energy performance of different PCM products in building
applications. However, as mentioned in earlier sections, most often PCM envelope
technologies interacted with other components of the building fabric. That is why
relatively early, variety of whole-building computer models have been employed
for the performance analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes. In one of the
first whole-building studies performed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL), USA, TRNSYS, a transient model, was modified to enable thermal
simulations of the gypsum boards impregnated with paraffin (Tomlinson and
Heberle 1990). Later, a single-zone program RADCOOL, combined with DOE-2,
a whole-building energy simulation tool, was used by the Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory (LBNL), USA, for energy analysis in several theoretical
studies of the PCM-enhanced gypsum boards (Stetiu and Feustel 1996; Feustel and
Stetiu 1997).
During the last three decades, numerous research projects focused on energy
savings and peak load decrease associated with PCM building envelope applica-
tions have used a number of whole-building energy simulation tools. In Crawley
et al. (2005), a comprehensive overview was given of various computational
capabilities and features which can be found in 20 commonly used building sim-
ulation software tools. Examples of numerical applications are listed in Table 6.3
together with used energy simulation computer programs.
198 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Table 6.3 References for PCM numerical applications in heat transfer tools and whole-building
energy programs
Computer References
program
TRNSYSa Stritih and Medved (1994), Stovall and Tomlinson (1995), Koschenz and
Lehmann (2000), Ibanez et al. (2005), Ahmad et al. (2006), Kuznik et al.
(2010), Poulad et al. (2011)
ESP-r Heim and Clarke (2004), Schossig et al. (2005), Gelissier (2008), Ponechal
(2009), Heim (2010), Fallahi et al. (2012)
EnergyPlus Almeida et al. (2011), Kośny et al. (2010a, c), Tardieu et al. (2011),
Campbell and Sailor (2011), Tabares-Velasco (2012)
RADCOOLb Stetiu and Feustel (1996), Feustel and Stetiu (1997)
CoDyBac Virgone et al. (2009)
BSimd Rode et al. (2003), Grau and Rode (2007), Rose et al. (2009)
PCM Expresse Ubiñas et al. (2009)
WUFIf WUFI (a family of hygrothermal tools with whole-building simulation
capabilities) (Shrestha 2012)
a
http://www.trnsys.com/#1
b
http://epb.lbl.gov/thermal/docs/chapter3.pdf
c
http://www.jnlog.com/codyba1_en.htm
d
http://sbi.dk/en/bsim/about-bsim
e
http://www.valentin-software.com/en/products/pcm/58/pcm-express
f
http://www.verlag.fraunhofer.de/wufi/?local=en

Different numerical procedures with diverse levels of complexity have been used
in the numerical tools listed above. A number of simplified approaches can be listed
here, starting from the following:
(i) the first numerical schemes developed for TRNSYS, which in early 1990s,
enabled analysis of PCM building products (Tomlinson and Heberle 1990;
Stovall and Tomlinson 1995) and
(ii) empirical models using the equivalent heat transfer coefficient (Ibanez et al.
2005).
In later projects, more advanced, fully implemented finite-difference (Koschenz
and Lehmann 2000; Pedersen 2007), finite-element (Stritih and Medved 1994;
Ahmad et al. 2006), and control-volume models (Heim and Clarke 2004) have been
employed. It is important to notice that there is a great spread in PCM effectiveness
predictions coming from numerical studies, today. Simulated energy savings are
ranging between almost no noticeable energy benefits (see Pedersen 2007) and
90 % reduction of heating energy demand during the heating season, as predicted
by Heim and Clarke (2004). Following this fact, IEA Annex 23 (2011) recommends
that before numerical energy predictions generated by thermal and energy models
can be fully adopted by building designers and energy code officials, more
experimental validation work is necessary to build confidence in the accuracy of
energy simulation tools for PCM-enhanced building technologies.
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 199

6.5.1 TRNSYS

TRNSYS12 is the energy simulation software package, developed by the Solar

Energy Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA, and it has been
extensively used worldwide in the fields of renewable energy engineering, building
energy simulations, passive and active solar designs, for over three decades.
TRNSYS is also one of the first commercial numerical models, which has been
utilized for whole-building energy performance analysis of the PCM-enhanced
building envelopes. At the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, Tomlinson and
Heberle (1990) modified the TRNSYS code to incorporate a model of the PCM
wallboard. Almost at the same time, Ghoneim et al. (1991) from the University of
Wisconsin, Madison, developed a new subroutine for TRNSYS enabling numerical
analysis of solar storage walls. Within this project, Ghoneim performed numerical
analysis of the following thermal storage mediums: sodium sulfate decahydrate,
paraffin, P116-wax, and structural concrete. Following this work, Stritih and Novak
(1996) of the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, analyzed experimentally and with
the use of the TRNSYS subroutine a solar wall composed of a transparent thermal
insulation material, a thermal storage module/solar collector using paraffinic PCM,
and an air channel bringing preheated air to the internal space.
Commercially available since 1975, TRNSYS has a modular internal con-
struction and it has been developed with the use of FORTRAN programming
language (Klein et al. 2011). It uses a user-friendly graphical interface and stand-
alone components and mathematical modules for a wide variety of applications
such as building envelopes, heat pumps, ground-coupled systems, and solar
building applications. The TRNSYS code permits the explicit definition of each
building component and a variety of control strategies. Each system component in
TRNSYS is defined as a type and contains all the relevant mathematical parameters
to integrate it into the TRNSYS code. The TRNSYS engine calls the system
components based on the input file and iterates at each time step until the system of
numerical equations is solved. Each of TRNSYS subroutines (types) can be coupled
together to enable the flow of data during the simulation. In order to include
weather conditions in building simulations, TRNSYS uses a typical meteorological
year (TMY) file, which is run through hourly values.
In TRNSYS, the multi-zone building model, known as the Type 56 is utilized for
whole-building thermal simulations. This component model deals with the thermal
balances of a building having up to 25 thermal zones. In this module, one air node
is assigned to each building zone. Air node represents the thermal capacity of the
zone air volume and other heat capacities associated with the air node (i.e., furniture
and books). The inputs and outputs of the Type 56 are controlled by a separate
preprocessing program, called PREBID. The PREBID program reads building
descriptions and generates files that are later used by the Type 56 components
during a TRNSYS simulation.

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In Type 56, which is a one-dimensional heat balance model, heat transfer

through multilayer building shell components is solved with the use of the con-
duction transfer function (CTF) method (see Mitalas and Stephenson 1971). Keep
in mind that, during last decades, the CTF method and the response factor method
have been widely used in a large number of the whole-building energy simulation
tools (Kossecka and Kośny 1998). Unfortunately, neither of these methods allow
transient simulations with the use of materials having non-linear temperature-
dependent physical properties. That is why the CTF-based Type 56 module is
known as having limitations with building envelopes containing PCMs. This fact
has generated an interest in development of external numerical subroutines that
enable simulations of the PCM-enhanced building materials. Usually, these sub-
routines (Types) enable thermal behavior analysis for only a single architectural
component. Examples of the currently developed user-defined TRNSYS Types,
supporting simulations of the building fabric components containing PCM are
presented below. In general, all of these Types have to communicate with Type 56
for whole-building simulations (Ibanez et al. 2005; Kuznik et al. 2010).

6.5.1.1 TRNSYS Type 204

Prior to the development of the Type 204 model in TRNSYS, it was quite difficult to
simulate heat transfer processes in buildings with architectural components con-
taining PCM. While in 1980s and 1990s, a majority of research projects were
focused on the experimental analysis of building integrated PCMs; more recently,
with the development of a new TRNSYS module enabling analysis of the PCMs
integrated with architectural components, it was possible to investigate in detail the
thermal properties of a wide variety of PCM-enhanced technologies without the need
for elaborate experimentation. The Type 204 subroutine was developed in
FORTRAN and integrated to TRNSYS by the research team from the Helsinki
University of Technology, Finland (Jokisalo et al. 2000; Lamberg et al. 2000;
Lamberg 2003). Utilizing the finite-difference method with a Crank–Nicholson
scheme, the Type 204 model enables multi-dimensional heat transfer simulations of
PCM-enhanced architectural components. In order to account for the changes of the
PCM’s specific heat capacity, due to temperature variations, the model uses
the effective heat capacity method (Minkowych et al. 2006; Stefanescu 2009;
Muhieddine et al. 2009). At each node, the conduction, convection, and radiation
heat transfer, along with the temperature is calculated. Type 204 allows use of one-,
two-, and three-dimensional geometries. Thanks to this, even complex cases of
three-dimensional heat transfer can be defined in details (Ahmad et al. 2006). The
three-dimensional building envelope can be defined precisely to specify the PCM
concentration, overall latent heat storage capacity, and phase-transition points of the
PCM used. The properties of the composite building materials used in conjunction
with the PCM can also be easily defined. In the Type 204, numerical models should
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 201

contain detailed geometry descriptions and dimensions, heat transfer coefficients for
radiation and convection, followed with physical properties of all building materials
and insulations used in conjunction with the PCM. For PCM-enhanced bulk mate-
rials and for PCM composites, the Type 204 module in TRNSYS requires the
following input parameters that must be entered into the model:
• A number of iterations: This parameter can be given any value between one and
infinity and is used primarily to adjust precision.
• PCM melting temperature and crystallization point: Melting point is considered
as the initial temperature in which the PCM undergoes phase transition. The
crystallization temperature is determined by the point where the PCM changes
phase back to a solid.
• Phase-transition range: Unlike in some pure PCMs, which change phase at a
distinct temperature, most often phase changes undergo within a temperature
range.
• Latent heat, specific heat, and density of PCM.
• If needed, specific heat and density of the PCM carrier.
• Volume Fraction of PCM (representing the overall concentration of PCM in a
particular specimen): Unlike in most numerical tools using the overall con-
centration of PCM characterized as a fraction of weight, this input value must be
converted into a volume fraction.

6.5.1.2 TRNSYS Type 222

As mentioned earlier, during whole-building simulations TRNSYS is controlled by

the multi-zone building Type 56. Ibanez et al. (2005) of University of Lleida, Spain,
developed a new PCM model for TRNSYS 15 in order to control the Type 56 in
thermal behavior simulations of buildings containing PCM-enhanced components.
It has been originally called the Type 222. However, more often it is called the
PCM-active layer controller for the Type 56.
In this work, Ibanez adopted, developed earlier, theoretical approach for mod-
eling of thermally activated constructions (Koschenz and Lehmann 2000). In the
numerical approach proposed in Ibanez et al. (2005), the PCM-enhanced compo-
nent was indirectly represented by a so-called active thermal layer, a procedure
already included in the Type 56 for analysis of thermally activated constructions. In
this indirect simulation method, the heat conduction through the element is reduced
to a one-dimensional form by applying thermal resistance models. The transfer
function method of the building model the Type 56 for walls was utilized for
solving the one-dimensional heat conduction in PCM assemblies. In this approach,
numerical model of the wall containing PCM can be defined as an active layer. The
Type 222 was based on heat transfer analogies between thermally activated con-
struction elements and PCM-enhanced building envelopes. In the expert mode,
202 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

a fictitious equivalent heat transfer coefficient can be defined by the user. Thanks to
the application of an active layer containing tubes a circulating heat exchanging
fluid, the overall thermal effect of PCMs could be indirectly replicated. In the Type
222, the detailed dimensions of the active layer and heat exchange fluid data are
required as input data.
Even though the above approach did not simulate the real heat transfer process
through a PCM component, the overall energy impact was quite similar to what
would be expected with a wall containing PCM (Ibanez et al. 2005). In each
simulation step, Type 222 determined the enthalpy and temperature of the PCM and
the variations with the previous simulation step. To properly represent in simulation
the heat transfer characteristics of the PCM-enhanced building component, Ibanez
utilized a user-defined equivalent heat transfer coefficient. The methodology was
initially validated with the use of laboratory experiments and field test data from a
prototype room built with concrete panels containing PCM. According to Ibanez
et al. (2005), the suitability of their methodology has been proven and Type 222 is a
good numerical tool for analysis of PCM applications in buildings. However, more
experimental validation work was recommended as well.

6.5.1.3 TRNSYS Type 241

The Type 241 is a PCM Wall Model for TRNSYS 16 which has been developed in
the Institute of Thermal Engineering, University of Technology Graz, Austria. It is
capable of modeling a PCM-enhanced material as a dynamic layer attached to a
wall (Schranzhofer et al. 2006). This is a serious limitation, which makes quite
difficult simulations of very common building envelopes containing integral PCM
layers, PCM-enhanced insulations, or PCM dispersed inside the wall core material.
Since the Type 241 model is coupled with the existing multi-zone building model
of TRNSYS 16 (Type 56), the PCM layer is theoretically connected to the wall
assembly in the Type 56, through a so-called direct contact zone. Such a fictitious
contact zone is characterized by a no-mass air layer of negligible thickness, having
close to zero heat transfer resistances. Thermal calculations within the PCM layer
are carried out by the Type 241 model using a finite-difference approach. In order to
account for the changes of the PCM’s specific heat capacity, due to temperature
variations, the Type 241 uses the heat capacity method. The PCM wall model (Type
241) has not been fully validated yet against experimental data (Schranzhofer et al.
2006; Castell et al. 2009).

6.5.1.4 TRNSYS Type 260

The Type 260 model for TRNSYS 16 has been developed and validated by a
research team, from the Université de Lyon, France. In this numerical procedure a
one-dimensional finite-difference scheme is utilized to simulate the thermal
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 203

performance of an external wall containing a layer of the PCM-enhanced material

(Kuznik et al. 2010). The PCM Type 260 is associated with the multi-zone building
model (Type 56), as well as with the “Slab on Grade Type”—as specified in the
TRNSYS standard component library.13 During coupled Type 56 and Type 260
simulations, the interior wall surface temperature is calculated by the Type 56 and
later used as an input by the PCM Type 260. This numerical procedure uses solar
heat flux (short wave radiation), ambient temperature, and a view factor (long wave
radiation) as the external condition inputs. The global conductance of the layers
situated between the thermal zone and the PCM layer and all material layers which
are situated between the PCM and the exterior surface are parameters within the
Type 260. Up to 4 exterior material layers are allowed, for which thickness, thermal
conductivity, density, specific heat, and a number of mesh nodes have to be defined.
Transient characteristics of the PCM layer are specified through either effective, or
apparent heat capacity curve, and thermal conductivities in solid and liquid phases.
The Type 260 was validated using experimental data from the earlier test room
experiment (Kuznik and Virgone 2009). Composite boards containing 60 % of
microencapsulated PCM were tested at that time with the use of the MICROBAT
test apparatus, which was composed of two identical test cells. Each test cell was a
cubical enclosure with an internal dimension of about 0.50 m. Good agreement
between numerical predictions and test results was reported by Kuznik et al. (2010).

6.5.1.5 TRNSYS Type 399

Currently developed new PCM model for TRNSYS 17 (Type 399) allows simu-
lations of different types of passive and active building envelopes, including
PCM-enhanced walls. It has been developed by Dentel and Stephan (2013) from the
Institute for Energy and Building, of the Georg Simon Ohm University of Applied
Sciences, Nurnberg, Germany. To allow PCM analysis, the Type 399 is capable to
model temperature-dependent thermal characteristics. It also offers ability to sim-
ulate two separate enthalpy curves for PCM melting and freezing. Transient thermal
simulations of building envelopes are performed in the Type 399 algorithm with the
use of the Crank–Nicolson method and elimination procedure, solving the heat
conduction equation. The discretization scheme is one-dimensional. The amount of
nodes depends on the thickness of each layer. In the TYPE 399 model, the enthalpy
changes are expressed as an invertible function of the temperature; therefore, two
different data files with a temperature-dependent heat capacity of the PCM are used.
The approximation of the phase change with a hysteresis was developed based on
work of Glück (2006). As for January 2014, accuracy of his new numerical pro-
cedure has not been evaluated against the experimental data yet.

13
http://www.trnsys.com/assets/docs/03-ComponentLibraryOverview.pdf.
204 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

6.5.1.6 TRNSYS Type 1270

Simple materials ongoing phase transition can be simulated using the Type 1270
controller, which was developed in 2012 by Saleh Al Saadi at the University of
Colorado, Boulder, USA, and published in the TRNSYS Individual Component
Libraries.14 This algorithm is designed to interact with the TRNSYS multi-zone
building model—Type 56. The Type 1270 makes use of the Type 56 “BOUND-
ARY” wall concept to allow the user to place a PCM layer wherever is needed
within a wall structure. In this case, the “standard” parts of the wall are simulated
in the Type 56, while the PCM layer is modeled externally by the Type 1270.

6.5.2 ESP-r—University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

ESP-r, a whole-building energy simulation tool, is often a selection of choice in

case of thermal analysis of building components and for whole-building energy
simulations. This software has a built-in capability to simulate PCMs with notable
hysteresis. For this purpose, ESP-r uses two different specific heat profiles (during
melting and solidification). ESP-r is an open-sourced whole-building performance
energy tool developed in 1974 by the Energy Systems Research Unit (ESRU),
University of Strathclyde, UK.15 ESP-r was originally designed to work in the Unix
operating system, yet today it can be run on Windows computers as well. It uses a
finite-difference central solver discretizing the problem domain in a controlled
volume scheme and solves the corresponding conservation equations for mass,
momentum, and energy. ESP-r can integrate the effect of a variety of factors
including, climatic conditions, occupancy schedules, air leakage distribution,
external shading, internal energy gains, building mechanical systems, and many
others. ESP-r has a predefined database of materials and construction layers that can
be used directly or modified. Since ESP-r allows a detailed parametric analysis of a
number of factors effecting the energy and environmental performance of buildings,
for decades, it has been widely utilized to simulate energy consumption in multi-
zone buildings, thermal behavior of building components, air ventilation, space-
conditioning systems, etc. Today, ESP-r is best-known as a research tool, even
though it has been also used for numerous consulting and teaching applications.
Before 2000, a non-PCM part of the ESP-r program was extensively validated
(Strachan 2000). Since 2000, with added PCM module, ESP-r can simulate phase-
changing materials using a concept of special materials (Kelly 1998). This module
enables the introduction of a phase transition to the energy balance equation via
material substitution. Special materials are used in ESP-r as means of modeling
active building components that have the ability to change their thermo-physical

14
http://www.trnsys.com/tess-libraries/individual-components.php.
15
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/Programs/ESP-r.htm.
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 205

properties in response to some external factors (i.e., temperature or radiation). In

ESP-r, the special material functions can be applied to a particular node within a
multilayer construction. Any node defined as a special material is then subjected to
a time variation in its basic thermo-physical properties. ESP-r assumes one-
dimensional heat transfer across the PCM layer(s). As stated by Heim and Clarke
(2004), the differential equation of transient heat conduction with variable thermo-
physical properties is as follows:

@
qðT ÞhðT Þ ¼ r  ½k ðT ÞrT ðr ! ; tÞ þ qðr ! ; tÞ ð6:30Þ
@t

where T is the temperature, ρ the density, h the enthalpy, k the conductivity, and
q the heat-generation rate.
ESP-r offers a number of the special material files SPMCMP53 through
SPMCMP56 enabling modeling of the PCM-enhanced building envelopes. PCM
numerical models in ESP-r represent different levels of complexity in describing
thermal behavior of PCMs during phase transition, ranging from a simplified single
enthalpy curve model, to more advanced numerical methods incorporating the
effect of hysteresis. A general assumption is that within the phase-transition tem-
perature range, the PCM-enhanced material can be either in a solid, liquid or a
mushy, two-phase state. In the simpler SPMCMP53 model, PCM performance can
be simulated by assigning phase-changing properties to the construction layer that
corresponds to a PCM impregnated board. The thermal modeling is based on two
numerical methodologies: the control-volume approach and the apparent heat
capacity method. Whenever the temperature of the node representing the layer is
within the phase-change limits, the thermo-physical properties of the material are
replaced with the properties of the PCM. The heat capacity is substituted by the
effective heat capacity method. More advanced SPMCMP56 model was developed
by Geissler (2008), based on Hoffmann’s (2006) theoretical work. This model is
capable of taking into account the PCM hysteresis effect. Material data input
requires PCM density, conductivity, and phase-change temperatures. In addition, in
order to describe PCM thermal properties using mathematical formula, this model
uses the temperature-dependent heat storage characteristics of PCMs both for the
melting and for solidification processes. In this method, the stored/released latent
heat, LH(T), during phase change, is calculated using the following formula:
 
TZ 2 a þ cT þ dT 2
LH ðT Þ ¼ Tf dT ð6:31Þ
T1
1 þ b þ eT 2

where a, b, c, d, e, and f are curve-fitting parameters approximating specific heat

capacity of the PCM as a function of temperature during phase change. T1 is the
onset melting/solidification temperature and T2 is the temperature where melting/
solidification ends. Outside those two limits (T1 and T2), the PCM stores/releases
206 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

energy only in the form of sensible heat. Within the limits, the heat capacity of the
PCM is a function of temperature.
Since introduction of the PCM module in 2000, the ESP-r program has been
used worldwide by different research and engineering groups for analysis of PCM-
enhanced building technologies. As in the cases of other similar building simulation
tools, most of the research work has been focused on PCM-enhanced gypsum
boards (Heim and Clarke 2004; Schossig et al. 2005; Castell et al. 2009; Sigalas
2011). In 2006, Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg, Germany, evaluated the accuracy of the
ESP-r building and plant models during a series of laboratory-scale experiments,
performed on the commonly operated office room. The simulation study was carried
out for a ceiling containing 20 % of microencapsulated PCM (Kalz et al. 2006,
2007). In 2012, Fraunhofer CSE, Boston, USA, performed numerical and experi-
mental study on different types of PCM-enhanced fiber insulations. In this work,
Fallahi et al. (2012) validated the ESP-r special material file—SPMCMP56, against
the field test data collected earlier by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA,
during a series of field test experiments performed in a costal climate of South
Carolina, USA, on wood-framed walls containing blown PCM-enhanced cellulose
(Kośny 2008). An excellent agreement was reported between recorded and simu-
lated heat flows.

6.5.3 EnergyPlus—Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

(LBNL), Berkeley, CA, USA

EnergyPlus is an energy simulation software package developed by the U.S.

Department of Energy. It enables modeling of heat transfer in buildings while
providing for consideration of a large range of HVAC equipment. Its extensive
building design options make it a very powerful software and ideal for building
energy studies. The EnergyPlus program is a collection of many program modules
that work together to calculate the energy required for heating and cooling a
building using a variety of systems and energy sources. While originally based on
the most popular features and capabilities of earlier-developed whole-building
energy tools such as BLAST or DOE-2, EnergyPlus includes many innovative
simulation capabilities such as time steps of less than an hour, modular systems and
plants integrated with heat balance-based zone simulation, multi-zone air flow,
thermal comfort, water use simulations, natural ventilation, and photovoltaic
systems.
EnergyPlus models follow fundamental heat balance principles very closely in
almost all aspects. However, the simulation of building surface constructions has
relied on a conduction transfer function (CTF) method inherited from BLAST. This
fact leads to a number of program restrictions such for example: constant material
properties or fixed values of simulation parameters. Since building envelope and
insulation technologies move today toward using advanced dynamic components,
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 207

such as switchable materials, PCMs, or insulations with variable thermal conduc-

tivity, it becomes necessary to also use more advanced numerical methods in
thermal and energy analyses. Accordingly, a conduction finite-difference (CondFD)
method has been incorporated into EnergyPlus. It doesn't fully replace a relatively
fast CTF solution algorithm, which still can be used for simpler material configu-
rations. However, it complements the CTF method in cases where EnergyPlus is
utilized to simulate PCMs or other materials of variable physical properties. It is
also possible to use the finite-difference algorithm where very small time steps are
required.
Originally EnergyPlus was based on the FORTRAN language. Recently, it has
been converted into the C++ language. Two following input files are used to run the
simulation: (i) the IDF-file (EnergyPlus input data file), which contains all the
information about the location, geometry, materials, structure and all the HVAC
equipment in the building, and (ii) the weather file.
For the finite-difference model, EnergyPlus offers for user selection two different
computational options. The first scheme is referred to as semi-implicit Crank–
Nicholson, and it is based on the Adams–Moulton solution method. In time of
introduction of the EnergyPlus version 7, a second, fully implicit, scheme was
added. Although these two numerical options differ in their fundamental heat
transfer methodologies, they share nearly all the same supporting subroutines for
material properties, data storage, solution schemes, and spatial discretization
algorithms. In addition, an implicit numerical module utilizing the enthalpy method
was later introduced in EnergyPlus by Pedersen (2007), in order to enable PCM
simulations.
Please keep in mind that EnergyPlus can simulate PCMs only with the use of the
conduction finite-difference (CondFD) solution algorithm. CondFD discretizes
building envelope into several nodes and uses an implicit finite-difference scheme
to numerically solve the appropriate heat transfer equations. For the PCM algo-
rithm, the CondFD method is coupled with the enthalpy–temperature function,
which accounts for enthalpy changes during the phase-transition process (Pedersen
2007). The enthalpy–temperature function is used to develop an equivalent specific
heat at each time step. The resulting model is a modified version of the enthalpy
method. In the CondFD algorithm, the automatic element discretization depends on
the space discretization constant, the thermal diffusivity of the material, and the
time step. The presented below formula16 (Eq. 6.32) describes the calculation
method for the fully implicit scheme used in EnergyPlus.
   
jþ1
Tijþ1  Tij Tiþ1  Tijþ1 jþ1
Ti1  Tijþ1
Cp qDx ¼ kW þ kE ð6:32Þ
Dt Dx Dx

16
EnergyPlus Engineering Reference: The Reference to EnergyPlus Calculations. 2011, Ernest
Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. p. 1130—available at http://apps1.eere.energy.
gov/buildings/energyplus/pdfs/engineeringreference.pdf.
208 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

where
 
jþ1
ki1 þ kijþ1
kE ¼
 2 
jþ1
ki1 þ kijþ1
kE ¼
 2
ki ¼ k Tijþ1

where
kW thermal conductivity for interface between i node and i + 1 node
kE thermal conductivity for interface between i node and i − 1 node

For temperature-dependent thermal conductivity, specific heat (Cp), and density

(ρ) of a material, time step is denoted as Δt and finite-difference layer thickness as
Δx. The following node numbering notation is used:
i a number of node being simulated,
i + 1 adjacent node to interior of construction,
i – 1 adjacent node to exterior of construction,
j + 1 a new temperature at end of time step, and
j temperature at the end of previous time step
In several experimental and numerical studies focused on PCM-enhanced building
board products, EnergyPlus capability of simulating PCMs was utilized to analyze
their thermal and energy performance in the whole-building scale (see Kuznik and
Virgone 2009; Zhuang et al. 2010; Tardieu et al. 2011). In general, the authors
reported a relatively good agreement between the simulation results and the test data.
It was concluded that the algorithm incorporated into EnergyPlus can well reflect
thermal behavior of the PCM-enhanced boards in whole-building applications.
In a different group of PCM projects, thermal performance data generated during
material and system-scale testing and thermal simulations were utilized for devel-
opment of whole-building EnergyPlus models. During one of the projects, a
dynamic heat flow meter apparatus (HFMA) measurements, combined with thermal
and energy simulations, were used for whole-building performance analysis of a
complex array of the PCM pouches (Kośny et al. 2010a). In this work, the system-
scale and whole-building-scale simulations were used together to develop energy
performance data of the wall configuration containing PCM. At first, a series of
steady-state and dynamic experiments with the use of the HFMA were performed to
measure thermal properties of the analyzed PCM system imbedded in an insulation
assembly. In addition, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) test data was utilized
to analyze phase-transition characteristics of the PCM. Next, the HFMA test results
and the DSC data were combined with a 3-D finite-difference model to determine
the effective heat capacity of the system. This multitask experimental–numerical
procedure permitted the heat storage evaluation of a complex PCM-enhanced
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 209

building component and its response to changing temperatures. In order to enable

whole-building EnergyPlus simulations, a simplified 1-D computer model was
developed using the equivalent wall procedure (Kossecka and Kośny 1997;
ASHRAE RP-1145 2001).
The second example project focused on walls containing PCM-enhanced cel-
lulose fiber insulation. In this study, material-scale simulations and dynamic HFMA
testing were used together to develop material characteristics necessary for the
whole-building EnergyPlus model. At first, a series of steady-state and dynamic
experiments with the use of the HFMA were performed to measure thermal
properties of the PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation. In addition, microencapsu-
lated PCM was tested with the use of the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
apparatus. Next, the HFMA test results and the DSC data were used to estimate the
percent-content of PCM in thermal insulation (Kossecka and Kośny 2009; Kośny
et al. 2009b). This procedure enabled development of the PCM wall data for the
whole-building Energy Plus model (Kośny et al. 2010c).
The conduction finite-difference and PCM algorithms in EnergyPlus were val-
idated by Tabares-Velasco et al. (2012). In this study, experimental data from whole
room testing was used for comparisons (Kuzmik et al. 2010). Theoretical approach
used in this process was similar to what is recommended by the ASHRAE Standard
140, which requires analytical verification, comparative testing, and empirical
validation (ASHRAE 2004). In addition, experimental data generated during
dynamic hot-box testing of the wall assembly containing PCM-enhanced boards
were used for comparisons (Haavi et al. 2011). Several key limitations and
numerical problems within the EnergyPlus PCM model were identified and as a
result a number of model improvements were implemented into the program ver-
sion 7.1. Accordingly, Tabares-Velasco et al. (2012) recommend that when using
the EnergyPlus PCM model, (i) time steps less than 3 min should be used for
whole-building simulations that included PCM components, (ii) the default Con-
dFD node spacing values can be used with acceptable monthly and annual results,
(iii) when subhourly energy performance analysis is required, users should use node
spacing values about one-third of the default size (equal to using a space discret-
ization constant in EnergyPlus of about 0.3–0.5). Finally, it was concluded that
since the EnergyPlus PCM model uses only a single enthalpy curve, accuracy issues
can arise when modeling PCMs with notable hysteresis. In practice, the above
statement can be translated into the additional recommendation of using EnergyPlus
simulations only in cases of building technologies containing paraffinic PCMs.

6.5.4 RADCOOL—Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

(LBNL), Berkeley, CA, USA

RADCOOL is a whole-building thermal simulation model which has been used as

one of the first whole-building numerical applications in several theoretical studies
of PCM-enhanced gypsum boards, performed by Lawrence Berkeley National
210 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Laboratory (LBNL), USA (Stetiu and Feustel 1996; Feustel and Stetiu 1997). It is a
single-zone computer code, which is written in the SPARK, a simulation tool (Buhl
et al. 1990). SPARK is a simulation environment that generates source and exe-
cutable code for solving nonlinear differential–algebraic equation systems. It is
intended to automate the generation of modular, easy to maintain simulation pro-
grams. RADCOOL program allows performance analysis of building materials
containing PCM (Stetiu et al. 1995). RADCOOL is based on the finite-difference
approach. In numerical analysis, each building component can be divided into
several layers. This allows modeling of simple one-dimensional multilayer systems.
In order to simulate phase-change processes, RADCOOL uses a unique formula for
the enthalpy (h), which also describes the enthalpy as a function of the temperature
(T) for the whole temperature range found in buildings. It is based on original work
of Egolf and Manz (1994), who formulated the following description for the spe-
cific enthalpy:

hðT Þ ¼ cp1 T þ g1 T  Tm ð6:33Þ

hðT Þ ¼ cp1 Tm þ ðh2  h1 Þ þ cp2 ðT  Tm Þ  g2 T [ Tm ð6:34Þ

where
 
h2  h1 ½2ðTTm Þ
gn ¼ e n n 2 ½1; 2
2

The enthalpy can be described as a hyperbolic function and its derivative

(Feustel 1995). The following equation for the specific enthalpy was used at that
time:


h2  h1 2b
hðT Þ ¼ cp;const T þ  1 þ tanh ðT  Tm Þ ð6:35Þ
2 s

A similar formula can be derived for the specific heat capacity.

2b
h2  h1
cp ðT Þ ¼ cp;const T þ  h s i ð6:36Þ
2 cosh2 2b ð T  T m Þ
s

Because of its limitations, RADCOOL had to be used in conjunction with a whole-

building energy code having capability to simulate performance of the space-condi-
tioning system. In several LBNL studies focused on energy performance of buildings
containing gypsum boards and plasters using PCM, initial DOE-2 whole-building
simulations were performed to obtain anticipated temperatures and air flows for the
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 211

space-conditioning system. Next, RADCOOL was used to model the thermal per-
formance of a simple building containing walls and ceilings utilizing PCM-enhanced
wallboards (Stetiu and Feustel 1996; Feustel and Stetiu 1997).

6.5.5 CoDyBa

CoDyBa is a software used to analyze dynamic energy, thermal, and hygrothermal

performance of building elements when subjected to external climatic conditions
(Noel et al. 2001). The tool is aimed to conduct studies of heating and cooling
strategies, air-conditioning or ventilation options, and insulating materials to be
installed. CoDyBa can be used to investigate the thermal, hygrothermal, and energy
performance of building components and buildings of almost any type and size. In
addition, it can perform peak load calculations necessary for building shell opti-
mization and space-conditioning system design. It also permits estimation of the
instant heating or cooling power needed to maintain a given set point temperature,
or to calculate the indoor temperatures when the heating or cooling system is
insufficient.
CoDyBa is based on a modular internal format enabling analysis of relatively
complex buildings. Through the graphical interface, a user can construct a model of
the building’s geometry using basic elements such as thermal zones, building
envelopes, internal space schedules, and mechanical systems. With the program
interface, users can define thermal zones, construction components such as walls
windows, or roof, add mechanical systems, and specify internal loads. After
completion of the data input process, CoDyBa can perform thermal and energy
calculations using the climate, internal loads and their schedules (lighting, people,
or internal equipment), and internal airspace parameters (i.e., set points for tem-
perature, humidity, or ventilation rates) as main control parameters for simulations.
Since CoDyBa has no limit on number of thermal zones, it can simulate buildings
of almost any size. The only real limit is the time used to input data.
CoDyBa produces input summary reports that may view on-screen or stored as
rtf files. A number of results graphs may be viewed and printed. The following
graphical outputs are available (as hourly time function):
• Building: sensible and latent heat powers,
• Thermal zones: sensible and latent powers, indoor air temperatures, resultant
temperatures (average of air and wall temperatures), relative humidity,
• Building exterior surfaces: absorbed direct and diffuse solar fluxes, surface
temperatures,
• Building interior surfaces: surface temperature (useful for thermal comfort
evaluation),
• Windows: transmitted direct and diffuse solar fluxes, sunlit fraction, direct and
diffuse transmission coefficient, global transmission coefficient g,
• Mechanical systems: power profiles and energy consumption.
212 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Fig. 6.9 Two heat capacity

methods used by CoDyBa for
Rectangular form method
PCM simulations
Exponential form method

Heat capacity
1 2

0
∞
TR Temperature

In addition, CoDyBa can be used for forecasting the dynamic thermal behavior
of a building, which may include a performance analysis of building components
containing PCM. According to Virgone et al. (2009), this numerical capability has
been validated through comparisons against experimental data (using measurements
on simple material configurations) with satisfactory agreement. In PCM modeling,
one-dimensional analysis of the temperature within the building envelope compo-
nent is defined by the Fourier equation. The enthalpy h exchanged by the PCM is
considered based on the heat capacity C(T) of the material, as a function of
temperature.
Heat capacity can be simulated with the use of two simplified methods presented
in Fig. 6.9. The first one method describes heat capacity change during phase
transition as a simple step function using rectangular shape of the heat capacity C
(T) function. The second, more advanced method uses the following exponential
formulae for the heat capacity C(T), where TR is the temperature of the peak of the
heat capacity curve:
 2
TR T
 D1
C ¼ C0 þ ðCM  C0 Þe for; T  TR ð6:37Þ
 2
TR T
 D2
C ¼ C1 þ ðCM  C1 Þe for; T [ TR ð6:38Þ

Next, the latent heat of the phase-transition process can be computed using the
equation below:
pffiffiffi
p
L¼ ½D1 ðCM  C0 Þ þ D2 ðCM  C1 Þ ð6:39Þ
2

According to Virgone et al. (2009), the above model represents a compromise

between speed of calculations and overall precision of numerical predictions.
Comparing to the first rectangular function approach, the second model utilizing the
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 213

“exponential” expression for heat capacity, enables significantly better approxi-

mation of the direct measurement results. In addition, in CoDyBa simulations,
separate thermal conductivities can be considered for melted and solid PCM.

6.5.6 BSim

The integrated whole-building numerical tool called BSim was developed by the
Danish Building Research Institute, of Aalborg University, Denmark. This is a one-
dimensional computer model for analysis of heat and moisture transport. BSim is a
successor of several earlier—validated numerical components (Lomas et al. 1997;
Rode et al. 2002; Grau and Rode 2006; Kalyanova et al. 2009; Scarpa et al. 2009).
The core of the BSim program is the Tsbi5 module serving for analysis of energy
and indoor conditions in buildings. The BSim program includes a number of
advanced numerical tools for analysis of, e.g., heat transfer in building components,
whole-building energy consumption, indoor climate conditions, heat and moisture
transport, daylight conditions, and natural ventilation. In BSim simulations,
a building is divided into a number of thermal zones which are separated from each
other, from the exterior conditions, or from any thermal zone by different types of
constructions. The heat balance for each zone couples to the heat transport through
all adjacent constructions. In the BSim numerical model, the dynamic behavior of a
building is described in a discreet form. The Tsbi5 module is the thermal simulation
core of the BSim program package. Tsbi5 makes it possible to perform a dynamic
simulation of the indoor climate, energy, and moisture conditions in buildings. This
can contribute to the selection of heating, cooling, and ventilating systems at the
design stage of new buildings and refurbishment of existing buildings and instal-
lations. By using of the moisture module, the program user can analyze hygro-
thermal behavior of the building interior, moisture accumulation in construction
materials, or can evaluate condensation risk at the building shell surfaces of interest.
BSim can perform analysis of a multi-zone building with consideration of heat
exchange through opaque building envelopes, solar heat gains through windows,
performance of space-conditioning system, steady-state moisture balance and local
condensation risks. Building geometry can be either created with the use of the
graphic editor, or just imported from CAD drawings. BSim contains both the
graphic model editor and a graphic user interface, supporting several applications
included in the program package. A unique feature of the BSim program is its
capability of analysis of materials with phase transition. It is, for instance, possible
to make precise predictions of dynamic energy performance of the building in case
of the PCM application in the building construction components. Rose et al. (2009)
used BSim to analyze energy performance of the building containing
PCM-enhanced gypsum boards. This case study has presented an example showing
how the BSim PCM module can be utilized for optimizing indoor climate in a room
with walls containing PCM-enhanced gypsum boards.
214 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

6.5.7 PCM Express

PCM Express is a whole-building energy simulation tool for buildings using PCMs.
The main framework of the PCM Express program was developed by Valentin
Energie software GmbH, Berlin, Germany, in connection with the research project
focused on development of a user-friendly planning and simulation program for
analysis of “Active PCM Storage Systems in Buildings.” This project was
cosponsored by the German Ministry for Business and Technology and performed
in collaboration with the Fraunhofer ISE in Freiburg, Germany, and other industrial
partners (Zöller et al. 2008). The major goal of this development program was to
support building designers by facilitating a reliable decision-making tool for con-
figuring the PCM-enhanced building components, which was expected to accelerate
market adoption of PCM building applications. This includes the most commonly
used applications of PCMs in building fabric components. Since, depending on the
situation, the use of PCMs can be either justified by the increased level of occu-
pational comfort, or by economic considerations, the PCM Express tool enables
analysis based on both above-listed criteria, through the use of different internal
menus, predefined usage schedules, and adapted presentation of the results.
In PCM Express, PCM can be a part of the floor, ceiling, or wall construction.
To describe the impact of the phase transitions within materials containing PCM, it
is necessary to properly represent their transient characteristics and accurately
simulate PCM’s charging and discharging. In PCM Express, all layers of the
building envelope component are simulated as a node in the mathematical node-
edge-model. Non-PCM materials are defined with a constant heat capacity. PCMs
are defined with the use of the temperature-dependent enthalpy curve.
The mathematical models and numerical algorithms in the PCM Express pro-
gram were developed by the Fraunhofer ISE. During PCM Express simulations,
each room is denoted by a single node representing the inside air. The heat flow
between the nodes is computed as a function of the thermal conductivity and is
represented by a fictitious edge connecting two layers. The outside layer is linked
over an edge with the exterior environment. Irradiation through the windows is
distributed to the inside air nodes and the inner layer of the building fabric. All air
nodes are linked with space-conditioning systems such as heating, cooling, and
ventilation. In order to numerically represent building components containing
integral hydronic systems, each layer can be defined as an active layer, e.g., a
plaster layer with imbedded plastic heat exchangers.
One of the numerical studies that used PCM Express was performed by Ubiñas
et al. (2009), in order to predict and compare the interior temperature behavior of a
room using PCM for heat storage. For several Spanish climates, the authors sim-
ulated thermal and energy performance of two test rooms, with and without PCM.
The thermal performance of the test rooms was evaluated on an hour to hour basis,
zones with diverse combinations of facade glazing ratio and window shadow fac-
tors. The results of the study indicated that in all considered Spanish climates, the
addition of PCM to the building fabric helped in maintain the interior thermal
6.5 Whole-Building-Scale Energy Modeling 215

comfort and in shaving of high and low internal temperature peaks. It was dem-
onstrated that PCM’s ability to thermally stabilize building interior is more
noticeable in summer.

6.5.8 WUFI

WUFI represents a family of numerical tools for modeling the heat and moisture
transfer within building structures. WUFI, which in German stands for “Wärme und
Feuchte instationär”, was developed by the Fraunhofer IBP, Holzkirchen, Germany
(Kunzel 1995). Coupled transient heat and moisture transport simulations can be
performed in WUFI using user-defined time steps and within arbitrary simulation
time periods. For this purpose, the finite-volume method is employed. The only
limitation is the hourly weather data, which has to be interpolated for smaller time
steps. Initially, the main area of WUFI’s applications focused on forecasting pos-
sible moisture damage or humidity-dependent heat losses caused by indoor climate
and natural weather effects. The WUFI algorithm for hygrothermal calculations
considers thermal transport, vapor diffusion, and liquid flow. It is based on theo-
retical equations for heat and mass transport through a defined section of the
building element. In time, numerical capabilities of the WUFI models have been
gradually expanded to form a complex software package for modeling of complete
buildings, including heating systems and ventilation. WUFI Plus is an interior room
climate model which focuses on calculating the thermal behavior of the building
taking into consideration hourly outdoor climatic data, interior thermal loads,
various temperature schedules, and ventilation strategies. Building materials con-
taining PCM can be simulated in WUFI 5.0 and WUFI Plus using temperature
depended enthalpy option. Numerical descriptions of the building components and
building geometry can be produced by using wizards. Next, boundary conditions
can be specified and whole-building simulation conducted. Simulation results such
as the indoor temperature are graphically depicted and users are provided with
support in interpreting the results. Time-dependent simulations that incorporate all
significant boundary conditions also help when making designing decissions
regarding the building operation, the ventilation strategies, the dynamic effects
caused by thermal storage, and strategies to prevent space overheating in summer.
In Baghban et al. (2010), a transient heat transfer problem of an exterior building
wall containing PCM and aerogel insulation has been simultaneously simulated
with the use of COMSOL 4.0 and WUFI 5.0. The results confirmed the advantage
of using high-performance insulation materials in new construction systems.
Numerical analysis showed that, using a layer of concrete containing PCM behind
the aerogel in the exterior wall can be a good idea for saving energy in the building
envelope. PCM can absorb the passive solar energy which passes through the
aerogel layer during the daytime and releases it at night with a low heat loss due to
existence of aerogel insulation. After the series of COMSOL 4.0 and WUFI 5.0.
simulations, the authors indicated a need for incorporation of the hysteresis effect in
thermal and energy simulations of building envelope systems containing PCMs.
216 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

Results of WUFI Plus simulations are discussed by Spaeh (2012) for the wood-
framed wall containing PCM-enhanced gypsum board. It was analyzed as an
alternative system of providing energy-efficient improvements for buildings in hot
and mild climates. This wall configuration was compared against conventional low-
mass wood-framed walls using conventional fiberglass and foam-sheathing insu-
lations. Transient WUFI simulations were used in analysis of thermal energy flows
and interior temperature fluctuations of buildings with increased insulation values
and PCM thermal storage. The findings showed that installation of PCM in building
enclosures near the interior surface can have significant benefits for buildings in the
southern U.S. regions. These benefits include increased energy efficiency, reduced
surface temperature fluctuations, stabilized operative temperatures, reduced
humidity fluctuations, and a reduced likelihood of moisture condensation.
A series of thermal simulations were performed by Korjakins et al. (2013) to
study the optimal configuration of the PCM-enhanced material inside the building.
A numerical study utilizing WUFI Plus and EnergyPlus whole-building simulation
tools was focused on the building plaster containing PCM. The authors investigated
various fusion temperature ranges of PCM in order to optimize night and day
performance in summer conditions characteristic for Latvian summers. The PCM
effect on the whole-building energy performance during the heating season was
investigated as well. The results demonstrated that an application of PCMs in
Latvian climatic conditions may help with natural cooling of the building by sta-
bilizing the internal room temperature variations during summer days. This is a
subject to sufficient precooling conditions during the night. Correspondingly, PCM
usage was found useful in stabilizing indoor temperature during the heating season.

6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building

Envelopes—Future Challenges

Current developments in areas of building envelopes and PCM heat storage tech-
nologies have generated a demand for numerical tools to support the decisions of
architects, builders, or mechanical system designers in choosing optimum config-
uration of building components. That is why before PCM-enhanced building
envelopes become routinely used standard building systems in different climatic
zones, computer models need to be able to accurately predict thermal and energy
performance of buildings containing PCM. This will allow a development of a new
generation of building construction standards and code energy requirements, which
will support wider application of these technologies. Finally, a larger number of
building applications will increase production volume in this area, reducing prices.
However, to get to this point, computer models used for analysis of PCM-
enhanced building envelopes need to undergo a serious transition improving overall
confidence of their users. We all understand that development and validation of
numerical models supporting analysis of PCM-enhanced building systems is
challenging due to the nonlinear nature of the heat transfer phenomena in PCM-
6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes—Future Challenges 217

enhanced building envelope components. In addition, thermal analysis and

design of PCM-enhanced building envelopes is a relatively difficult task, because
PCMs used in these applications, need to go through a complete phase transition
during 24-h time periods in order to be fully effective. It is also widely known that,
in case of the PCM-enhanced building envelopes, exterior climatic conditions (such
as ambient temperature and solar radiation) are not always“fully cooperative”,
staying within the range required to enable full phase-transition processes (Kośny
et al. 2012a). Other technical issues such as lack of proper material characteristics
for PCM-enhanced building materials, or complex multi-dimensional heat transfer
in great majority of building envelopes, add complexity to this problem—see
Kośny and Kossecka (2002). Lastly, in large number of published studies, it has
been assumed that the entire heat transported through the PCM-enhanced building
envelopes is available at approximately the same temperature for both, the melting
and solidification processes. However, this assumption only applies to the paraffinic
PCMs. That is why, for proper designing of PCM systems, it is crucial that this
temperature range, or separate temperature ranges for melting and freezing, are
precisely known and adequately used in numerical work.
All of the above challenges cannot be used as an excuse for an application of
simplistic numerical models leading to poor overall accuracy of computer simu-
lations. Unfortunately, according to the IEA Annex 23 (2011), today’s confidence
in available simulation tools is too low to justify their use in performance predic-
tions of buildings containing PCM. Moreover, it has been found that overall
thermal behavior of PCM-enhanced materials and systems used in building enve-
lopes is poorly known, which by itself generates essential unknowns in any
numerical analysis. In addition, in case of many numerical models, simulation
results can be considered as suspicious, since they have not been rigorously enough
validated against experimental results. It is also known that in many performance
studies, materials’ characteristics used in modeling have been too simplified to
realistically describe the complete physics needed to predict long-term perfor-
mance. As a result, serious steps need to be taken now to raise standard require-
ments for PCM model development and benchmarking, with hope that this process
will improve the confidence of the future users. The following sections will discuss
several crucial problems that should be addressed in the future by the scientific
community, to improve overall confidence in results of thermal and energy simu-
lations of the PCM-enhanced building envelope technologies.

6.6.1 Material Characteristics

One of the key problems, faced even before starting the modeling process, is
associated with the characterization of PCMs themselves. In building applications,
arrays of the PCM pouches and composite PCM materials are two favored methods
for exterior thermal envelopes. Gypsum boards and plasters remain primarily
selection of choice for other inner building fabric components. In these forms,
218 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

PCMs can be incorporated into a building using similar techniques as used for any
building sheathing systems or thermal insulations, which would provide a seamless
integration. Unluckily, thermal characteristics in case of a large number of these
materials are rather difficult to characterize.
One of the most important factors effecting the accuracy of thermal modeling of
PCM-enhanced building systems is quality of enthalpy data used in numerical
analysis. Typically, PCM modelers use enthalpy data developed for pure PCMs
during DSC measurements. However, this type of physical characteristics can be a
source of significant inaccuracies. Please keep in mind that PCM-enhanced building
products are seldom high-quality, pure substances. Most commonly, PCM-
enhanced building envelopes utilize PCM products which are complex mixtures
with fire retardants, nucleation additives, thickening agents, and thermal conduc-
tivity enhancers. The above facts definitely limit usefulness of DSC testing pro-
cedures for development of thermal characteristics, necessary for thermal
simulations of PCM-enhanced building envelopes. It is strongly recommended that
only physical characteristics developed for analyzed PCM-enhanced building
products are used in numerical analysis. The T-history method or dynamic heat
flow meter apparatus testing can be utilized for this purpose. As mentioned earlier,
both of them enable testing of non-homogenous products containing PCM.
The second very important factor effecting the accuracy of PCM simulations is a
need for usage of separate enthalpy data for melting and freezing. There are three
following major reasons for this constraint:
• Frequently measured notable differences between melting and freezing energies
• Hysteresis effect in large number of commonly used PCMs
• Different thermal conductivity values for melted and solid PCMs.
IEA Annex 23 (2011) reported that melting and freezing enthalpies can easily
differ by more than 15 % in the case of composite PCMs. This fact is difficult to
explain from the perspective of the energy conservation law. However, according to
IEA Annex 23, there is a hypothesis that some energy might be stored mechanically
by the deformation of the matrix as a consequence of the PCM dilatation. Addi-
tionally, in some PCMs, the wide temperature ranges for phase-transition processes
weaken the division between latent and sensible heat, making difficult precise
estimation of the latent heat–temperature correlation. It is also good to remember
that, in some cases, PCMs may stay in supercooled stage during the entire thermal
cycle. Finally, in most PCMs, thermal conductivity values are different for liquid
and solid phases. All these facts make relatively difficult to distinguish between
sensible and latent heat. More accurate laboratory measurement procedures are still
in development to help in better understanding above-described physical processes.
In addition, from almost all commonly used PCM compounds, only paraffins do
not demonstrate notable hysteresis between the cooling and heating processes. The
hysteresis phenomenon is not fully explained yet, due to a complex interaction
between the nucleation process, progressive dissolution, glass transition, or meta-
stable crystalline phases—IEA Task 23 (2011). In case of numerical analysis of the
PCM-enhanced envelopes, it is critical to precisely know onset temperatures for
6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes—Future Challenges 219

melting and solidification. In whole-building simulations, both these parameters

determine a number of days with either a full or a partial phase-transition (see
Kośny et al. 2012b). For PCMs with notable hysteresis, an application of simplified
models using a single enthalpy curve (typically for melting) may lead to significant
errors in energy performance analysis based on incorrect assumptions regarding the
PCM’s regeneration potential during the night.

6.6.2 Understanding of Long-Term Performance

Characteristics

Since different configurations of PCM-enhanced building envelopes can be located

in different parts of the building, these technologies have to be often individually
designed in order to survive different sets of environmental factors specific for
each considered location . The most common environmental factors effecting long-
term performance of building envelopes include the following:
• High and low peak temperatures,
• Daily temperature swings,
• UV exposure,
• Hygrothermal processes, and
• Mechanical stresses.
Although some building shell components may be designed to perform
according to a single required task, the modern building envelopes must usually
fulfill many functions. First and foremost, building envelopes serve as environ-
mental barriers and prime construction components of buildings. They must resist
all environmental loads such as wind, rain, snow, dynamic and static service and
seismic loads, effectively protecting building interior from exterior environment.
That means, future numerical models focused on long-term energy performance of
the PCM-enhanced building envelope systems have to combine lifetime perfor-
mance characteristics of all building envelope components including PCM
products.
Long-term performance of building materials as estimated for the length of a
service lifetime is usually considered as one of the key building component char-
acteristics. At the same time, aging factors for a large number of building materials
such as some thermal insulations, roof finish materials, concretes, ceramic
masonry, and wood framing have been already thoroughly investigated and they are
well described in the engineering literature. It is also well known that aging-based
deterioration of performance characteristics may influence thermal performance of
all building envelopes, including those containing PCMs. A good example of these
processes is aging of some plastic foams, caused by release of the blowing agent to
surrounding atmosphere. This process increases foam thermal conductivity making
older foams less insulating, which is followed by higher overall heat conduction
through the building envelope component. It is good to remember that an increase
220 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

of heat conduction can be also caused by hygrothermal processes in building

envelopes. Moisture accumulation in thermal insulations, layers of porous materi-
als, or sheathing boards increases their thermal conductivity, which impairs their
overall thermal performance. It is recommended that in long-term energy perfor-
mance analysis of PCM-enhanced envelopes, all above-described processes, asso-
ciated with material aging and long-term impact of moisture accumulation, were
included in numerical models.
Finally, PCMs in building envelopes represent integral parts of the building
structure, in contrary to PCMs used in heat storage containers, heat exchangers,
hydronic tubing, etc. The major difference is that in building envelopes, PCM
systems cannot be freely replaced or repaired in case of their failure. They have to
remain fully functional as long as building is in operation.
Considering that building life span is usually over 50 years, this fact imposes
serious long-term durability requirements on the PCM-enhanced building envelope
technologies.
In Europe, the main long-term durability criteria for PCMs were introduced in
2004. As defined in the RAL quality mark,17 they are as follows:
• Phase-transition heat as a function of temperature,
• The cyclic reproducibility of the heat storage process, and
• The thermal conductivity of the PCM.
Nevertheless, long-term performance deterioration processes in large number of
PCMs and PCM-enhanced products are widely acknowledged today, and well
investigated for basic PCMs, they have not been, however, routinely incorporated
yet into numerical performance predictions of building envelope components.
The main reason is that specific long-term performance characteristics of
PCM-enhanced building envelopes have not been fully investigated so far. More
experimental and theoretical work is needed in this area.

6.6.3 Validation of Computer Models

The validation of PCM modeling algorithms is also a challenging task. Keep in mid
that older numerical algorithms enabling PCM simulations haven’t been originally
developed as thermal analysis tools for building applications and therefore they
haven’t been validated for building applications. That is why it is critical today that
in case of PCM-enhanced building envelopes, computer models were validated
using experimental data both from system-scale experiments and from the whole-
building testing. According to Castell et al. (2009), there are many numerical
models for PCM-enhanced building envelopes available in the literature. However,
most of them have not been experimentally validated.

17
http://195.20.235.12/pdf/RAL-GZ_896.pdf.
6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes—Future Challenges 221

Please also keep in mind that thermal loads generated by specific building
envelope components such as walls, roofs, or windows, represent only a fraction of
a total building load. In regards to Northern American residential buildings, a
fraction of the whole building thermal loads is usually well below 25 % in case of
fenestration and below 15 % for roofs or opaque walls. That is why, very often, the
whole-building energy savings generated by PCM-enhanced building components
can be below 5 % in the whole building scale, which is well below accuracy
estimates for most of the currently used whole-building energy tools. That means,
experimental validation of whole-building computer models, used for analysis of
PCM-enhanced building envelopes, cannot be only performed based on the whole-
building energy consumption analysis. Their validation process has to be more
detailed and should include local temperature profiles and heat fluxes for building
envelope components containing PCM. It is also highly recommended that all
numerical algorithms used for PCM simulations were separately validated using
results of the system-scale experiments, before their inclusion into whole-building
energy models.
Please consider that improper validation of whole-building numerical tools, or
sometimes an absence of program validation, usually leads to conflicting energy
performance predictions, which yield a fall of confidence in numerical analysis.
According to IEA Annex 23 (2011), in case of a large number of earlier numerical
models used for PCM analysis, experimental validation was usually performed.
In addition, analytical solutions for selected periodic problems had been often used to
validate these models (Dutil et al. 2011). Unfortunately, this is not a common
practice today. In many recent publications, an accuracy of numerically generated
results is only qualitatively discussed, using comparisons with graphical results taken
from other referenced publications. Interestingly enough, among more than
250 numerical models reviewed by Dutil et al. (2011), in only one case, the authors
stated that the results were not “in good agreement with those found in the refer-
ences.” The above situation is a consequence of a widely reported lack of clear
standard requirements and accuracy recommendations regulating development and
validation of computer models used for analysis of PCM-enhanced building enve-
lope systems.
A lack of respected, widely used, and well-validated whole-building energy
models, capable to simulate PCM-enhanced building envelopes, leads to serious
problems with justification of energy savings potential for building materials con-
taining PCMs. It is important to mention that these facts affect in the same way both
governmental energy policies for the buildings’ sector, as well as manufactures of
PCM-enhanced building products. That is why it might be beneficial to consider a
collaborative international effort focused on development of special research pro-
jects focused on experimental validation of selected, most popular computer tools
for whole-building energy analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes. These
projects could be jointly financed by governments and industry in countries of
largest market potential for the PCM building product applications.
222 6 Thermal and Energy Modeling …

6.6.4 Required Quality and Complexity of System-Scale

and Whole-Building Computer Models

As stated in earlier sections, PCM-enhanced building envelopes are integral com-

ponents of the building fabric and they are exposed to the same group of physical
processes as the other parts of building envelope. That means, all computer models
developed for analysis of the PCM-enhanced building envelopes need to be able to
analyze these processes as well. Below, there are listed the most important factors
effecting accuracy of thermal and energy performance modeling of building
envelopes:
1. Thermal bridging and multi-dimensional heat transfer
2. Air leakage and air ventilation through internal cavities within building
enclosures
3. Hygrothermal processes
4. Variable physical characteristics of materials.
Typically, system-scale thermal performance analysis of building envelopes
requires at least consideration of multi-dimensional heat transfer effects generated
by structural components.
In addition, due to common complex geometries of arrays of CPM containers
(which are sometimes used in building envelopes), heat flow in their vicinities is not
one-dimensional. When taking into account additional thermal bridging caused by
structural and attachment components, it is obvious that, heat transfer in PCM-
enhanced envelopes may have a strong three-dimensional character (Kośny et al.
2010a; Childs and Stovall 2012).
As air leakage through the building enclosure can have a significant impact on
heating and cooling loads, it is crucial to include this process in whole-building
analysis of PCM-enhanced building envelopes. The good news is that most of the
widely used whole-building energy models such as EnergyPlus, ESP-r, or TRNSYS
enable analysis of air leakage effects. The only problem is a usage of realistic levels
of air leakage in whole-building energy analysis. More difficult to analyze are
thermal effects generated within internal ventilated cavities. Several advanced roof
and wall configurations containing vented air cavities combined with an application
of PCMs have been developed and tested in the past (Kośny et al. 2010b).
Numerical representation of thermal processes taking place in the above structures
is quite challenging and usually requires CFD analysis combined with system-scale
performance testing, before development of the computer algorithm (Stovall and
Karagiozis 2004).
It is already well known that moisture transport processes within building
envelopes may significantly affect the overall energy balance of the building (see
Desta and Roels 2010). Bear in mind that in comparison with the older buildings,
currently used building envelope components, due reduced transmission losses, are
exposed to notably lower levels of energy transport. In these circumstances, an
importance of potential moisture issues tends to rise not only because energy
6.6 Modeling of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes—Future Challenges 223

conservation requirements, but also because potential long-term durability con-

cerns. The most important moisture sources are wetting during the construction
phase, wind-driven rain water leakage, local moisture condensation, and moisture
accumulation due to vapor diffusion and convection. In case of PCM-enhanced
building envelopes, where very dynamic heat transfer processes take place, mois-
ture accumulation problems may occur prevalent. Very often, these problems may
be associated with the envelope cladding, weather resistive barriers, installation
details, or just climatic conditions. That is why, a development of hygrothermal
models capable to analyze PCMs would be very important for the future long-term
performance predictions of the PCM-enhanced building envelopes. Several
hygrothermal simulation tools have been developed in the last decades to analyze
the moisture response of building envelopes (Pedersen 1990; Karagiozis 1993;
Künzel 1994; Grunewald 1997). However, at the present time only, the WUFI
family of hygrothermal models offers a capability for numerical analysis of
PCM-enhanced building envelopes.18
Last but not least, variable physical characteristics of many materials used to
construct building envelopes may play important role in accuracy of thermal and
energy performance simulations. Some of these materials may have temperature-
dependent physical properties in a similar way to PCMs. There is also a second
group of materials having switchable physical characteristics. Best-known appli-
cations from this group are switchable roofing membranes and electrochromic or
thermo-chromic windows with variable optical properties.19,20 It is also well known
that aging-based deterioration of performance characteristics of materials may
influence long-term energy performance of all building envelopes, including those
containing PCMs. Since PCMs can be integral parts of these technologies, it is
recommended that, in such cases, all of the above factors related with variable
physical characteristics are included into the system-scale and whole-building-scale
computer models.

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http://www.pcm-ral.de/en/products/planungs-und-simulationsprogramme.html.
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Chapter 7
Basic Building Envelope Products
Containing PCM and Related Patents

7.1 Introduction

For variety of climatic conditions, PCM-enhanced building envelope products are

widely considered as prospective building technologies which can help in close
future to achieve peak-hour load and HVAC energy consumption reductions. As
discussed in previous chapters, notable energy savings can be accomplished in
residential and commercial buildings, by means of variety of applications utilizing
external envelopes, as well as internal building fabric technologies having capa-
bility of sensible and latent heat accumulation. Building components with phase
transition ability are allowing large amounts of heat to be stored or released due to
the latent heat of fusion or solidification. It has been also demonstrated that with
the market arrival of different forms of PCMs implemented in gypsum boards,
plaster, concrete, thermal insulation, building membranes, or other board products,
latent heat storage can control the building thermal response even in case of
lightweight structures.
The heat capacity of lightweight construction buildings can be significantly
increased by including latent heat storage materials into the building envelope
surfaces in addition to the interior building components. The use of PCMs in
construction materials in a passive way is relatively not new. There were several
moderately successful attempts in the 1970s and 1980s to utilize different types of
organic and inorganic PCMs to reduce peak loads and heating and cooling energy
consumption (Balcomb 1979; Hawes et al. 1990; Salyer et al. 1985). These
investigations focused on impregnating concrete, gypsum, or ceramic masonry with
salt hydrates or paraffinic hydrocarbons.
Several researchers have investigated methods for impregnating gypsum wall-
board and other architectural materials with PCMs (Salyer and Sircar 1989; Shapiro
et al. 1987; Babich et al. 1994; Banu et al. 1998). First application of this type tested
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, were PCMs installed directly on interior
building surfaces (Drake 1978; Tomlinson and Herbele 1990; Tomlinson et al. 1992;

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 235

J. Kośny, PCM-Enhanced Building Components, Engineering Materials
and Processes, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14286-9_7
236 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Stovall and Tomlinson 1995). Masonry blocks or other ceramic building materials
impregnated with a PCM have been also used in building construction for decades.
An incorporation of PCMs in concrete or ceramic masonry can be a complex
technological process. Please notice that great majority of PCMs used in building
envelope applications need to go through a complete phase transition during 24-h time
periods in order to be fully effective. This is why it is crucial that the temperature in the
location where PCM is installed is circulating above and below the PCM functional
temperature range. In addition, there are several durability concerns known for PCM-
enhanced masonry and ceramic products. Some of these concerns include volume
changes during melting and freezing, slow heat transfer rates of inorganic PCM
products, problems of PCM leakage, and adverse effects on the physical properties of
the PCM carrier materials. One of the simplest methods for addition of PCM to the
concrete or gypsum mixtures is the usage of microencapsulated PCM. Different
manufacturing techniques, followed with thermal performance of gypsum wallboards
and concrete blocks containing PCM, have been discussed by Kudhair and Farid
(2004), Zalba et al. (2003), Hauer et al. (2005), and Cabeza et al. (2008). In the past,
variety of PCMs of different phase transition characteristics had been considered for
building applications. However, today, after several decades of laboratory testing and
full-scale trials, the most popular are microencapsulated paraffinic hydrocarbons.
Also, PCM-enhanced gypsum boards are widely considered as the most popular
building materials using latent heat thermal storage.
In addition, in early 2000s, an innovative concept of the PCM-enhanced building
envelope insulation was proposed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA. It is
based on incorporating the microencapsulated PCM into different types of fiber
insulations and plastic foams (Kośny et al. 2006, 2007). This application is counter
intuitive, because it deliberately restrains energy transport between the PCM and both
the conditioned space and the exterior environment (Khudhair and Farid 2004).
However, the following research demonstrated that PCMs significantly modify
thermal characteristics of such insulations and thus control the temperature profile and
overall heat exchange within the building envelope components. In some configu-
rations, this can reduce the net energy transported through the interior envelope
surfaces; in others, it changes the time when the peak energy crosses that boundary. In
most air-conditioning operations, nighttime precooling is a well-established energy
savings method. In case of PCM application, the time delay can prove especially
valuable, in economic terms, when utilities offer different peak-time and off-peak-time
electricity rates. From the energy consumption perspective, the air-conditioning
system can operate more efficiently (less costly) during the time of the shifted space-
conditioning loads. Using a similar load shifting approach, Zhang and Medina of
University of Kansas, USA, developed a thermally enhanced wood frame wall that
integrated a paraffinic PCM via macro-encapsulating (Zhang et al. 2005).
Today, great majority of market and economic studies concentrate mostly on
PCM manufacturing, microencapsulation, and basic packaging. Production of PCM-
enhanced building envelope products is still considered as a gray sphere between
chemical and construction materials’ industries. After decades of laboratory testing
and field trials of different PCMs, organic PCM applications represent high market
7.1 Introduction 237

share in terms of value, mostly due to their high availability and an excellent
durability, while inorganic PCMs represent more concentrated consumption in terms
of volume. Traditionally, a widespread usage in various building applications can be
observed for paraffinic PCMs with convenient melting points, chemical stability, and
capability for microencapsulation. Current developments in area of bio-based PCMs,
derived from plant or animal base, contribute added advantage of lower flammability
and high biodegradability over the organic products.
The main growth drivers for the PCM market worldwide are energy savings,
occupants’ comfort, temperature control, environment friendliness, and wide range
of other applications. It is estimated that the building and construction sector rep-
resents the largest share of the PCM market today, followed by space-conditioning
applications. According to Markets and Markets Research,1 the global PCM market
is estimated to grow from $460 million in 2013 to $1150 million by 2018, at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 20.1 % for the same period. It is also
anticipated that reducing price of PCM and R&D for novel materials will create new
opportunities and will drive the market in the future. The highest growth is observed
in Europe where most of PCM companies have been already well established due to
relatively high energy cost and several government incentive programs in energy
storage areas. North America is another market with significant R&D potential,
where a number of major players exist. Growing number of PCM applications,
constantly increasing cost of energy, and regulations imposed by governments
worldwide are attracting the companies. In line with the mentioned above Markets
and Markets Research report, Europe is expected to remain the largest PCM market
(in general) in terms of both volume and value by 2018. However, it is also believed
that the great growth potential for building applications exists also in Asiatic
countries (China, India, Korea, Japan), Australia, and mid-eastern region.
One of the major barriers reported today for extensive application of the latent
heat technologies in buildings is their relatively high cost. The most effective way
for cost reductions seems to be an application of less costly source PCMs, com-
bined with the overall system optimization. A variety of successful applications
have been described in technical literature for PCM-enhanced building envelope
systems. This chapter is mainly focused on most popular building construction
products containing PCM. Associated patents are discussed as well.

7.2 PCM–Concrete Blends and Ready Plaster Blends

Containing PCM

A large number of experiments worldwide demonstrated that in buildings where

PCM is imbedded into the interior plaster wall finish, it is possible to effectively
manage building space-conditioning and associated energy consumption. In these

1
http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/advanced-phase-change-material-pcm.asp.
238 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

situations, due to large heat exchange surfaces, internal space temperature can be
effectively controlled by PCM with the functional phase-change temperature range
close to the room set-point temperature. This means that significantly less energy
can be required to maintain expected thermal comfort level. It has been already
proven that the heat accumulation capability of a typical plaster wall finish can be
significantly increased by adding microencapsulated PCM. In passive applications,
PCM phase transition processes are initiated by changes of the interior space
temperature. However, in active systems, the PCM can be activated by using
dynamic ventilation strategies or through an application of integrated hydronic
technologies, which usually include capillary tube mats or pipe heat exchangers.
In addition, work performed by Fraunhofer IBP, Germany, demonstrated that
PCM can be also added to the exterior wall stucco, in order to control wall surface
temperature.2 This effect can be used for the reduction of the early morning surface
condensation, leading to development of an esthetical microbial growth (Fitz et al.
2006). A series of field experiments followed with numerical hygrothermal analysis
led to the conclusion that the potential to solve the exterior wall condensation
problem looks promising.
Several concrete and stucco ready-mix products are available right now. This
paragraph lists a number of well known, commercially available products of this
type.

7.2.1 Weber.Mur Clima® Plaster Mix3

Weber.Mur Clima® dry gypsum plaster mix is manufactured in Germany by Saint-

Gobain Weber. This preformulated product is recommended for interior plaster
applications. Weber.Mur Clima® contains microencapsulated PCM for passive
temperature control, mineral lightweight aggregates, chemical additives, and
adhesives for better workability and easier site application. The total heat capacity
of this product can be easily controlled by varying the application thickness.
Table 7.1 shows basic physical properties of this product.

7.2.2 Maxit-Clima4 Gypsum Plaster Mix

Maxit-Clima gypsum plaster containing PCM is manufactured by Maxit Deutsch-

land GmbH—a German manufacturer of construction material. Maxit Gypsum
plaster contains around 20 % by weight of microencapsulated PCM. It is usually

2
http://cse.fraunhofer.org/Portals/55819//docs/buildings-xi/kuenzel%20workshop%202.pdf.
3
http://www.sg-weber.de/fassade-wand/produkte/gipsprodukte/webermur-clima-26.html.
4
http://www.maxit-kroelpa.de/.
7.2 PCM–Concrete Blends and Ready Plaster Blends Containing PCM 239

Table 7.1 Physical

Physical property Value
properties of the Weber.Mur
Clima®—dry gypsum plaster Compressive strength ≥1.5 N/mm2
containing PCM Thermal conductivity >0.3 W/mK
Water vapor diffusion resistance factor μ 10
Shift range of the PCM (clima 23/26) About 23 °C/ca. 26 °C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM About 100 J/g
Enthalpy of fusion (Ts = 23–26 °C) 18 kJ/kg
Thermal conductivity λ(10 °C) 0.19 W/mK
Density About 0.90 g/cm3

Table 7.2 Physical

Physical property Value
properties of the Klima 544
TYNK—cement/lime plaster Compressive strength 1.8 N/mm2
containing PCM Thermal conductivity 0.47 W/mK
Water vapor diffusion resistance factor μ 14
Shift range of the PCM 26 °C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM About 100 J/g
Enthalpy of fusion 18 kJ/kg

applied with up to 15-mm-thick layer. In addition to passive applications, the Maxit-

Clima plaster can be also activated by hydronic water-based systems. Latent storage
capacity of the Maxit-Clima plaster is around 70 Wh/m2. This PCM-enhanced
product is available in three phase transition ranges: 21, 23, and 26 °C with
approximate heat of fusion of around 18 kJ/kg, and density of about 1340 kg/m3.

7.2.3 Klima 544 TYNK5 Cement–Lime Plaster Mix

A similar ready-mix plaster product for internal applications, called Klima 544
TYNK, was offered in the past by the building materials manufacturer CSV from
Poland. Dry plaster mix Klima 544 TYNK is based on a proprietary blend of
cement, lime, a mixture of mineral aggregates and fillers, chemical additives, and
plasticizers for better workability. About 20 % by weigh of PCM is used for local
heat storage and temperature control. It is good to notice, here that a large number
of PCM-enhanced concrete and plaster ready-mix products use the same type of
microencapsulated paraffinic PCM manufactured by BASF. Physical properties of
the plaster made with use of the Klima 544 TYNK are presented in Table 7.2.

5
www.csv.pl.
240 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

7.2.4 ENERCIEL

Interior Decorative Coating Featuring Organic PCM Winco Technologies ENERCIEL

decorative coating is manufactured by WINCO Technologies SAS in Tregueux,
France. ENERCIEL is a ready-to-use decorative coating recommended for interior
walls and ceiling applications. ENERCIEL contains 50 % by weight of the bio-based
microencapsulated PCM (enthalpy—184 J/g) developed by MCI Technologies and the
remaining 50 % of proprietary additives to optimize application and its long-term
durability. ENERCIEL latent heat storage capacity is 51 Wh/m2 for 3-mm thick layer
and can be adjusted with different thicknesses (for example 102 Wh/m2 for 6-mm and
153 Wh/m2 for 9-mm). ENERCIEL has been designed to absorb heat in the temperature
range of 23 °C–26 °C and to diffuse heat in the range of 22 °C–18 °C.

7.3 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Panel Products

Energy storage capabilities of internal surfaces in buildings can be enhanced by

applications of different types of wall/ceiling/floor board or panel products containing
PCM. The main purpose of these applications is direct capture of dynamic thermal
loads (such as, for example, solar energy transmitted through the fenestration) and
indirect improvement of human comfort by decreasing the frequency of internal air
temperature swings and maintaining temperature closer to the desired temperature for
a longer period of time. Several decades of research and development work worldwide
demonstrated that wall and ceiling board products can be successfully manufactured
to contain in most cases up to 30 % PCM by weight, thus enabling these common
building materials to serve as effective thermal energy storage devices. It is good to
mention that there are also available several similar composite products with PCM
loads higher from 50 %. A large group of PCM-enhanced board products is com-
mercially available today for building applications. This section presents examples of
commonly used wall and ceiling boards of that type.

7.3.1 Knauf PCM Smartboard®

Smartboard® is the interior plasterboard product manufactured by Knauf, Germany.

It is commercially available for drywall construction applications with around 30 %
mass fraction of microencapsulated paraffinic PCM manufacture by BASF. Latent
heat capacity of the 15-mm-thick Smartboard® product is around 90 Wh/m2, with
two available melting points: 23 and 26 °C. Table 7.3 presents physical properties
of the Smartboard® gypsum plaster board.
During last decade, Smartboards® have been successfully installed in a number
of buildings mostly in Europe. These include the 3 Liter-Haus in Ludwigshafen,
7.3 PCM-Enhanced Gypsum Board and Panel Products 241

Table 7.3 Physical properties of the Knauf Smartboard® containing PCM

Physical property Value
Specific heat 1.2 kJ/kg K
Thermal conductivity at 20 °C 0.20 W/mK
Thermal conductivity at 35 °C 0.19 W/mK
Shift range of the PCM 23 or 26 °C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM About 110 J/g
Latent heat capacity ΔH 330 kJ/m2

Table 7.4 Physical properties of the National Gypsum ThermalCORE® gypsum board containing
PCM
Product picture Physical property Value
Specific heat 1.2 kJ/kg K
Board density 800 kg/m3
Flame spread ASTM E84 Class B
Combustibility per ASTM E136 Combustible
Shift range of the PCM 23 or 26 °C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM About 110 J/g
Latent heat capacity ΔH 251 kJ/m2

Badenova office building in Offenburg, hotel and office complex in Berlin, Haus der
Gegenwart in Munich, and the Sonnenschiff Passivhaus Bürokomplex in Freiburg.6
The above German installations have successfully demonstrated the use of
PCM-enhanced gypsum board product as a component in a larger design goal of
reducing building space-conditioning energy consumption to a near-zero level.

7.3.2 National Gypsum ThermalCORE®

In 2009, National Gypsum, USA, was the first company to introduce the
PCM-enhanced gypsum boards to the North American construction material mar-
ket. National Gypsum ThermalCORE® panels use Micronal PCM manufactured by
BASF. The PCM micropellets absorb and distribute heat energy as the wax melts
and solidifies as room temperatures fluctuate around the PCM melting point. Two
board options are available, with PCM changing phase at 23 or 26 °C. Table 7.4
summarizes thermal properties of the ThermalCORE® gypsum boards. Unlike other
PCM-enhanced gypsum boards which use paper facing, ThermalCORE® has
fiberglass skins, but otherwise looks no different than standard drywall. California’s

6
http://www.micronal.de/portal/load/fid443847/BASF_Micronal_PCM_Brochure%202009_
English.pdf.
242 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Table 7.5 Physical properties of the Saint-Gobain Rigips Alba®Balance plaster panels containing
PCM
Product picture Physical property Value
Board-specific heat 28.3 kJ/m2 K
Board weight 25 kg/m2
Board density 1000 kg/m2
Board flexural strength 8.8 kg/cm2
Compressive strength 3.9 N/mm2
Share strength 1.4 N/mm2
Thermal conductivity λ 0.27 W/mK
Water vapor diffusion resistance μ 5–10
PCM phase transition temperatures 23 or 26 °C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM About 110 J/g
Latent heat capacity ΔH 300 kJ/m2 (23 °C PCM)
330 kJ/m2 (26 °C PCM)

Emerging Technologies Coordinating Council and the U.S. Department of Energy’s

National Renewable Energy Laboratory performed full-scale whole-building test-
ing on this technology.7

7.3.3 Alba®Balance Plaster Panels

Interlocking PCM-enhanced Alba plaster panels are manufactured in Switzerland

by Saint-Gobain Rigips. These drywall panels are about 25 mm thick and contain
about 3 kg of microencapsulated PCM per m2. The Alba®Balance panels can be
used as interior finish boards in stud walls, wall paneling, and suspended ceilings.8
Two phase transition options of 23 and 26 °C are available with latent heat of 300
and 330 kJ/m2, respectively. According to manufacture, the whole board has the
total heat storage capacity of about 866 kJ/m2 for temperature range between 10 and
30 °C. Table 7.5 summarizes thermal properties of the Alba®Balance boards.

7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products

PCM-enhanced composite boards or panels are usually manufactured with the use
of waste wood, cellulose fibers, or fiber-reinforced mineral composites. Composite
wood-based products, also called man-made wood, include a range of derivative

7
http://www.thermalcore.info/product-info.htm.
8
http://www.rigips.ch/download/rigips_alba_balance_infobro_de_low.pdf.
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products 243

wood products which are manufactured by binding the wood strands, particles,
fibers, or veneers together with most often adhesives to form composite materials.
Plywood and oriented strand board are probably the best-known wood-based
composites used for construction purposes today. Other recycled wood/plastic
composites, called often man-made lumber, typically consist of a 50/50 mix of
wood fibers from recovered saw dust and waste plastics that include high-density
polyethylene, PVC, and others. These materials can be formed into both solid and
hollow profiles, boards, panels, etc. Composite wood-based boards are used in
variety of applications, from home construction to commercial buildings, trans-
portation, and industrial products. They generally exhibit low moisture absorption
and high resistance to decay, insects, and UV-ray damage. Because manufacturing
processes of these man-made building products usually include a number of powder
components (i.e., fillers or fire retardants), these products are excellent PCM car-
riers containing often over 50 % by weight of the microencapsulated PCM. It is
good to mention that hollow composite products can be used to directly enclose
PCM without a need for encapsulation.

7.4.1 Wood Fiber-Based Board Products Containing PCMs

This category of building materials is listed separately because of its great potential
for PCM applications in buildings. Even though there are no available yet com-
posite PCM board products produced by major building material manufacturers, it
is a public secret that a large number of companies are experimenting with inte-
gration of PCMs to their composite wood or fiber products. One of the best-known
PCM-enhanced composite board products was manufactured in Europe by Rubi-
therm. Figure 7.1 shows the Rubitherm® FB (fiber board), which comprises a novel
type of the heat storage composite in which a PCM is bound within a fiber-based
carrier.9 The RUBITHERM® FB in which approx. 65 % of PCM is contained
provides high latent heat storage capacities of over 119 kJ/Kg10 with working
temperatures of 35 and 79 °C.
Today, plywood and oriented strand boards are the most commonly used wood-
based composite boards worldwide. All these products can be excellent carriers for
microencapsulated PCMs. Plywood is manufactured from sheets of cross-laminated
veneer and bonded under heat and pressure with durable, moisture-resistant adhe-
sives. By alternating the grain direction of the veneers from layer to layer, or “cross-
orienting,” panel strength and stiffness in both directions are maximized. Oriented
strand boards (OSBs) are wood structural panels manufactured from rectangular-
shaped strands of wood that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in layers, laid
up into mats, and bonded together with moisture-resistant, heat-cured adhesives.

9
http://www.rubitherm.de/english/pages/04c_glossary_03.htm.
10
http://www.rubitherm.com/english/pages/02c_latent_heat_fibre_boards.htm.
244 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Fig. 7.1 PCM-enhanced fiber boards manufactured by Rubitherm, Germany, and schematic of
their cross-linked internal structure—Source http://www.rubitherm.de/english/pages/04c_glossary_
03.htm

The individual layers are cross-oriented to provide strength and stiffness to the
panel. Produced in huge, continuous mats, OSB is a solid panel product of consistent
quality with no laps, gaps, or voids.
Another group of composites with great potential for the PCM-enhanced
building envelope applications are wood–cellulose–plastic composites. Keep in
mind that composite products containing recycled wood, cellulose, or plastic are
one of the prime uses for recycled plastic trash bags, waste wood fibers, and
cellulose, where wood and cellulose fibers are used as a structural reinforcement.
Manufacturers claim that products produced with recycled wood/cellulose/plastics,
etc. are more durable than conventional pressure-treated wood and wood-based
products. Alternatively, it is also possible to manufacture similar engineered
products from the bamboo waste, rye straw, wheat straw, rice straw, hemp stalks,
kenaf stalks, or sugar cane residue. In these cases, composites contain no actual
wood but other vegetable fibers.

7.4.2 RACUS® PCM Wallboard—A Multi-layer Composite

Sandwich System Containing PCM

The RACUS® PCM Wallboard is a novel, passively working, internal sheathing

board that offers all attributes of the conventional gypsum boards such as high fire,
water, and mechanical impact resistance, with the ability to add thermal energy
storage capability to the place of its application. As shown in Fig. 7.2, the RACUS®
PCM wallboard comprises of an aluminum honeycomb core with cavities filled
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products 245

1 1

2 2
3
3 3

Fig. 7.2 Multilayer PCM-enhanced sandwich board with aluminum honeycomb core—Source
http://www.datumphasechange.com/index.php?racus-pcm-wallboard. 1 Aluminum Honeycomb,
2 RACUS® PCM infill, 3 Magnoboard®, 4 PIR or Phenolic Foam

Table 7.6 Basic physical properties of the RACUS® PCM wallboards

PCM weight content (kg/m2) 1.5 4.0
Total panel thickness 22 mm, panel size: 1.2 m × 2.4 m
and dimensions
Sandwich components 6-mm Magnoboard—10-mm aluminum honeycomb
filled with PCM—6-mm Magnoboard
Latent heat storage capacity (kg/m2) 165 440

with microencapsulated PCM. For use on internal partition applications, the alu-
minum–PCM layer is sandwiched between two layers of the magnesium oxide
(MgO) and magnesium chloride (MgCl)-based construction board product11 called
Magnoboard®. For external wall applications, foam insulation layer can be used on
one side. The MgO-based board does not contain any organic solvents, formal-
dehyde, asbestos, oils, or other toxic substances that can have a negative envi-
ronmental impact. According to manufacture, the RACUS® PCM Wallboard
outperforms cement-based boards and regular gypsum plasterboard. This is due to
its superior performance characteristics and environmental benefits, including
100 % water-resistant, high fire resistance, excellent acoustics, and exterior and
interior applications.
The RACUS® PCM Wallboards are manufactured by the Datum Phase Change
Limited in Clavering, UK. Two PCM weight load levels are offered: 1.5 and 4.0 kg/m2.
Table 7.6 summarizes basic physical properties of the RACUS® PCM Wallboards.

11
http://www.mgoltd.com/January2009.pdf.
246 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Fig. 7.3 Installation of the ThermaCool® wallboards (left). A schematic of tongue and groove
connection between the wall board panels is presented on right—Source http://www.
datumphasechange.com/index.php?home

7.4.3 ThermaCool® Wallboards and Mineral Ceiling

Tiles—Manufactured by Datum Phase Change
Ltd., UK

Datum Phase Change Ltd. is a UK manufacturer specializing in incorporating PCM

into building products under the brand name ThermaCool®. PCM-enhanced wall-
boards and ceiling tiles are offered for use in both new building construction and
retrofit of commercial and residential buildings. ThermaCool® panels are easy to
install and are cost competitive comparing to similar wall facing products. They
offer a lightweight thermal mass enhancement for lightweight wood- or steel-
framed structures. They can be also used in retrofitted buildings, in situations where
the original heat accumulation effects are tempered by added levels of thermal
insulation. Figure 7.3 shows installation of the ThermaCool® wallboards on the
light-gage steel-framed wall. The size of the boards is 0.6 × 1.0 m, and thickness is
25 mm. The ThermaCool® wallboards contain microencapsulated organic PCM of
melting point at 23 °C. The weight of a single board is around 25 kg/m2. According
to the manufacture specs, the total heat capacity of the ThermaCool® wall board is
around 157 Wh/m2.
The ThermaCool® wallboards and ceiling tiles incorporate organic microen-
capsulated PCM. Datum Phase Change Ltd.—the board manufacturer—claims that,
due to unique hygrothermal properties of the ThermaCool® products, they do not
promote the growth of mold and mildew and help in humidity level control in the
surrounding environment, to improve the occupants’ comfort. Table 7.7 lists basic
physical properties of the ThermaCool® ceiling tiles.
Datum Phase Change Ltd. is also manufacturing a very unique metal ceiling tile,
which incorporates composite PCM core technology with architectural metal-faced
ceiling tiles. This product is recommended for projects where an increased thermal
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products 247

Table 7.7 Basic dimensions and physical properties of the ThermaCool® ceiling tiles
Type of ceiling tile Standard tile High thermal mass tile

Panel dimensions (mm) 600 × 600 600 × 600

Panel thickness (mm) 16 16
Panel weight (kg/m2) 11.6 12.5
PCM melting temperature (°C) 23 23
Total heat capacity (10–30 °C) (Wh/m2) 85 122
Source http://www.datumphasechange.com/index.php?specification-and-technical-1

Fig. 7.4 Perforated metal ceiling tiles containing PCM—Source Datum Phase Change Ltd., UK.
http://www.datumphasechange.com/index.php?acoustic-metal-tile2-1

storage performance is needed and the esthetic finish and excellent acoustic per-
formance of ceiling are required. As PCMs in general have a low rate of heat
conductivity, the heat capacity performance of the ThermaCool® metal ceiling tile
is accelerated through perforations in both the metal tile and infill panel—see
Fig. 7.4. This significantly increases the heat exchange rate through the ceiling
surface compared to that of a standard plain metal ceiling tile incorporating PCM.
For the temperature range of 10–30 °C, the total heat capacity of this ceiling system
is around 122 Wh/m2. Allowing the unrestricted heat flow through the ceiling,
panel perforations help in more efficient utilization of available PCM’s heat storage
capability. This technology is a winner of prestigious 2012 CIBSE Journal Passive
Product of the Year Award.12

12
http://www.datumphasechange.com/index.php?acoustic-metal-tile2-1.
248 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Fig. 7.5 CoolZone—metal ceiling tiles containing microencapsulated PCM—Source Armstrong,

UK. http://www.armstrong.com/commclgeu/eu1/uk/gb/coolzone-application.html

7.4.4 CoolZone—PCM-Enhanced Metal Ceiling Tiles

Manufactured by Armstrong, UK

In 2012, Armstrong, UK, introduced CoolZone ceiling tiles which incorporate

microencapsulated PCM into Armstrong’s plain metal ceiling tiles.13 Organic
phase-changing material encased in the metal ceiling tile stores and releases large
amounts of energy, reducing building cooling loads and, in passive applications,
maintaining a comfortable temperature level. Armstrong CoolZone ceiling tiles are
based on conventional unperforated metal ceiling tiles with addition of the 24-mm-
thick dynamic thermal core containing PCM—see Fig. 7.5. The CoolZone infill
contains about 25 % by weight of the microencapsulated PCM with a melting
temperature of 23 °C. According to manufacture, the total heat capacity of the
CoolZone tile is around 136.2 Wh/m2. The CoolZone ceiling tiles are available in
600 × 600 mm modules with Tegular 8/16 or MicroLook 8/16 edge details.14 Each
board weights approximately 9 kg, which translates to about 25 kg/m2. The
CoolZone ceiling tiles can be hanged with use of the standard exposed grid systems
and can be installed in conjunction with other standard ceiling tiles.

7.4.5 Ecco Building Boards (EBBs)—Unfired Clay Building

Boards Containing Microencapsulated PCM

For centuries, in many climates worldwide, clay has been widely accepted as an
inexpensive and relatively durable material serving as structural components and at
the same time adding thermal mass to buildings. The EBBs are utilizing this old

13
http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/specification/product-anatomy/-armstrong-ceilings-debuts-
energy-saving-coolzone-system-at-ecobuild/8627739.article.
14
http://www.armstrong.com/content2/commclgeu/files/71628.pdf.
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products 249

construction practice. They are original alternative to the widely used today gypsum
plasterboard interior finish. The EBB board technology offers practicality of the
conventional drywall, combined with unique properties of clay. According to EBB,
a series of field experiments demonstrated that the 16-mm-thick unfired clay boards
add significantly to the thermal mass of a structure and passively control the relative
humidity of the building interior, by acting as a moisture buffering system. The
EBB’s boards contain about 3 kg/m2 of microencapsulated PCM with melting point
at 23 °C. Their overall weight is around 15 kg/m2. The EBB clay boards have a
total heat storage capacity of 110 Wh/m2 for a small 5 K temperature change over
the melting point.
The EBB board consists of a 4-mm-thick fiber board backing sandwiched with a
10-mm paper honeycomb structure filled with a mixture of clay and PCM micro-
capsules. The EBB boards are finished with a thin layer of clay plaster to allow
plaster coatings to be applied. PCM-enhanced EBB boards are recommended to be
used in wall and ceiling applications.

7.4.6 PCM-Enhanced Composite Energain® Boards

Manufactured by DuPont™

In 2006, DuPon introduced 5.26-mm-thick Energain® boards, which contain par-

affinic PCM with melting point around 22 °C. It is an easy-to-install 1.0 × 1.2-m.
wall and ceiling panel system utilizing polymer-based shape-stabilized PCM, faced
with two layers of aluminum foil. The Energain® boards are usually installed behind
the plasterboard in walls or ceilings—see Table 7.8 for physical properties. In
passive applications, the Energain® boards work by absorbing ambient heat as room
temperature rises (at around 22°), storing it until the temperature drops again (at
around 18°), and then releasing it back into the room. According to manufacturer, in
buildings with air-conditioning DuPont™, Energain® can reduce cooling energy

Table 7.8 Basic dimensions and thermal characteristics of the Energain® boards containing
paraffinic PCM
Board dimensions 1000 × 1198 × 5.2 mm
Board area weight 24.5 kg/m2
PCM % weight content 60 %
PCM melting point 21.7 °C
Latent heat (0–30 °C) 70 kJ/kg
Total heat storage capacity (0– 140 kJ/kg
30 °C)
Solid phase thermal 0.18 W/mK
conductivity
Liquid phase thermal 0.14 W/mK
conductivity
250 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

costs by up to 35 % and help to reduce heating bills in the winter by up to 15 %.15

Comparing Energain® boards with traditional thermal mass solutions such as con-
crete, a research study performed by Lyon University, France, has demonstrated that
5 mm of the Energain® boards shows thermal response similar to 20–40 mm of
concrete, depending on set-point temperature.16

7.4.7 EcoCore Floor Panels Containing PCM

In 2012, Tate Access Floors, Inc., a U.S. manufacturer and distributor of raised
access flooring and in-floor cooling solutions, introduced its new EcoCore Phase
Change Panel.17 Tate Access Floors, Inc. is headquartered south of Baltimore in
Jessup, Maryland, USA, and is a member of the Kingspan Group of companies.
Tate’s EcoCore Phase Change Panel utilizes a cement-based composite containing
microencapsulated PCM of melting point around 23 °C. This heat-absorbing
material is enclosed within the 610 × 610 × 41-mm welded steel floor panels—see
Fig. 7.6. Each panel contains about 1.1 kg of organic PCM, and it can absorb about
51 Wh of energy during the phase-change process. By embedding the PCM in
cement and then fully encapsulating it in a steel-welded enclosure, the phase-
changing core is protected from the external environment. EcoCore Phase Change
Panels are recommended for use in office buildings. The PCM-enhanced EcoCore
panel is the recipient of a 2012 Product Innovation Award from Architectural
Products Magazine.18

Fig. 7.6 EcoCore raised floor

system containing
microencapsulated PCM—
Source Tate Access Floor Inc

15
http://energain.fr/Energain/fr_FR/index.html.
16
http://energain.co.uk/Energain/en_GB/assets/downloads/documentation/references/ref_Lyon_
office_building.pdf.
17
http://www.tateinc.com/products/ecocore.aspx.
18
http://tateinc.com/press_ecocore_award.aspx.
7.4 PCM-Enhanced Composite Board Products 251

7.4.8 Dynamic Ecom4 Floor Tiles Containing PCM

In 2011, Spanish tile manufacturer Ceracasa19 introduced a new type of floor tiles
containing PCM. With PCM melting point around 22 °C, the Ecom4 tiles help
maintaining a floor surface temperature close to the interior set-point temperature.
Ceracasa partnered with the Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain, to develop and
test this new technology. The joined research demonstrated that in case of a 100 m2
floor application, the Ceracasa’s Ecom4 Tiles can reduce space-conditioning energy
use by about 16 %.20 The Ecom4 tiles are suitable for both floor or wall installations.

7.4.9 DELTA®-COOL 21—Floor Application of Composite

Containers with Inorganic PCM

Dörken GmbH & Co. KG—German manufacturer of innovative building materials

—developed a series of building products containing inorganic PCMs. In October
2009, one of their technologies—DELTA®-COOL 21—was demonstrated as a floor
application during the US Department of Energy Solar Decathlon.21 A research team
from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, designed and constructed the
North House, a compelling, marketable solar-powered home that made use of the
latest in high-performance building envelope technologies, system integration,
mobile communication technology, sustainable engineering, and original architec-
tural design. In this building, the interior floor assembly employed DELTA®-COOL
21, a PCM system encased in flat composite profiles that were installed under the
hardwood floor finish—see Fig. 7.7. The thermal mass of DELTA®-COOL 21
contributes to energy savings as well as to improved comfort inside the building by
reducing the effect of ambient day/night temperature swings. The US Department of
Energy’s Solar Decathlon is a biennial international competition and public event
where 20 university teams from around the world compete to design, build, and
operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient solar-powered house.

7.5 PCM-Enhanced Mats, Membranes, and Arrays

of PCM Containers

As described in earlier chapters, PCMs can be used in building envelopes in many

different forms including variety of different construction materials, including foils,
membranes, and mats, which can be either attached to or just be carried by the

19
http://www.ceracasa.com/.
20
http://inhabitat.com/energy-saving-ecom4-tiles-could-shave-16-off-your-power-bill/.
21
http://www.cosella-dorken.com/bvf-ca-en/projects/pcm/northhouse.php.
252 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Fig. 7.7 PCM-enhanced flooring technology presented during the 2009 Solar Decathlon in
Washington, DC, USA—Source Dörken GmbH & Co. KG

building structure. Concentrated PCM applications have been tested as thermal

mass components of different builfing envelope configurations in Northern Amer-
ican and European buildings for at least 40 years. Arrays of PCM containers are
allowing high thermal storage density per area of application. They are usually
utilizing plastic mats, membranes, or foils, which are excellent carriers for PCM.
Besides, these systems offer bonus benefit of dual functions, performing often as
reflective insulations or air/moisture barriers. Unfortunately, nothing goes for free
and the above applications require careful selection of used materials, excellent
hygrothermal design, identification of PCM location, and cautious estimation of
PCM amount. The section below presents several examples of these technologies.

7.5.1 BioPCmat™—Foil-Based Array of PCM Containers

Phase Change Energy Solutions of Asheboro, NC, USA, offers a wide range of
thermal energy storage products for buildings that reduce energy consumption, shift
peak demand, and enhance occupant comfort.22 BioPCmatTM is a foil-based array of
PCM containers—see Fig. 7.8. It works in the daytime by absorbing heat from solar
and internal gains and then releasing that heat during the night in order to reduce
cooling and heating loads along with energy consumption, while enhancing comfort
in the process. PCMs used by phase-change energy solutions are soy-based blends of
chemicals that change from liquid to solid and back again at different temperatures
(i.e., 22.8, 24.4, 26.1, and 29 °C), allowing the material to absorb and release heat.
BioPCMTM is the trade name for family of proprietary bio-based PCMs. Based
on different PCM loads, BioPCmatTM products are offered with the following heat
storage capacity categories23: M27 (307 kJ/m2), M51 (580 kJ/m2), and M91
(1033 kJ/m2). Lengths of these mats are 1.22 and 2.44 m. Only a single width of
0.42 m is available (typical in North America spacing between wall studs and roof
rafters). When used in buildings, the BioPCmatTM products are expected to reduce

22
http://www.phasechange.com/index.php/en/.
23
http://www.phasechange.com/index.php/en/about/biopcm-biopcmat-thermastix.
7.5 PCM-Enhanced Mats, Membranes, and Arrays of PCM Containers 253

Fig. 7.8 BioPCmatTM—Source Phase Change Energy Solutions (http://www.treehugger.com/

green-architecture/bio-based-phase-changing-material-adds-instant-thermal-mass.html)

cooling loads and HVAC energy consumption while enhancing the building’s
comfort level. Most typical applications are wall cavities, ceilings, roofs, and floors.
According to manufacture, the performance of the BioPCmatTM products is com-
parable to that of the thermal mass of up to 0.30-m-thick layer of solid concrete.

7.5.2 DELTA®-COOL 24—Foil-Based Array of PCM

Containers

Delta Cool 24 has been developed by Dörken GmbH & Co. KG, Germany, to
provide increased thermal comfort in interior spaces, especially for (extra) cooling
at high internal heat loads. This PCM technology may be integrated in walls and
ceilings to accumulate heat, thus increasing the thermal storage capacity of the
building. In this instance, salt hydrates are used as PCMs. Under the impact of heat,
the salt hydrates in DELTA®-COOL 24 change their state of aggregation from solid
to liquid as they reach their melting temperature, absorbing energy (e.g., ambient
heat) in the process. As soon as interior temperatures drop below the solidification
level, their phase changes back from liquid to solid, and they emit the previously
stored heat. DELTA®-COOL 24 can be packaged in many different forms including
PCM pouches, PCM-enhanced composite boards, and foil-based arrays of CPM
containers.24 Table 7.9 shows basic physical characteristics of the DELTA®-COOL
24 products. Maximum service temperature for DELTA®-COOL 24 products is
60 °C.

24
http://www.globalplasticsheeting.com/Portals/32796/docs/delta-cool.pdf.
254 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Table 7.9 Basic physical characteristics of the DELTA®-COOL 24 building products

PCM melting temperature range 22–28 °C
PCM crystallization temperature 22 °C
Total cooling capacity 25–40 W/m2
PCM phase transition enthalpy 158 kJ/kg = 44 Wh/kg
Density (solid) 1.6 kg/L
Density (liquid) 1.5 kg/L
Heat capacity (solid) 2.7 kJ/kg K
Heat capacity (liquid) 2.2 kJ/kg K
PCM thermal conductivity (solid) 1.12 W/mK
PCM thermal conductivity (liquid) 0.56 W/mK
Source Dörken GmbH & Co. KG, Germany

Fig. 7.9 Plastic membrane containing packets with inorganic PCM—an example of floor
application—Source Alderman Research, USA

7.5.3 Infinite R—A Triple-Layer Plastic Membrane

Containing an Array of PCM Containers

Applied Innovation Group of Macon, GA, USA, manufactures phase-changing

building membrane, where inorganic PCM is encapsulated in pouches in multi-
layer, heavy-duty nylon/PE foil, which imparts good strength, durability, and
integrity.25 Infinite R is a triple-layer membrane both flexible and tough. The
product is encased within several rows of packets sealed within the membrane, such
that if there were a puncture, damage would be limited to that particular pocket and
would not impact the rest of the material. The finished product comes in 0.40-m-
wide plastic sheets which are app. 5 mm thick. Infinite R membrane has staple tabs

25
http://www.phasechangetechnologies.com/.
7.5 PCM-Enhanced Mats, Membranes, and Arrays of PCM Containers 255

(wings) that fold out so the roll can be stapled to wall studs, floor joists, or roof
rafters—see Fig. 7.9. It is designed to intercept and store heat (energy) from solar
load or internal heat gains, which minimizes the transfer of heat from the condi-
tioned space to the unconditioned space—see: Alderman and Yarbrough (2007).

7.6 PCM-Enhanced Building Insulation

PCM-enhanced thermal insulations have been introduced by the textile industry,

and they are used today in sport apparel, protective clothes, shoes, etc. As described
in previous chapters, there have been also several successful trials as building
applications. In buildings, PCM can be directly blended with thermal insulation or
added as separate layers of concentrated product.

7.6.1 PCM-Enhanced Cellulose Fiber Insulation

from Advanced Fiber Technologies (AFT), Bucyrus,
OH, USA

AFT is one of the first insulation companies offering since 2009 a new generation of
dynamic insulations containing PCM. This material was developed during a joint
project with the U.S. Department of Energy Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL). It is a 20–25 % blend of the microencapsulated organic PCM and cel-
lulose fiber insulation. As shown in Fig. 7.10a, it does not require any additional
equipment to install using conventional blowing technology. Three-year-long lab-
oratory and small-scale field testing, performed by the ORNL’s Buildings Tech-
nology Center and AFT on PCM-enhanced cellulose, demonstrated superior energy
performance comparing with traditional insulations.26
Thanks to collaboration with Microtek Laboratories Inc., this new insulation
product is using ignition-resistant PCM. To ensure that new insulation is in full
concurrence with the existing in the U.S. code requirements, the PCM-enhanced
cellulose went through a series of flammability tests passing smolder combustion
testing and critical radiant heat-flux test—Fig. 7.10b. When the PCM microcapsules
are added at 20 % by weight level to blown cellulose insulation intended for attic
floor or wall insulation, the product conforms to ASTM C1485-00—“Standard Test
Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Exposed Attic Floor Insulation Using an
Electric Radiant Heat Energy Source”—ASTM C1485 (2000).

26
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/research/detailed_papers/PCM_enhance/content.html.
256 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Fig. 7.10 PCM-enhanced cellulose insulation: a installation process using conventional

equipment, b ASTM C1485-00 flammability testing of the PCM-enhanced blown cellulose—
Source AFT. http://www.advanced-fiber.com/dynamicci.pdf

7.7 PCM-Enhanced Window Components

The major objective of using PCM in fenestration systems is to utilize its high latent
heat of fusion to reduce the heat gain by absorbing the solar thermal load before it
reaches the indoor space. The phase-change cycle may stabilize the indoor building
temperature and reduce the heating and cooling loads. An addition of PCM systems
to the glazing enables utilization of theoretically unrelated characteristics of con-
struction materials, such as thermal mass and interior space illumination. Both of
them can be provided at the same time with use of the PCMs packed in transparent
plastic containers. During the sunny days, such technologies can reduce interior
space temperature peaks due to their significant heat storage capacity. PCM-
enhanced windows are usually based on a thin layer of translucent or transparent
PCM combined with a thermally insulating window located on the exterior side.
Depending on the building’s architecture and orientation, the PCM layer can be
installed separately, can be preassembled as directly integrated into an insulating
glazing unit, or can be combined with a shading device. Since these dynamic
insulated glass technologies have the ability to absorb significant amounts of the
exterior thermal loads, they can notably reduce the energy consumption associated
with the building space conditioning.

7.7.1 GLASSX Façade System

Almost two decades ago, GLASSX Inc. of Zurich, Switzerland, developed a

translucent glass façade system aiming to minimize a building’s energy con-
sumption while improving the thermal comfort inside the building. GLASSX
7.7 PCM-Enhanced Window Components 257

Fig. 7.11 GLASSX—a multi-layer translucent glass façade system containing PCM—Source
GLASSX Inc., Zurich, Switzerland. http://inhabitat.com/phase-change-glassx-windows-offer-
amazing-performance/

façade has unique optical and thermal characteristics and it was licensed to Saint-
Gobain27—a global building products company. Currently, GLASSX façade fen-
estration system is manufactured in Austria and Germany. The technology is based
on a thin layer of translucent PCM packed into 16-mm-thick transparent plastic
containers. The GlassX technology is available now in several dimensional con-
figurations. Figure 7.11 explains configuration of the GlassX Crystal system, which
is being marketed in North America. As you can see, outer insulated glazing unit
(IGU) has a suspended prismatic filter (like a Fresnel lens) between the panes of
glass that reflects higher angle sunlight back out while transmitting low-angle
sunlight. This offers a “passive” solar-control mechanism for south-facing glass to
keep out most of the high-angle summer sun, while benefiting from the lower angle
winter sun. Two separate low-emissivity (low-e) coatings and low-conductivity gas
are utilized in two sealed air-spaces in order to enhance thermal insulation char-
acterisitcs of the exterior part of the glazing. Overall, this glazing assembly is about
80 mm thick and weighs around 95 kg/m2. Glazing modules are available in a
maximum height of 2.80 m and a maximum width of 1.50 m.28 The U-factor is
about 0.48 W/m2 K. The direct-beam light transmission (assuming the sunlight is
not blocked by the prism layer) is up to 45 % when the PCM is liquid and up to
28 % when the PCM has crystallized. This glazing system has a heat storage

27
http://www.glassxpcm.com/.
28
http://greenspec.buildinggreen.com/blogs/high-tech-glazing-phase-change-material.
258 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Table 7.10 Basic physical characteristics of the DELTA®-COOL 28 thermal mass window
component
PCM melting temperature range 26–30 °C
PCM crystallization temperature 26 °C
PCM density (solid) 1.6 kg/L
PCM density (liquid) 1.5 kg/L
Heat capacity (solid) 2.7 kJ/kg K
Heat capacity (liquid) 2.2 kJ/kg K
PCM thermal conductivity (solid) 1.12 W/mK
PCM thermal conductivity (liquid) 0.56 W/mK
Max. operational temperature 60 °C
Source Dörken GmbH & Co. KG, Germany, http://www.energiesparhaus-kfw.de/Daten/
Informationsbroschueren/Doerken-Delta-Cool-PCM-Bauteile.pdf

capacity of 1185 Wh/m2, and it is acting in a similar way to a Trombe wall (glazed
thermal storage wall). According to GlassX, the PCM can store as much heat as
about 24-cm-thick layer of concrete.

7.7.2 Delta Cool 28 Translucent Heat Storage Containers

for Building Fenestration

Dynamic window component designs from Dörken GmbH & Co. KG, Germany,
emerge from the variable translucency of some PCM-based products. At the same
time, they enhance building thermal mass and provide a source of natural lighting to
the interior. Delta Cool 28 system utilizes transparent plastic containers containing salt
hydrate. The Delta Cool 28 window thermal mass component has the total heat storage
capacity of about 75 Wh/L. Energy state of this system can be visualized as semi-
transparent or translucent when used inorganic PCM is melted and milky when PCM
is frozen. Working temperature range for PCM in Delta Cool 28 system is between 26
and 30 °C. Table 7.10 shows basic physical properties of the Delta Cool 28 system.
Field performance of semitransparent PCM components from Dorken has been
jointly investigated by the glass company Glaswerke Arnold and research institute
ZAE Bayern, Germany. A complete window assembly consisted of two glass sheets
on the outside and a macro-packaged PCM on the inside—Mehling and Cabeza
(2008). Figure 7.12 shows the application of DELTA®-COOL 28 in translucent
panels in a glass facade system of a zero energy office building in Kempen,
Switzerland.29 Every second window panel is equipped with the phase-change
material in order to reduce solar heating of the interior office space. The solar
energy that is stored in the PCM is later released during nighttime, when typically
the building would need to be heated to maintain a desirable temperature range.

29
http://www.cosella-dorken.com/bvf-ca-en/projects/pcm/kempen.php.
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 259

Fig. 7.12 Application of the DELTA®-COOL 28 technology in a zero energy office building in
Kempen, Switzerland

7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building

Envelopes

There are available great variety of intellectual property data focused on PCMs,
PCM admixtures, PCM packaging and microencapsulation, PCM manufacturing
processes, etc. However, because the PCM-enhanced building envelope technolo-
gies are the main objective of this publication, the following section will mostly
present a patent work associated with building envelopes, building envelope
components, and building envelope materials—all containing PCM. Earlier patents
introducing PCM encapsulation, PCM packaging, gypsum board impregnation, etc.
will be listed as well, due to their great impact on the historical and recent tech-
nology developments. In addtion, the original abstract language from the listed
patents is presented below.

7.8.1 Early PCM Encapsulation and Micro-packaging

Patents

US 4504402 A
“Encapsulated phase change thermal energy storage materials”
Inventors: Johnson C.H. Chen, John L. Eichelberger
Priority Date: Jun 13, 1983

Abstract A thermal energy storage composite pellet-shaped product of about 1/8

to 1 in. in size (3 to 24 mm.), formed of an outer seamless shell member which
defines a cavity that permanently encases a phase-change composition, the com-
position being present in a quantity such that the total volume of the composition,
260 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

whether in its solid form, liquid form, or both forms as in its transition state, never
exceeds the volume of the cavity; and a process for making the product which
includes using the phase-change composition in a compacted powder form as cast
about which the shell member is formed by roll-coating steps.
US 4797160 A
“Phase change compositions”
Inventor: Ival O. Salyer
Priority Date: Aug 31, 1984

Abstract Compositions containing crystalline, straight chain, alkyl hydrocarbons

as phase change materials including cementitious compositions containing the alkyl
hydrocarbons neat or in pellets or granules formed by incorporating the alkyl
hydrocarbons in polymers or rubbers; and polymeric or elastomeric compositions
containing alkyl hydrocarbons.
EP 0437331 B1
“Dry powder mixes comprising phase change materials”
Inventor: Ival O. Salyer
Priority Date: Jan 09, 1990

Abstract Free flowing, conformable powder-like mix of silica particles and a

phase change material (p.c.m.) is disclosed. The silica particles have a critical size
of about 7 × 10−3 to about 7 × 10−2 microns and the PCM must be added to the
silica in an amount of 80 wt% or less pcm per combined weight of silica and PCM.
The powder-like mix can be used in tableware items, medical wraps, tree wraps,
garments, quilts and blankets, and in cementitious compositions of the type in
which it is beneficial to use a PCM material. The silica-pcm mix can also be
admixed with soil to provide a soil warming effect and placed about a tree, flower,
or shrub.
US 5565132 A
“Thermoplastic, moldable, non-exuding phase change materials”
Inventor: Ival O. Salyer
Priority Date: Jun 06, 1995

Abstract A thermoplastic, moldable, non-exuding phase change material in the

form of a composite useful for thermal energy storage. The composite is preferably
a solidified melt mixture of a polyolefin resin, and ethylene copolymer, silica
particles and a fatty acid, fatty acid ester, primary alcohol or hydrocarbon phase
change material. For a microwave heating capability, a microwave absorbing
additive may be added as a fifth major ingredient. The composite can be formed
into a variety of configurations such as pellets, sheets, rods, tubes, plugs for hollow
core cement blocks, films, and fibers, all for thermal energy storage uses.
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 261

7.8.2 Early Patens Describing PCM Integration

with Building Products or Fabrics

US 4178727 A
“Heat absorbing panel”
Inventors: Richard C. Prusinski, Timothy E. Johnson
Priority Date: Feb 01, 1978

Abstract A heat absorbing panel is provided having an outer casing of resinous

material intermixed with aggregate material. A central core is provided within the
casing. The core includes substantial amounts of a phase change material having a
melting point in the range of normal room temperature.
US 4277357 A
“Heat or cold storage composition containing a hydrated hydraulic cement”
Inventor: Bryan J. Boardman
Priority Date: Jan 30, 1980

Abstract A polyphase composition for the storage of heat or cold utilizing the
latent heat of fusion of a salt hydrate continuous phase intimately intermixed with a
hydrated hydraulic cement continuous phase and wherein said continuous phases
are optionally in contact with a discontinuous crystalline phase comprising a
nucleating component and wherein the composition is enveloped, contained, or
packaged within a vapor impermeable material.
US 4747240 A
“Phase change materials”
Inventors: Walter E. Voisinet, Deall Daymon, John A. Slyh
Priority Date: Aug 06, 1981

Abstract Phase change materials (PCM’s) having a phase change at about 10–
30 °C are incorporated like a fine aggregate into building materials.
EP 0306202 A
“Fiber with reversible enhanced thermal storage properties and fabrics made
therefrom”
Invertors: David P. Colvin, Yvonne G. Bryant
Priority Date: Aug 31, 1987

Abstract A fiber with integral microspheres filled with phase change material or
plastic crystals has enhanced thermal properties at predetermined temperatures. The
fibers may be woven to form a fabric having the enhanced thermal storage prop-
erties, and articles of manufacture may be formed therefrom.
US 4988543 A
“Impregnation a porous board, changing phases, spraying”
262 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

Inventors: Jean-Francois Houle, Jean Paris

Priority Date: Sep 25, 1989

Abstract A method and an apparatus for impregnating one side of a porous board,
such as gypsum boards, with a precise amount of compatible phase change material.
A predetermined amount of the phase change material is applied at a predetermined
uniform rate to the one surface of the board so that a predetermined amount of the
phase change is impregnated. The rate of application is lower than the absorption
rate of phase change material. Also, the temperature of the board must be above the
melting point of the phase change material during the impregnation. The process
and apparatus may be either a continuous, a semi-continuous or a batch operation,
and the resulting product is intended as a building construction material.
US 5501268 A
“Method of energy load management using PCM for heating and cooling of
buildings”
Inventors: Therese K. Stovall, John J. Tomlinson
Priority Date: Jun 28, 1993

Abstract A method of energy load management for the heating and cooling of a
building. The method involves utilizing a wallboard as a portion of the building, the
wallboard containing about 5 to about 30 wt% a phase change material such that
melting of the phase change material occurs during a rise in temperature within the
building to remove heat from the air, and a solidification of the phase change
material occurs during a lowering of the temperature to dispense heat into the air. At
the beginning of either of these cooling or heating cycles, the phase change material
is preferably “fully charged”. In preferred installations one type of wallboard is
used on the interior surfaces of exterior walls, and another type as the surface on
interior walls. The particular PCM is chosen for the desired wall and room tem-
perature of these locations. In addition, load management is achieved by using
PCM-containing wallboard that form cavities of the building such that the cavities
can be used for the air handling duct and plenum system of the building. Enhanced
load management is achieved by using a thermostat with reduced dead band of
about the upper half of a normal dead band of over three degree. In some appli-
cations, air circulation at a rate greater than normal convection provides additional
comfort.
US 5755216 A
“Building products incorporating phase change materials and method of making
same”
Inventor: Ival O. Salyer
Priority Date: Jun 06, 1995

Abstract A building product having thermal energy storage properties in the form
of a cementitious hollow core building block having a hollow core or cores and
having within the hollow core(s) a composite containing a phase change material.
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 263

The composite may be a cementitious plug sized to fit the hollow core(s) and
having a phase change material imbibed into the pores and matrix thereof or having
polyolefin pellets containing a phase change material or silica particles containing a
phase change material incorporated at the wet mix stage of formation of the
cementitious plug. The composite may also be a polyolefin plug sized to fit hollow
core(s) and having a phase change material contained within the matrix thereof.
Finally the composite may be polyolefin pellets containing a phase change material
or silica particles containing a phase change material packed in a container sized to
fit the hollow core(s).

7.8.3 Patens Associated with PCM-Enhanced Thermal

Insulations and Composites

US 5637389 A
“Thermally enhanced foam insulation”
Inventors: David P. Colvin, Yvonne G. Bryant
Priority Date: Feb 18, 1992

Abstract A thermal barrier in the form of a base material with a plurality of

microcapsules containing a phase change material forms an insulative pad, such as a
shoe insole. The microcapsules are surroundingly encapsulated and embedded
within the base material. In addition, substantially all of the microcapsules are
spaced apart from each other, the space between neighboring adjacent microcap-
sules containing a phase change material. The microcapsules may be anisotropically
distributed to further reduce thermal conductivity of heat through the thermal
barrier.
US 5851338 A
“Skived foam article containing energy absorbing phase change material”
Inventor: Robert J. Pushaw
Priority Date: Mar 04, 1996

Abstract A composition for saturation of preformed, previously cured foam sub-

strates having an at least partially open cell configuration, includes a polymer binder
in which microspheres containing a phase change material are dispersed. Preferred
phase change materials include paraffinic hydrocarbons. The microspheres may be
microencapsulated. A preferred cured foam substrate is a skived polyurethane or
polyether foam of from 20 to 1000 mils in thickness, preferably 20–200 mils in
thickness, having up to 6 oz per square yard or more of encapsulated phase change
material embedded in a polymer binder. One method of applying the binder with
dispersed encapsulated phase change materials is by applying a binder/microsphere
dispersion to the upper surface of a previously cured foam sheet with, then drawing
a vacuum from the underside of the cured foam sheet to permeate from 20 to 100 %
264 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

of the cured foam sheet with the binder/microsphere dispersion. The resulting
product is then cured. An alternative method of applying the binder with embedded
encapsulated phase change materials using knife over roll technique to an exposed
surface of the skived foam is disclosed in which the most preferred viscosity of the
uncured polymer binder is from 7000 to 9000 centipoise.
US 6000438 A
“Phase change insulation for subsea flowlines”
Inventors: Theodore R. Ohrn
Priority Date: Feb 13, 1998

Abstract A subsea flowline or pipeline with passive insulation having improved

transient heat-loss characteristics. The flowline or pipeline has a phase change
material insulating the flowline pipe joints and/or pipe sections to greatly extend the
cooldown time of produced or processed hydrocarbon fluid mixtures being trans-
ported therethrough during shut-in conditions. The phase change material surrounds
a carrier pipe of the flowline or pipeline. The phase change material may be either
dispersed or encapsulated within standard insulation. Additional insulation and/or a
jacket pipe surrounds the phase change material and holds it against the carrier pipe.
The phase change material can be of a micro-encapsulated or bulk-encapsulated
type.
US 6689466 B2
“Stable phase change materials for use in temperature regulating synthetic fibers,
fabrics and textiles”
Inventor: Mark H. Hartmann
Priority Date: Sep 21, 2000

Abstract A stabilized phase change composition comprises a phase change

material and a stabilizing agent selected from the group consisting of antioxidants
and thermal stabilizers. The stabilizing agent provides oxidative or thermal stabil-
ization to the phase change material. The stabilized phase change composition may
be used or incorporated in a variety of processes (e.g., melt spinning processes,
extrusion processes, injection molding processes, and so forth) to form articles
having enhanced reversible thermal properties. Exemplary articles that may be
formed include, by way of example and not by limitation, synthetic fibers (e.g.,
nylon fibers, polyester fibers, polyethylene fibers, polypropylene fibers, and multi-
component fibers), fabric materials, textiles, films, foams, sheets, pellets, granules,
rods, and injection molded articles.
US 6645598 B2
“Cell insulation blanket with phase change material, and method of making”
Inventors: Robert J. Alderman
Priority Date: Jan 04, 2002
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 265

Abstract Heat insulation blanket includes a layer of inner cells containing a phase
change material, and opposed outer cells containing dead air or other undisturbed
gas. When placed in an attic or other insulated area, the phase change material
changes phase when the outside atmospheric temperature passes the phase change
temperature, resulting in a delay in the transfer of heat between the interior space
and the atmosphere because of the heat required for or given up by the PCM during
its change of phase. The outer plies of sheet material that form the superposed cells
of the cell blanket are formed with a coating of heat reflective material that faces the
interior of the cell blanket, whereby the reflective surfaces are protected against
deterioration and retain their capacity to reflect radiant heat.
EP 1628110 A1
“Loose fill insulation product having phase change material therein”
Inventors: Murray S. Toas, David G. Ober, Michael P. Ellis
Priority Date: Jun 17, 2004

Abstract A thermal insulation product is provided comprising a loose fill insula-

tion for insulating an interior of a hollow or open space in a structure and at least
one phase change material dispersed in the loose fill insulation.
US 8091309 B2
“Insulation containing inorganic fiber and spherical additives”
Inventor: Christophe Wagner
Priority Date: Jun 17, 2004

Abstract The present invention provides thermal insulation products such as loose
fill, batts and boards, such as duct boards and duct liner. The insulation products
include randomly distributed inorganic fibers, which are supplemented with at least
about five weight percent microspheres, macrospheres, or both, and preferably
include hollow microspheres, which boost the insulation value of the fiberglass
thermal insulation by at least about 0.5 R.
US 7735327 B2
“Active thermal insulation system utilizing phase change material and a cool air
source”
Inventors: Keith R. Brower, Burt Dole, Thomas Neal, Daniel J. Shramo
Priority Date: Jul 19, 2006

Abstract An active thermal insulation system is disclosed. The system utilizes a

cool air source or ambient air below a threshold temperature in conjunction with a
phase change material and/or conventional insulation. In a controlled manner, the
cooled air or ambient air facilitates the transition of the phase change material from
a substantially liquid state to a substantially solid state allowing the solid phase
change material to absorb heat. Cooled air or ambient air may be directed to the
phase change material via a gap or plenum capable of introducing the cooled air or
266 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

ambient air adjacent to the phase change material. A fan, blower or air intake device
may be used to direct ambient air to the gap or plenum.
US 20120149795 A1
“Polyurethane foams containing incorporated phase change material”
Inventors: Stephan Schleiermacher, Heike Niederelz
Priority Date: Aug 26, 2009

Abstract The invention relates to polyurethane foams with incorporated phase

change material, especially for reinforcing the back of deep-drawn films and
components.
US 8156703 B2
“Multiple phase PCM heat insulation blanket”
Inventor: Robert J. Alderman
Priority Date: Nov 24, 2009

Abstract A PCM heat insulation blanket (10) is positioned in a wall structure of a

building for modulating the transfer of heat to and from the controlled internal
temperature of the building structure. The PCM heat insulation blanket includes an
array of pods (12) with one group of pods 12A containing a first PCM and a second
group of pods containing a second PCM 12B having a different phase change
temperature than the first group of pods. The pods with different PCMs are sub-
stantially uniformly intermixed among each other. The pods are formed of lami-
nated sheets, each of which may include a metal foil that is vapor impermeable and
tends to maintain the PCMs in the blanket at approximately the same temperature,
and which also functions to reflect radiant heat away from the temperature con-
trolled internal space of the building structure.
US 20130296449 A
“Polyurethane Gel-Like Polymers, Methods and Use in Flexible Foams”
Invertors: Bruce W. Peterson, Mark L. Crawford
Priority Date: Feb 26, 2010

Abstract Combinations of open cell flexible foams with polyurethane gel-like

polymers, in forms such as layers of different forms and shapes, solid sheets,
perforated sheets, and particles, and methods of making the combinations are
described using a variety of procedures. Alternatively, the resin to make the
polyurethane gel-like polymers may be infused into the polyurethane foams. The
open cell flexible foam may partially or wholly comprise polyurethane foam and
latex foam.
US 20130295371 A1
“Thermal Storage Gelatinous Triblock Copolymer Elastomer Particles in Poly-
urethane Flexible Foams”
Invertors: Bruce W. Peterson, Mark L. Crawford
Priority Date: Feb 26, 2010
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 267

Abstract Combinations of gelatinous elastomer containing one or more phase

change materials, known as “phase change gel”, and polyurethane foam may be
made by introducing at least partially cured phase change gel particles comprising
plasticized triblock copolymer resin and/or diblock copolymer resin and one or
more phase change materials, into a mixture of polyurethane foam-forming com-
ponents including a polyol and an isocyanate. The phase change gel can be
crosslinked to form a cured gelatinous gel, which is then reduced in size before
introduction. After the foam-forming components polymerize to make polyurethane
foam, the phase change gel particles are discrete visible particles dispersed
throughout the foam. The polyurethane reaction is exothermic and can generate
sufficient temperature to at least partially melt the styrene-portion of the triblock
copolymer resin thereby extending the crosslinking. The combination of phase
change gel and polyurethane foam increases the heat storage capacity and thermal
conductivity of the foam.
WO 2013103596 A1
“Compositions comprising phase change materials and methods of making the
same”
Inventors: Reyad I. Sawafta, Najih Naser
Priority Date: Jan 03, 2012

Abstract In one aspect, compositions are described herein. In some embodiments,

a composition comprises a phase change material, a hydrophobic sorption material,
and a viscosity modifier. In some embodiments, a composition comprises a foam
and a latent heat storage material dispersed in the foam, the latent heat storage
material comprising a phase change material and a hydrophobic sorption material.

7.8.4 Patens Associated with PCM-Enhanced Building

Envelope Products

EP 1656239 A1
“Membrane materials with thermo-regulating properties for fabric structures”
Inventor: Barbara Pause
Priority Date: Jul 21, 2003

Abstract Membrane materials for fabric structures consisting of a woven fabric

which is coated on one or both sides with an elastomeric compound comprising
finely divided phase change materials such as crystalline alkyl hydrocarbons or salt
hydrates. The membrane materials facilitate thermo-regulation due to latent heat
absorption and latent heat release in the phase transition range of the phase change
material, which enhances the thermal comfort of the enclosed structure, they are
applied to and leads to energy savings.
268 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

US 20050055982 A1
“Phase-change structural insulated panels and walls”
Inventor: Mario Medina
Priority Date: Aug 13, 2003

Abstract A wall, ceiling, or structural insulated panel having macroencapsulated

phase-change materials incorporated therein.
US 8333903 B2
“Phase change material (PCM) compositions for thermal management”
Inventors: Loic Pierre Rolland, Raymond Joseph Reisdorf
Priority Date: Dec 09, 2004

Abstract The present invention relates to a Phase Change Material (PCM) com-
position comprising (a) from 20 to 80 wt% of a PCM; and (b) from 20 to 80 wt% of
one or more polymers chosen from the group consisting of (b1) Very Low Density
Polyethylene (VLDPE) having a density equal or lower than 0.910 g/cm3 measured
according to ASTM 792; (b2) Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) having a density
equal or lower than 0.900 g/cm3 measured according to ASTM 792; (b3) Styrene
Ethylene Butadiene Styrene (SEBS) copolymers; and (b4) Styrene Butadiene
Styrene (SBS) copolymers. The PCM composition of the present invention can be
used in applications where thermal management is needed, like for example in
building, automotive, packaging, garments and footwear.
US 7721566 B1
“Collapsible interconnected panels of phase change material”
Inventor: Kenneth Wilken
Priority Date: Aug 14, 2006

Abstract An apparatus having a plurality of phase change material-containing wall

panels. The wall panels have a thickness and sides. The wall panels define an inner
major surface and an outer major surface. The sides of the wall panels are hingedly
interconnected to define a closed structure. Two diametrically opposed hinge
interconnections are proximate the inner major surface. The remaining hinge
interconnections are proximate the outer major surface.
US 7703254 B2
“Reflective insulation tiles”
Inventor: Robert J. Alderman
Priority Date: Oct 08, 2007

Abstract Heat insulation tiles are supported in a grid of support bars of a ceiling
assembly with the ceiling tiles being in the form of insulation boxes that form a
dead air spaces therein. Reflective material is applied to at least one of the interior
surfaces of the box that faces the dead air space and a layer of phase change
material is applied to the insulation boxes.
7.8 Current Patents in Area of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelopes 269

US 8156703 B2
“Multiple phase PCM heat insulation blanket”
Inventor: Robert J. Alderman
Priority Date: Nov 24, 2009

Abstract A PCM heat insulation blanket is positioned in a wall structure of a

building for modulating the transfer of heat to and from the controlled internal
temperature of the building structure. The PCM heat insulation blanket includes an
array of pods with one group of pods containing a first PCM and a second group of
pods containing a second PCM having a different phase change temperature than
the first group of pods. The pods with different PCMs are substantially uniformly
intermixed among each other. The pods are formed of laminated sheets, each of
which may include a metal foil that is vapor impermeable and tends to maintain the
PCMs in the blanket at approximately the same temperature, and which also
functions to reflect radiant heat away from the temperature controlled internal space
of the building structure.
US 8308861 B2
“Phase change material compositions”
Inventors: Loic Pierre Rolland, Jacques Andre
Priority Date: May 13, 2010

Abstract A phase change material (PCM) composition comprises a blend of at

least one fatty acid ester and at least one ethylene copolymer, wherein the ethylene
copolymer comprises at least 28 % of an at least one polar comonomer by weight,
based on the weight of the ethylene copolymer. A film or sheet comprises or is
produced from the PCM composition and the film or sheet can be a single layer or
multilayer structure.
US 8333903 B2
“Phase change material (PCM) compositions for thermal management”
Inventors: Loic Pierre Rolland, Raymond Joseph Reisdorf
Priority Date: Jun 20, 2011

Abstract The present invention relates to a Phase Change Material (PCM) com-
position comprising (a) from 20 to 80 wt% of a PCM; and (b) from 20 to 80 wt% of
one or more polymers chosen from the group consisting of (b1) Very Low Density
Polyethylene (VLDPE) having a density equal or lower than 0.910 g/cm3 measured
according to ASTM 792; (b2) Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) having a density
equal or lower than 0.900 g/cm3 measured according to ASTM 792; (b3) Styrene
Ethylene Butadiene Styrene (SEBS) copolymers; and (b4) Styrene Butadiene
Styrene (SBS) copolymers. The PCM composition of the present invention can be
used in applications where thermal management is needed, like for example in
building, automotive, packaging, garments and footwear.
270 7 Basic Building Envelope Products Containing PCM …

WO 2013040404 A2
“Composite construction panels and applications thereof”
Inventors: Reyad I. Sawafta, Ken Farrish, Byron C. Owens, Peter F. Horwath,
James D. Thornsberry.
Priority Date: Sep 16, 2011

Abstract In one aspect, composite construction materials are described herein. In

some embodiments, a composite construction panel comprises a substrate layer, a
cover layer separated from the substrate layer by one or more spacers, and at least
one mat disposed between the substrate layer and the cover layer, wherein the mat
comprises at least one phase change material disposed in at least one phase change
region.

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