COMPUTER LITERACY

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INDEX

S.No Title Name Page No

Computer Literacy
1. Introduction, History & Types of Computer 4 – 22
2. Hardware, Software & Operating System 23 – 38
3. Computer Shortcut Keys 39 – 43
4. Computer Network 44 – 47
5. OSI Model 48 – 52
6. Microsoft Office An Introduction 53 – 64
7. Word Processing 65 – 70
8. Microsoft Windows 71 – 75
9. Internet 76 – 78
10. Common Computer Abbreviations 79 – 85
11. Computer Virus 86 – 87

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COMPUTER LITERACY

❖ History, Types & Components of computer

❖ Hardware, Software & Operating System
❖ Internet access
❖ Microsoft Office
❖ Computer Shortcut Keys
❖ Computer Network
❖ OSI Model
❖ MS PowerPoint – Presentation
❖ Word Processing – Questions related to MS Word
❖ Microsoft Windows

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INTRODUCTION, HISTORY & TYPES OF COMPUTER

Computer

A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with
a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It renders output just after
performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use. It can
process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the
Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through

integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents
the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data,
programs, and result of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes
wires, transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called
software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles
Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is also known as the
father of the computer.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

➢ Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

➢ Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
➢ Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
➢ Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
➢ Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a
keyboard.

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➢ Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on the size, a
computer can be divided into five types:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Workstations

1. Micro Computer:

It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other types. It uses a
microprocessor as a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit microprocessor chips. The
common examples of microcomputers include laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistant
(PDA), tablets, and smartphones. Microcomputers are generally designed and developed for general
usage like browsing, searching for information, internet, MS Office, social media, etc.

2. Mini Computer:

Mini-computers are also known as "Midrange Computers." They are not designed for a single. They
are multi-user computers designed to support multiple users simultaneously. So, they are generally
used by small businesses and firms. Individual departments of a company use these computers for
specific purposes. For example, the admission department of a University can use a Mini-computer
for monitoring the admission process.

3. Mainframe Computer:

It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously. They are
used by large firms and government organizations to run their business operations as they can store
and process large amounts of data. For example, Banks, universities, and insurance companies use
mainframe computers to store the data of their customers, students, and policyholders,
respectively.

4. Super Computer:

Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of computers. They
have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform millions of instructions
per second. The super-computers are task-specific and thus used for specialized applications such as
large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines including applications in
electronics, petroleum engineering, weather forecasting, medicine, space research and more. For
example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching space satellites and monitoring and controlling
them for space exploration.

5. Work stations:

It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more powerful

microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In terms of storage capacity

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and speed, it comes between a personal computer and minicomputer. Work stations are generally
used for specialized applications such as desktop publishing, software development, and engineering
designs.

Benefits of Using a Computer:

➢ Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For example, after
having a basic understanding of a word processor, you can create, edit, store, and print the
documents easily and quickly.
➢ Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to send emails,
browse content, gain information, use social media platforms, and more. By connecting to the
internet, you can also connect to your long-distance friends and family members.
➢ Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g., you can store
your projects, ebooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and more.
➢ Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also enables you to
organize your data. For example, you can create different folders to store different data and
information and thus can search for information easily and quickly.
➢ Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at spelling and
grammar. Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a great memory, you can use
a computer to perform calculations and store the results.
➢ Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically challenged, e.g., Stephen
Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer to speak. It also can be used to help blind
people by installing special software to read what is on the screen.
➢ Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch movies, play
games and more.

The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in a day are
dependent on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:

1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that enables the ATM
to take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance in your account
and the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored as a digital record or digital
currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day to day trading. There are many advanced
algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling, texting, browsing is
itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by computers.

History of Computers

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as
counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices were
developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are
described below;

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Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first computer. It
is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by
the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used
in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617) of
Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to
multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to
use the decimal point.

Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642
and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first
mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition and
subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one

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revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to
read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He

improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which
was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following
image;

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Difference Engine

In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a steam
driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and
storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator
based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This

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machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine
Company which later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog device
invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform
calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned to
develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I

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computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital
computer.

Generations of Computers

A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with time. In
1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It replaced the
gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers,
vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These computers were
mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were
used as output and input devices in this generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

➢ ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

➢ EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
➢ UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
➢ IBM-701
➢ IBM-650

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Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers used
transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor computers
faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes
were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL
and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these
computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

➢ IBM 1620
➢ IBM 7094
➢ CDC 1604
➢ CDC 3600
➢ UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC can
pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced the cost.
The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation computers
used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the high-level
programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this
generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

➢ IBM-360 series
➢ Honeywell-6000 series
➢ PDP(Personal Data Processor)
➢ IBM-370/168
➢ TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip
containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this generation
computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers used real
time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE
were also used in this generation.

Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

➢ DEC 10

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➢ STAR 1000
➢ PDP 11
➢ CRAY-1(Super Computer)
➢ CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten million
electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++,
Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

➢ Desktop
➢ Laptop
➢ NoteBook
➢ UltraBook
➢ ChromeBook

Types of Computer

We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

➢ Analogue Computer
➢ Digital Computer
➢ Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are
used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples
of analogue computers.

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Advantages of using analogue computers:
➢ It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
➢ In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers
for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
➢ The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It
provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

➢ Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the
calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.
➢ Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs
integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
➢ Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions. Its
height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the
solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as per the
current season.
➢ Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow
through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical
interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates
the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts
the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with
programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops
including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

➢ It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
➢ You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
➢ Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware
➢ The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
➢ It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
➢ It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.

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➢ Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,
humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both
continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is
processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

➢ Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
➢ It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
➢ It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
➢ It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount
of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

➢ It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
➢ It produces excellent results in animations.
➢ It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
➢ It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any type
of simple and logical data.
➢ It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
➢ It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.

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➢ It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
➢ It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain
injuries, strokes, etc.
➢ It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring the
solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
➢ It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in
the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of
data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

➢ It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking
sector.
➢ It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
➢ It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
➢ It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
➢ There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
➢ It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and
data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

➢ In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to
contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.
➢ In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.

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➢ In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to
their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.
➢ In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to
200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such
as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

➢ It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
➢ It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
➢ It is very fast compared to its size.
➢ It remains charged for a long time.
➢ It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:

➢ Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the
process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
➢ Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share
data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and
customers respectively.
➢ Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems
by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has
a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such
as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

➢ It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.

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➢ It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
➢ It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used as
a workstation.

➢ Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.
➢ ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors before
they affect the system's performance.
➢ RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives to
store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple drives
to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts
functioning.
➢ SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
➢ Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work while
processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer

Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is

designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.
They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at
office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
➢ It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
➢ A limited number of software can be used.
➢ It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
➢ It is less expansive and easy to use.
➢ It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
➢ Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
➢ It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

Computer Components-

There are five basic components which include:

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1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Memory Unit
4. Control Unit
5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

1.Input Unit
A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These commands can be
given using the input unit or the input devices.
For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer processes the
entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.
The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the information
using an input device, the processing units convert it into computer understandable languages and
then the final output is received by a human-understandable language.

List of Input Devices

Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information about each of
them.

1. Keyboard

• A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or
number commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be
performed.
• It has a modified version of typewriter keys.
• The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards
to give commands to the computer.

2. Mouse

• It is also known as a pointing device.

• Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open
up various files and programs.
• A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in
selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively.
• In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in
the movement of the mouse pointer.

3. Joy Stick

• It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it
can be moved and controlled.
• Mostly used to control the movement in video games.
• Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane,
wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well.

4. Light Pen

• It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen

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• It is light-sensitive.
• Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube.

5. Microphone

• Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form.

• It converts sound into an electrical signal.
• To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected
with an amplifier.

6. Scanner

• This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal.
• When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal
and displays it on the computer screen.

7. Barcode Reader

• It is a kind of an optical scanner.

• It can read bar codes.
• A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed
on the screen.

2. Output Unit
When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action performed and gives us a
result. This result is called output. There are various output devices connected to the computer. The
most basic of which is a monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all
displayed on the monitor.
Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within the
mechanism of a device.
For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin, amount to be
withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser releases is our outcome. In this
case, the cash dispenser acts as an output unit.

List of Output Device

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their
function is and how they can be used.

1. Monitor

• The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the
Monitor.
• When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed
on the monitor.
• Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

2. Printer

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• A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is
called a printer.
• For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print
out of it, which is in the form of paper and is later published.
• Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different
purposes.

3. Speakers

• A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a

computer to do is called a speaker.
• Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which
can be attached separately.
• With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless
and can be connected using BlueTooth or other applications.

4. Projector

• An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is
called a projector.
• Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the
display of the videos or lighting.
• If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen
is the same as the one displayed on the computer screen.

5. Headphones

• They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of
sound.
• Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the
sound is only audible to the person using them.
• Also known as earphones or headset.

3. Memory Unit
When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered information
immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Because of the
presence of some existing programming, the Memory Unit transmits the data further to the other
parts of the CPU.
Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is saved in the memory
unit before giving the output to the user.

4. Control Unit
This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer device. It is one of the
most essential components of the computer system.
The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for processing and once
that is done, receives the output and presents it to the user. It can be said to the centre of all
processing actions taking place inside a computer device.

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Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to execute the data
and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit.

5. Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations are performed in
the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.
It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making actions. The ALU
comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other numerical
based calculations can be performed.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit is the core of any computer devices. It comprises three major
components of the computer which have been discussed above:

➢ Memory Unit
➢ Control Unit
➢ Arithmetic and Logical Unit
All these three units are elements of CPU and together help in the efficient working and processing
of data. It is also known as the “Brain of Computer” and no action can be conducted by a device
without the execution and permission of the Central Processing Unit.
The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in fetching the data and
proving suitable results to the user. Thus, CPU is the main processing unit of the computer.

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HARDWARE, SOFTWARE & OPERATING SYSTEM

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system,
including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without using
hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional
hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example of a
hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video card
upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:

The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer
except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for
input and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit board in a
computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each other.
It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect to it. Each
component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or
connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a
specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard.
It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed. Furthermore,
it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM
(Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the
motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for

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example, you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can
install a new video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are
AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.

Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them.
These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core.
It acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP,
and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU,
and graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI
devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that stores

the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:

A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images, etc., is
displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this circuity. The monitor is also
known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:
1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Its
main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass envelope,
fluorescent screen, and base.
2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to produce
images on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors and use active-
matrix technology, which allows pixels to retain their charge.
3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor, which uses
cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels, each of which has lots
of LEDs to display the backlight.
4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high resolutions
of up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding contrast ration, and
more.

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3) Keyboard:

It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text, characters,
and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets of keys to
enter numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special characters.
It is an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware device that is
connected to the computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental interface with a system. It has
numerous buttons that can be used to generate letters, numbers, and symbols as well as unique
keys like the Windows and Alt keys that can also accomplish other tasks.

Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:

It is a small handheld device designed to control or

move the pointer (computer screen's cursor) in a
GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point
to or select objects on a computer's display screen.
It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to
move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of
Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse,
Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.

A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable

pointing device that is used to interact with objects
on computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen. On the display screen,
the cursor moves in the same direction as the users' mouse movements. The term "mouse" refers to
a compact, wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that somewhat resembles a mouse.

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Main functions of a mouse:
➢ Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the screen.
➢ Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a
program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.
➢ Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
➢ Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During
hovering over an object, it displays information about the object without pressing any button
of the mouse.
➢ Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.

Parts of a mouse:
➢ Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
➢ Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll up
and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.
➢ Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
➢ Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to provide
signals to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.

What are external hardware components?

The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control input or
output functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes known as peripheral
components. These hardware components either serve as input devices for the software or output
devices for the output of the software's operations (output).

The following are examples of common input hardware components:

➢ Microphone: A microphone is an input device that

converts sound waves into electrical impulses in order to
allow computer-based audio communications. It was
developed by Emile Berliner in 1877. It is used to enter
audio into computers or transform sound waves into
electric waves. It captures audio with the help of
converting sound waves into an electrical signal that
could be a digital or analog signal. This process can be
implemented by a computer as well as other digital audio
devices.

➢ Camera: Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a computer
or a network device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes photographs with the help of
using photosensitive film or a plate inside of a light-proof housing. The photosensitive film is
exposed to light via the camera's shutter, which opens and close

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as the image is imprinted onto the film.

➢ Touchpad: A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide point,
pressure-sensitive tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for the user. It can
take the place of a regular mouse. To control the pointer on a display screen, a touchpad can
be either external or incorporated into a laptop. Usually, it serves as a substitute for an
external mouse.

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➢ USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a
type of storage device for data that
connects to a computer via a USB port
and uses flash memory. It is an external,
removable storage device that has a built-
in Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface.
Many USB flash drives can be removed
and written to. They have a compact,
reliable, and small physical design. They
often operate more quickly the more
storage space they have. Because there are no moving parts, USB flash drives are extremely
mechanically durable.
➢ Memory card: A memory card is a kind of
portable external storage device; video,
photo, and other data files can be stored
on it. A form of storage medium, which is
additionally known as a flash memory.
Also, it provides a volatile and non-
volatile medium. It is frequently found in
gadgets, including phones, laptops, digital
cameras, camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players, printers, and more.

Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware components.

The following are a few examples of output hardware components:

➢ Printer: A printer is a hardware

output device used to produce
hard copies of documents or
print them. It converts computer-
generated electronic data into
printed form. Text files, pictures,
or a combination of the two can
all be considered documents. It
receives input commands from
users so that computers or other
devices may print the sheets. You
must create a soft copy of your
report and print it using a printer, for example, if your institution needs you to submit a
project report.

➢ Speaker: One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a computer to
generate a sound output. While some speakers can only be connected to computers, others
can be used with any type of sound system.

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➢ Headphones, earphones, earbuds: These are also output devices much like speakers, which
offer audio that can only be heard by one listener.

Software

Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the hardware to
perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software. The software can be of
three types: system software, application software, and programming software.

1) System Software

The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the computer,
it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The application programs
are also controlled by system software. An operating system is an example of system software.

i) Operating System:

An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user to
communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of hardware and
software of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux,
and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

➢ BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is stored in
Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in advanced computer
systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you
turn on your computer system. It loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as
assists the operating system to load itself into the memory.
➢ Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the computer, the
commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot program into memory and
execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set of commands that enables the
computer to perform the basic input/output instructions to start the computer.
➢ An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer instructions and
converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to perform basic
operations.

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➢ A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a computer. It
enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an appropriate interface. The kernel
of a Computer's CPU communicates with different hardware through this software. Operating
systems generally come with most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have
a device driver for hardware, you have to install the device driver before using that hardware
device.

2) Application Software:

Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control the
working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without application
software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single
program or a collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other
software like payroll software or income tax software are application software. As we know, they are
designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:

➢ Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and manipulate
the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating images, and more.
For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
➢ Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc. It
has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row
and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
➢ Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video, audio, and
text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text
document by adding photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software.
For example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
➢ Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational functions. It is
used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too large. It can be used for
accounting, billing, order processing and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship
Management), BI (Business Intelligence), ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply
Chain Management), customer support system, and more.

3) Programming Software:

It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It assists
them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We can say that
these are facilitator software that helps translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python,
etc., into machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers,
debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software
development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

➢ Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

➢ Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
➢ Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.

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➢ Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

Operating System-

In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can only understand
machine code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a naive user.

We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the processes and resources
present in the system.

An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is responsible
for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File Management and
many other tasks.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute
programs in convenient and efficient manner.

Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:

➢ Users (people who are using the computer)

➢ Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player, Browsers, etc.)
➢ System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)
➢ Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface between user and hardware )
➢ Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)

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History of Operating Systems

➢ The first computer, Z1, was made in 1936 – 1938. Unfortunately, this computer ran without an
operating system.
➢ Twenty years later, the first-ever operating system was made in 1956.
➢ In the 1960s, bell labs started working on building UNIX, the first multitasking operating
system.
➢ In 1977 the apple series came into existence. Apple Dos 3.3 was the first disk operating
system.
➢ In 1981, Microsoft built the first operating system called DOS by purchasing 86 – DOS software
from a Seattle company.
➢ The most famous Microsoft windows came into existence in 1985 when MS-DOS was paired
with GUI, a graphics environment.

Functions of Operating System

➢ Processor Management: An operating system manages the processor’s work by allocating

various jobs to it and ensuring that each process receives enough time from the processor to
function properly.
➢ Memory Management: An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of the
memory to various processes and ensures that the other process does not consume the
memory allocated to one process.
➢ Device Management: There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working
of these input-output devices. It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific
task, and communicates back to the requesting process.
➢ File Management: An operating system keeps track of information regarding the creation,
deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an organized way. It also maintains the integrity
of the data stored in these files, including the file directory structure, by protecting against
unauthorized access.
➢ Security: The operating system provides various techniques which assure the integrity and
confidentiality of user data. Following security measures are used to protect user data:
• Protection against unauthorized access through login.
• Protection against intrusion by keeping Firefall active.

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• Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
• Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
➢ Error Detection: From time to time, the operating system checks the system for any external
threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for any type of damage. This
process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate action can be taken against
any damage caused to the system.
➢ Job Scheduling: In a multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously, the
operating system determines which applications should run in which order and how time
should be allocated to each application.

Types of Operating System

There are several different types of operating systems present. In this section, we will discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of these types of OS.

➢ Batch OS
➢ Distributed OS
➢ Multitasking OS
➢ Network OS
➢ Real-OS
➢ Mobile OS

Batch OS

Batch OS is the first operating system for second-generation computers. This OS does not directly
interact with the computer. Instead, an operator takes up similar jobs and groups them together
into a batch, and then these batches are executed one by one based on the first-come, first, serve
principle.

Advantages of Batch OS

➢ Execution time taken for similar jobs is higher.

➢ Multiple users can share batch systems.
➢ Managing large works becomes easy in batch systems.
➢ The idle time for a single batch is very less.

Disadvantages of OS

➢ It is hard to debug batch systems.

➢ If a job fails, then the other jobs have to wait for an unknown time till the issue is resolved.
➢ Batch systems are sometimes costly.

Examples of Batch OS: payroll system, bank statements, data entry, etc.

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Distributed OS

A distributed OS is a recent advancement in the field of computer technology and is utilized all over
the world that too with great pace. In a distributed OS, various computers are connected through a
single communication channel. These independent computers have their memory unit and CPU and
are known as loosely coupled systems. The system processes can be of different sizes and can
perform different functions. The major benefit of such a type of operating system is that a user can
access files that are not present on his system but in another connected system. In addition, remote
access is available to the systems connected to this network.

Advantages of Distributed OS

➢ Failure of one system will not affect the other systems because all the computers are
independent of each other.
➢ The load on the host system is reduced.
➢ The size of the network is easily scalable as many computers can be added to the network.
➢ As the workload and resources are shared therefore the calculations are performed at a
higher speed.
➢ Data exchange speed is increased with the help of electronic mail.

Disadvantages of Distributed OS

➢ The setup cost is high.

➢ Software used for such systems is highly complex.
➢ Failure of the main network will lead to the failure of the whole system.

Examples of Distributed OS: LOCUS, etc.

Multitasking OS

The multitasking OS is also known as the time-sharing operating system as each task is given some
time so that all the tasks work efficiently. This system provides access to a large number of users,
and each user gets the time of CPU as they get in a single system. The tasks performed are given by a
single user or by different users. The time allotted to execute one task is called a quantum, and as
soon as the time to execute one task is completed, the system switches over to another task.

Advantages of Multitasking OS

➢ Each task gets equal time for execution.

➢ The idle time for the CPU will be the lowest.
➢ There are very few chances for the duplication of the software.

Disadvantages of Multitasking OS

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➢ Processes with higher priority cannot be executed first as equal priority is given to each
process or task.
➢ Various user data is needed to be taken care of from unauthorized access.
➢ Sometimes there is a data communication problem.

Examples of Multitasking OS: UNIX, etc.

Network OS

Network operating systems are the systems that run on a server and manage all the networking
functions. They allow sharing of various files, applications, printers, security, and other networking
functions over a small network of computers like LAN or any other private network. In the network
OS, all the users are aware of the configurations of every other user within the network, which is
why network operating systems are also known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network OS

➢ New technologies and hardware can easily upgrade the systems.

➢ Security of the system is managed over servers.
➢ Servers can be accessed remotely from different locations and systems.
➢ The centralized servers are stable.

Disadvantages of Network OS

➢ Server costs are high.

➢ Regular updates and maintenance are required.
➢ Users are dependent on the central location for the maximum number of operations.

Examples of Network OS: Microsoft Windows server 2008, LINUX, etc.

Real-Time OS

Real-Time operating systems serve real-time systems. These operating systems are useful when
many events occur in a short time or within certain deadlines, such as real-time simulations.

Types of the real-time OS are:

➢ Hard real-time OS
The hard real-time OS is the operating system for mainly the applications in which the slightest delay
is also unacceptable. The time constraints of such applications are very strict. Such systems are built
for life-saving equipment like parachutes and airbags, which immediately need to be in action if an
accident happens.

➢ Soft real-time OS

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The soft real-time OS is the operating system for applications where time constraint is not very
strict.

In a soft real-time system, an important task is prioritized over less important tasks, and this priority
remains active until the completion of the task. Furthermore, a time limit is always set for a specific
job, enabling short time delays for future tasks, which is acceptable. For Example, virtual reality,
reservation systems, etc.

Advantages of Real-Time OS

➢ It provides more output from all the resources as there is maximum utilization of systems.
➢ It provides the best management of memory allocation.
➢ These systems are always error-free.
➢ These operating systems focus more on running applications than those in the queue.
➢ Shifting from one task to another takes very little time.

Disadvantages of Real-Time OS

➢ System resources are extremely expensive and are not so good.

➢ The algorithms used are very complex.
➢ Only limited tasks can run at a single time.
➢ In such systems, we cannot set thread priority as these systems cannot switch tasks easily.

Examples of Real-Time OS: Medical imaging systems, robots, etc.

Mobile OS

A mobile OS is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, and PDA’s. It is a platform on which
other applications can run on mobile devices.

Advantages of Mobile OS

➢ It provides ease to users.

Disadvantages of Mobile OS

➢ Some of mobile operating systems give poor battery quality to users.

➢ Some of the mobile operating systems are not user-friendly.

Examples of Mobile OS: Android OS, ios, Symbian OS, and Windows mobile OS.

32-bit OS versus 64-bit OS

Parameter 32-Bit OS 64-Bit OS

Data and The 32 bit OS can store and manage In contrast, the 64 bit OS has a larger

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Storage less data than the 64 bit OS, as its data handling capacity than the 32 bit OS.
name would imply. It addresses a It indicates that a total of 264 memory
maximum of 4,294,967,296 bytes (4 addresses, or 18 quintillion gigabytes of
GB) of RAM in more detail. RAM, can be addressed.

Compatibility A 32-bit processor system will run only A 64-bit processor system can run either
of System on 32-bit OS and not on 64 bit OS. a 32-bit or 64-bit OS

Application The 32-bit OS support applications The 64-bit OS do not support

Support with no hassle. applications.

Performance Performance of 32- bit OS is less Higher performance than the 32-bit
efficient. processor.

Systems These support Windows 7, Windows These support Windows XP Professional,

Available XP, Windows Vista, Windows 8, and Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10,
Linux. Windows Vista, Linux, and Mac OS X.

Examples of Operating System

Following are some examples of Operating Systems:

1. Microsoft Windows
It is a series of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. The
first version of Windows was released in 1985 as a GUI add-on to MS-DOS. The first version of
Windows sold as a standalone operating system was Windows 95.

2. MacOS
It is a series of graphical operating systems developed by Apple Inc. It is the successor to Mac
OS X, and it is the operating system that powers Apple’s Mac family of computers.

3. Linux
Linux is built around the Linux kernel and is a free and open-source software OS. It is one of
the most popular operating systems for servers and embedded devices. It is also used by
millions of desktop users around the world.

4. Android
It is a mobile OS developed by Google. It is based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily
for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.

5. Ios
Another example of a mobile OS developed by Apple Inc. iOs is the successor to iPhone OS. It
is an operating system that powers the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch products.

Advantages of Operating System

There are several advantages of operating systems. We have listed some of them below:

1. Ensuring correct and efficient use of the computer’s hardware.

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2. Allowing different applications to run concurrently.
3. Managing files and folders.
4. Providing a user interface.
5. Managing security.
6. Managing resources.
7. Managing printing.
8. Providing a platform for software development.

Disadvantages of Operating System

There are several disadvantages of operating systems. We have listed some of them below:

➢ They can be complex and difficult to use.

➢ They can be expensive to purchase and maintain.
➢ They can be vulnerable to attacks from malicious users.

Real-Time Operating System

What is RTOS?

An operating system that can execute multi-threaded programmes and adhere to real-time
deadlines is known as a “RTOS.” The majority of RTOSes incorporate device drivers, resource
management, and schedulers. Remember that we don’t always mean “quick” when we talk about
“deadlines.” Instead, this means that we can foresee when specific jobs will run before runtime.

If you’re writing intricate embedded applications, an RTOS can be a great tool. They support task
isolation and enable concurrent operation.

Applications of Real-Time Operating System

➢ Defence application systems like RADAR.

➢ Airlines reservation system.
➢ Systems that provide immediate updating.
➢ Networked Multimedia Systems.
➢ Air traffic control system.
➢ Command Control Systems.

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COMPUTER SHORTCUT KEYS

Shortcut Keys of Computer A to Z (Basic)

When a user works on the computer system, selecting text, copying, pasting, and deleting are the
basic and frequently done tasks. Instead of using your cursor, you must be practicing Computer
Keyboard Shortcut Keys. All the basic computer shortcut keys to be used on daily basis are
mentioned in the table below. Check out the table given below to know the all basic computer
keyboard shortcut keys from A to Z.

Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Shortcuts Uses of Shortcut keys
Alt + F File menu options in the current program
Alt + E Edits options in the current program
F1 Universal help (for any sort of program)
Ctrl + A Selects all text
Ctrl + X Cuts the selected item
Ctrl + Del Cut selected item
Ctrl + C Copy the selected item
Ctrl + Ins Copy the selected item
Ctrl + V Paste the selected item
Shift + Ins Paste the selected item
Home Takes the user to the start of the current line
Ctrl + Home Go to the beginning of the document
End Go to the end of the current line
Ctrl + End Go to the end of a document
Shift + Home Highlight from the prevailing position to the start of the line
Shift + End Highlight from the prevailing position to end of the line
Ctrl + (Left arrow) Move one term to the left at a time
Ctrl + (Right arrow) Move one term to the right at a time

Computer Shortcut Keys for Microsoft Windows

Computer shortcuts are keys or combinations of keys that assist you in an alternative way to do
something that you typically do with a mouse or cursor. All the computer shortcut keys for Microsoft
Windows are given below. Let's have a look at the computer keyboard shortcut keys for Microsoft
Windows from the below table.

Shortcut Keys Uses of Shortcut keys

Ctrl + Plus Key Adjust the widths of all columns automatically, in Windows Explorer
Alt + Enter Open the properties window for the selected icon or program
Alt + Print Screen Take a screenshot of the current page.
Ctrl + Alt + Del Reboot/Windows task manager
Ctrl + Esc These keys allow you to activate the start menu
F4 Its purpose in Windows 95 to XP is to open the locate window

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F5 Refresh the contents of your windows system
F3 Find anything from your system’s desktop
Alt + Esc Switch between desktop applications on the taskbar
F2 Rename the selected icon
Alt + Shift + Tab It allows you to switch back between ongoing applications
Alt + Tab Switch between open applications/ programs.
Shift + Delete When you press the Shift and Delete keys together, your program or files will
be deleted permanently.
Alt + F4 It is used to close the ongoing program
Ctrl + F4 It’s used to swiftly close a document or a file that’s currently open.

Computer Shortcut Keys for MS Excel

Preparing a lengthy sheet in MS Excel and then revising the data or editing any single piece of
information in the complete sheet would be time-consuming if you are not aware of the shortcut
keys for MS Excel. All Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys for MS Office programs have been
discussed below. Check out the table given below to know the shortcut keys used in MS Excel.

Shortcut keys Uses of shortcut keys

Alt + Shift + F1 When you wanna insert new worksheet use these keys together
Shift + F3 With the help of these keys, you can open the MS-Excel formula window
Shift + F5 When you press these keys together it will open the search box
F11 The F11 key is used to create a chart in MS-Excel
Ctrl + Shift +; With the help of these keys, you can enter the current time
Ctrl +; Use these keys together to enter the current date
Ctrl + K When you want to Insert a link, you can use these keys together
Ctrl + F These keys are used to open find and replace options in MS-Excel
Ctrl + G Use these keys together to open go-to options
Ctrl + B When you press these keys together it will bold highlighted selection.
F2 When you want to edit the selected cell using this key
F5 With the help of this key, you can go to a specific cell
F7 With the help of this key, you can check the spell of selected text
Ctrl + I These commands are used to Italicize highlighted selection.
Ctrl + Space Use these keys together to select the entire column
Shift + Space Use these keys together to select the entire row
Ctrl + W Use these keys together to close the document
Ctrl + H Use these keys to open find and replace options
Ctrl + U With help of these keys, you can underline highlighted text.
Ctrl + Y With help of these keys, you can underline highlighted text.
Ctrl + Z With the help of these keys, you can undo the last deleted action
Ctrl + F9 Use these keys to minimize a current window in MS-Excel
Ctrl + F10 Use these keys to maximize the currently selected window in MS-Excel
Ctrl + Tab With the help of these keys, you can move between two or more open MS-
Excel files

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Alt + = With the help of these keys, you can initiate the formula to add all of the
above cells
Ctrl + With the use of these keys together you can insert the value in the current
cell from the above cell.
Ctrl + (Right arrow) With the help of these keys, you can jump on to the next section of text
Ctrl + O Use these keys to open options in MS-Excel
Ctrl + N Use these keys together to open the document in MS-Excel
Ctrl + P Use these keys together to open the print dialogue box in MS-Excel

Computer Shortcut Keys for MS Word

Though MS Word is the basic computer software and seems to be the easiest one to work on it.
However, there is a complete list of Computer Shortcut Keys that makes typing on MS Word easier
and enjoyable. All Computer Shortcut Keys related to MS Word are given below. Check out the table
given below to know the shortcut keys used in MS Word.

Shortcuts Uses of Shortcut keys

Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection
Ctrl + C Copy selected text
Ctrl + X Cut selected text
Ctrl + N Open new/blank document
Ctrl + O Open options
Ctrl + P Open the print window
Ctrl + F Open find box
Ctrl + I Italicize highlighted selection
Ctrl + K Insert link
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + G Find and replace options
Ctrl + H Find and replace options
Ctrl + J Justify paragraph alignment
Ctrl + L Align selected text or line to the left
Ctrl + Q Align selected paragraph to the left
Ctrl + E Align selected text or line to the centre
Ctrl + R Align selected text or line to the right
Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph
Ctrl + T Hanging indent
Ctrl + D Font options
Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1
Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1
Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1
Ctrl + Shift + * View or hide non printing characters
Ctrl + (Left arrow) Move one word to the left

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Ctrl + (Right arrow) Move one word to the right
Ctrl + (Up arrow) Move to the beginning of the line or paragraph
Ctrl + (Down arrow) Move to the end of the paragraph
Ctrl + Del Delete the word to the right of the cursor
Ctrl + Backspace Delete the word to the left of the cursor
Ctrl + End Move the cursor to the end of the document
Ctrl + Home Move the cursor to the beginning of the document
Ctrl + Space Reset highlighted text to the default font
Ctrl + 1 Single-space lines
Ctrl + 2 Double-space lines
Ctrl + 5 1.5-line spacing
Ctrl + Alt + 1 Change text to heading 1
Ctrl + Alt + 2 Change text to heading 2
Ctrl + Alt + 3 Change text to heading 3
Shift + F3 Change case of selected text
Shift + Insert Paste
F4 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+)
F7 Spell check selected text and/or document
Shift + F7 Activate the thesaurus
F12 Save as
Ctrl + S Save
Shift + F12 Save
Alt + Shift + D Insert the current date
Alt + Shift + T Insert the current time
Ctrl + W Close document
Ctrl+= Set chosen text as a subscript.
Ctrl+Shift+= Set chosen text as superscript.

Computer Shortcut Keys for PowerPoint

Beginning to work on Microsoft Powerpoint and wants to learn the shortcut keys to navigate and
perform commands quickly, then have a look at the computer keyboard shortcut keys used in the
PowerPoint program. All Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys for PowerPoint programs are given
below.

Shortcuts Keys Uses of Shortcut Keys

Ctrl+Shift+< Reduce the font size of the selected text by one size.
CTRL + G Group things together
Ctrl+M Create a new slide just after your chosen slide.
CTRL + D Create a duplicate of your current slide.
Esc Exit the ongoing slide show and it will redirect you to the earlier live view.
Ctrl+K When you want to enter a hyperlink use these keys together.
Ctrl+Shift+> These commands are used to maximize the font size of the selected text by
one size.

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F5 With the help of F5, you can start the presentation from the initial slide.
Ctrl+N These commands are used in a different Powerpoint software window, create
a new, blank slide.

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COMPUTER NETWORK

What Is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting
and sharing information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server.
These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also be
wireless.

The first working network, called ARPANET, was created in the late 1960s and was funded by the
U.S. Department of Defense. Government researchers used to share information at a time when
computers were large and difficult to move. We have come a long way today from that basic kind of
network. Today’s world revolves around the internet, which is a network of networks that connects
billions of devices across the world. Organizations of all sizes use networks to connect their
employees’ devices and shared resources such as printers.

Key Components of a Computer Network

From a broader lens, a computer network is built with two basic blocks: nodes or network devices
and links. The links connect two or more nodes with each other. The way these links carry the
information is defined by communication protocols. The communication endpoints, i.e., the origin
and destination devices, are often called ports.

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1. Network Devices
Network devices or nodes are computing devices that need to be linked in the network. Some
network devices include:

➢ Computers, mobiles, and other consumer devices: These are end devices that users directly
and frequently access. For example, an email originates from the mailing application on a
laptop or mobile phone.
➢ Servers: These are application or storage servers where the main computation and data
storage occur. All requests for specific tasks or data come to the servers.
➢ Routers: Routing is the process of selecting the network path through which the data packets
traverse. Routers are devices that forward these packets between networks to ultimately
reach the destination. They add efficiency to large networks.
➢ Switches: Repeaters are to networks what transformers are to electricity grids—they are
electronic devices that receive network signals and clean or strengthen them. Hubs are
repeaters with multiple ports in them. They pass on the data to whichever ports are available.
Bridges are smarter hubs that only pass the data to the destination port. A switch is a multi-
port bridge. Multiple data cables can be plugged into switches to enable communication with
multiple network devices.
➢ Gateways: Gateways are hardware devices that act as ‘gates’ between two distinct networks.
They can be firewalls, routers, or servers.

2. Links

Links are the transmission media which can be of two types:

➢ Wired: Examples of wired technologies used in networks include coaxial cables, phone lines,
twisted-pair cabling, and optical fibers. Optical fibers carry pulses of light to represent data.
➢ Wireless: Network connections can also be established through radio or other
electromagnetic signals. This kind of transmission is called ‘wireless’. The most common
examples of wireless links include communication satellites, cellular networks, and radio and
technology spread spectrums. Wireless LANs use spectrum technology to establish
connections within a small area.

3. Communication protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules followed by all nodes involved in the information transfer.
Some common protocols include the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless
LAN, and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a conceptual model that standardizes communication in a
modern network. It suggests four functional layers of these communication links:

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➢ Network access layer: This layer defines how the data is physically transferred. It includes how
hardware sends data bits through physical wires or fibers.
➢ Internet layer: This layer is responsible for packaging the data into understandable packets
and allowing it to be sent and received.
➢ Transport layer: This layer enables devices to maintain a conversation by ensuring the
connection is valid and stable.
➢ Application layer: This layer defines how high-level applications can access the network to
initiate data transfer.

Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, though there are still strong
influences of the similar but seven-layered open systems interconnection (OSI) model.

IEEE802 is a family of IEEE standards that deals with local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan
area networks (MAN). Wireless LAN is the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family and is
more widely known as WLAN or Wi-Fis.

4. Network Defense

While nodes, links, and protocols form the foundation of a network, a modern network cannot exist
without its defenses. Security is critical when unprecedented amounts of data are generated,
moved, and processed across networks. A few examples of network defense tools include firewall,
intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS), network access control (NAC),
content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices, and load balancers.

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be classified based on several criteria, such as the transmission medium, the
network size, the topology, and organizational intent. Based on a geographical scale, the different
types of networks are:

1. Nanoscale networks: These networks enable communication between minuscule sensors and
actuators.
2. Personal area network (PAN): PAN refers to a network used by just one person to connect
multiple devices, such as laptops to scanners, etc.
3. Local area network (LAN): The local area network connects devices within a limited
geographical area, such as schools, hospitals, or office buildings.
4. Storage area network (SAN): SAN is a dedicated network that facilitates block-level data
storage. This is used in storage devices such as disk arrays and tape libraries.
5. Campus area network (CAN): Campus area networks are a collection of interconnected LANs.
They are used by larger entities such as universities and governments.
6. Metropolitan area network (MAN): MAN is a large computer network that spans across a city.
7. Wide area network (WAN): Wide area network cover larger areas such as large cities, states,
and even countries.
8. Enterprise private network (EPN): An enterprise private network is a single network that a
large organization uses to connect its multiple office locations.

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9. Virtual private network (VPN): VPN is an overlay private network stretched on top of a public
network.
10. Cloud network: Technically, a cloud network is a WAN whose infrastructure is delivered via
cloud services.

Based on organizational intent, networks can be classified as:

1. Intranet: Intranet is a set of networks that is maintained and controlled by a single entity. It is
generally the most secure type of network, with access to authorized users alone. An intranet
usually exists behind the router in a local area network.
2. Internet: The internet (or the internetwork) is a collection of multiple networks connected by
routers and layered by networking software. This is a global system that connects
governments, researchers, corporates, the public, and individual computer networks.
3. Extranet: An extranet is similar to the intranet but with connections to particular external
networks. It is generally used to share resources with partners, customers, or remote
employees.
4. Darknet: The darknet is an overlay network that runs on the internet and can only be accessed
by specialized software. It uses unique, customized communication protocols.

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OSI MODEL

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted
by all major computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer
model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps
isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies, and
was adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

➢ Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

➢ Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a
network.
➢ Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing
efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:

➢ Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor,
allowing open interoperability
➢ Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
➢ Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at
the application layer, or across the stack.

OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards for
communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been developed
by the International Organization For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture. Each layer of
OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols.

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The seven abstraction layers of the OSI model can be defined as follows, from top to bottom:

7. The application layer

This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software applications like web
browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to initiate communications. But it should be
made clear that client software applications are not part of the application layer; rather the
application layer is responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the software relies on
to present meaningful data to the user. Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).

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6. The presentation layer

This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the application layer;
in other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for applications to consume. The presentation
layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data.

Two communicating devices communicating may be using different encoding methods, so layer 6 is
responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that the application layer of the receiving
device can understand.

If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is responsible for adding the
encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the encryption on the receiver's end so that it
can present the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.

Finally the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives from the
application layer before delivering it to layer 5. This helps improve the speed and efficiency of
communication by minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.

5. The session layer

This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the two devices. The
time between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the session. The session

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layer ensures that the session stays open long enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and
then promptly closes the session in order to avoid wasting resources.

The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints. For example, if a 100 megabyte
file is being transferred, the session layer could set a checkpoint every 5 megabytes. In the case of a
disconnect or a crash after 52 megabytes have been transferred, the session could be resumed from
the last checkpoint, meaning only 50 more megabytes of data need to be transferred. Without the
checkpoints, the entire transfer would have to begin again from scratch.

4. The transport layer

Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices. This includes taking
data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks called segments before sending it to layer
3. The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the segments into data
the session layer can consume.

The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control. Flow control determines an
optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender with a fast connection does not overwhelm a
receiver with a slow connection. The transport layer performs error control on the receiving end by
ensuring that the data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.

3. The network layer

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The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different networks. If the
two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer is unnecessary. The
network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units, called packets, on the
sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving device. The network layer also
finds the best physical path for the data to reach its destination; this is known as routing.

2. The data link layer

The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link layer facilitates data
transfer between two devices on the same network. The data link layer takes packets from the
network layer and breaks them into smaller pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the data
link layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in intra-network communication (The
transport layer only does flow control and error control for inter-network communications).

1. The physical layer

This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as the cables
and switches. This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a string
of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that the 1s
can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.

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MICROSOFT OFFICE – AN INTRODUCTION

Microsoft Office is a software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office suite comprises
various applications which form the core of computer usage in today’s world.

MS Office Applications & its Functions

Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.
1. MS Word

• First released on October 25, 1983

• Extension for Doc files is “.doc”
• It is useful in creating text documents
• Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word
• Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same file
which is downloadable in the form of a document
• Authors can use for writing/ editing their work

What is MS Word?

Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word processor
developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to format and edit your files and
documents in the best possible way.

Where to find MS Word on your personal computer?

Follow these simple steps to open MS Word on your personal computer:

Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word.

What are the uses of MS Word?

MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc. This is one of
the most commonly used programs under the Office suite.

How to create an MS Word document?

To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then once
the program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This opens a new doc where something new
can be created.

Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official purposes, having
proper knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of the MS Doc file once it is opened is
given below:

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Features of MS Word

Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail.

The image given below shows the different elements and categories which are available in MS Word
doc:

➢ Home
This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All the
basic elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home option.

➢ Insert
Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be entered in the
document. They are included in the “Insert” category.

➢ Design
The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected under
the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your document.

➢ Page Layout
Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines, indentation,
spacing, etc.

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➢ References
This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy
documents. Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can be
found under this tab.

➢ Review
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all be
tracked under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their documents reviewed
on MS Word.

Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can be set in different views and layouts,
which can be added and optimised using the View tab on the Word document. Margins and scales
are also available for the benefit of the users.

Uses of MS Word

Given below are the different fields in which MS Word is used and simplifies the work of an
individual:

➢ In Education: It is considered as one of the simplest tools which can be used by both teachers
and students. Creating notes is easier using MS Word as they can be made more interactive by
adding shapes and images. It is also convenient to make assignments on MS Word and
submitting them online
➢ In Workplace: Submitting letters, bills, creating reports, letterheads, sample documents, can
all easily be done using MS Word
➢ Creating & Updating Resume: One of the best tools to create your resumes and is easy to edit
and make changes in it as per your experience
➢ For Authors: Since separate options are available for bibliography, table of contents, etc., it is
the best tool which can be used by authors for writing books and adjusting it as per the layout
and alignment of your choice

2. MS Excel

• Majorly used for making spreadsheets

• A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to
manage and can be used as a replacement for paper
• It is a data processing application
• Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel
• Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds
• File extension, when saved in the computer, is “.xls”

What is MS Excel?

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➢ MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record data in the form of tables. It is easy
to analyse data in an Excel spreadsheet. The image given below represents how an Excel
spreadsheet looks like:

How to open MS Excel?

To open MS Excel on your computer, follow the steps given below:

➢ Click on Start
➢ Then All Programs
➢ Next step is to click on MS Office
➢ Then finally, choose the MS-Excel option
Alternatively, you can also click on the Start button and type MS Excel in the search option available.

What is a cell?

A spreadsheet is in the form of a table comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at the
intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell. Given below is an image of a cell:

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What is Cell Address?

The cell address is the name by which is cell can be addressed. For example, if row 7 is interested in
column G, then the cell address is G7.

Features of MS Excel

Various editing and formatting can be done on an Excel spreadsheet. Discussed below are the
various features of MS Excel.

The image below shows the composition of features in MS Excel:

➢ Home

• Comprises options like font size, font styles, font colour, background colour, alignment,
formatting options and styles, insertion and deletion of cells and editing options.

➢ Insert

• Comprises options like table format and style, inserting images and figures, adding
graphs, charts and sparklines, header and footer option, equation and symbols.

➢ Page Layout

• Themes, orientation and page setup options are available under the page layout option.

➢ Formulas

• Since tables with a large amount of data can be created in MS excel, under this feature,
you can add formulas to your table and get quicker solutions.

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➢ Data

• Adding external data (from the web), filtering options and data tools are available under
this category.

➢ Review

• Proofreading can be done for an excel sheet (like spell check) in the review category and
a reader can add comments in this part

➢ View

• Different views in which we want the spreadsheet to be displayed can be edited here.
Options to zoom in and out and pane arrangement are available under this category

Benefits of Using MS Excel

MS Excel is widely used for various purposes because the data is easy to save, and information can
be added and removed without any discomfort and less hard work.

Given below are a few important benefits of using MS Excel:

➢ Easy To Store Data: Since there is no limit to the amount of information that can be saved in a
spreadsheet, MS Excel is widely used to save data or to analyse data. Filtering information in
Excel is easy and convenient.
➢ Easy To Recover Data: If the information is written on a piece of paper, finding it may take
longer, however, this is not the case with excel spreadsheets. Finding and recovering data is
easy.
➢ Application of Mathematical Formulas: Doing calculations has become easier and less time-
taking with the formulas option in MS excel
➢ More Secure: These spreadsheets can be password secured in a laptop or personal computer
and the probability of losing them is way lesser in comparison to data written in registers or
piece of paper.
➢ Data at One Place: Earlier, data was to be kept in different files and registers when the
paperwork was done. Now, this has become convenient as more than one worksheet can be
added in a single MS Excel file.
➢ Neater and Clearer Visibility of Information: When the data is saved in the form of a table,
analysing it becomes easier. Thus, information is a spreadsheet that is more readable and
understandable.

MS Excel – Points To Remember

There are certain things which one must know with respect to MS Excel, its applications and usage:

➢ An MS Excel file is saved with an extension of .xls

➢ Companies with large staff and workers use MS Excel as saving employee information
becomes easier

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➢ Excel spreadsheets are also used in hospitals where the information of patients can be saved
more easily and can be removed conveniently once their medical history is cleared
➢ The sheet on which you work is called a Worksheet
➢ Multiple worksheets can be added in a single Excel file
➢ This is a data processing application

3. MS PowerPoint

➢ The program was created in a software company named Forethought, Inc. by Robert
Gaskins and Dennis Austin.
➢ It was released on April 20, 1987, and after 3 months of its creation, it was acquired by
Microsoft.
➢ The first version of this program, when introduced by Microsoft was MS PowerPoint 2.0
(1990).
➢ It is a presentation-based program that uses graphics, videos, etc. to make a
presentation more interactive and interesting.
➢ The file extension of a saved Powerpoint presentation is “.ppt”.
➢ A PowerPoint presentation comprising slides and other features is also known as PPT.
Gradually, with each version, the program was more creative and more interactive. Various other
features were added in PowerPoint which massively increased the requirement and use of this MS
Office program.

Basics of MS PowerPoint

Discussed below are a few questions that one must be aware of while discussing the basics of MS
PowerPoint. Once this is understood, using the program and analysing how to use it more creatively
shall become easier.

Question: What is MS PowerPoint?

Answer: PowerPoint (PPT) is a powerful, easy-to-use presentation graphics software program that
allows you to create professional-looking electronic slide shows.

The image given below shows the main page of MS PowerPoint, where a person lands when the
program is opened on a computer system:

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Question: How to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer?

Answer: Follow the steps below to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer:

1. Click on the start button

2. Then choose “All Programs”
3. Next step is to select “MS Office”
4. Under MS Office, click on the “MS PowerPoint”

A blank presentation is open on the screen. According to the requirement, a person can modify the
template for a presentation and start using the program.

Question: What is a PowerPoint presentation or PPT?

Answer: A combination of various slides depicting a graphical and visual interpretation of data, to
present information in a more creative and interactive manner is called a PowerPoint presentation
or PPT.

Question: What is a slide show in a PowerPoint presentation?

Answer: When all the slides of a PowerPoint presentation are set in series and then presented to a
group of people, where each slide appears one after the other, is a set pattern, this is known as a
PowerPoint slide show.

Question: What all elements can be added to a slide?

Answer: The following elements can be added to a Powerpoint slide:

1. Clip Art
2. Graphs
3. Tables
4. Photographs
5. Charts

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6. Media Clips
7. Videos

All these elements are mainly used to enhance presentation skills and make the slide more
interactive.

Features of MS PowerPoint

There are multiple features that are available in MS PowerPoint which can customise and optimise a
presentation. The same have been discussed below.

➢ Slide Layout
Multiple options and layouts are available based on which a presentation can be created. This option
is available under the “Home” section and one can select from the multiple layout options provided.

The image below shows the different slide layout options which are available for use:

➢ Insert – Clipart, Video, Audio, etc.

Under the “Insert” category, multiple options are available where one can choose what feature they
want to insert in their presentation. This may include images, audio, video, header, footer, symbols,
shapes, etc.

The image below shows the features which can be inserted:

➢ Slide Design
MS PowerPoint has various themes using which background colour and designs or textures can be
added to a slide. This makes the presentation more colourful and attracts the attention of the
people looking at it.

This feature can be added using the “Design” category mentioned on the homepage of MS
PowerPoint. Although there are existing design templates available, in case someone wants to add

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some new texture or colour, the option to customise the design is also available. Apart from this,
slide designs can also be downloaded online.

Refer to the below for slide design:

➢ Animations
During the slide show, the slides appear on the screen one after the other. In case, one wants to add
some animations to the way in which a slide presents itself, they can refer to the “Animations”
category.

The different animation styles available on PowerPoint are:

Apart from all these options; font size, font style, font colour, word art, date and time, etc. can also
be added to a PPT.

Uses of PowerPoint Presentation

PowerPoint presentations are useful for both personal and professional usage. Given below are a
few of the major fields where PPT is extremely useful:

➢ Education – With e-learning and smart classes being chosen as a common mode of education
today, PowerPoint presentations can help in making education more interactive and attract
students towards the modified version of studying
➢ Marketing – In the field of marketing, PowerPoint presentations can be extremely important.
Using graphs and charts, numbers can be shown more evidently and clearly which may be
ignored by the viewer if being read
➢ Business – To invite investors or to show the increase or decrease in profits, MS PowerPoint
can be used
➢ Creating Resumes – Digital resumes can be formed using MS PowerPoint. Different patterns,
photograph, etc. can be added to the resume
➢ Depicting Growth – Since both graphics and text can be added in a presentation, depicting the
growth of a company, business, student’s marks, etc. is easier using PPT

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4. MS Access

➢ It was released on November 13, 1992

➢ It is Database Management Software (DBMS)
➢ Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access
➢ Import and export of data into other formats can be done
➢ The file extension is “.accdb”

5. MS Outlook

➢ It was released on January 16, 1997

➢ It is a personal information management system
➢ It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software
➢ Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal logging and
web browsing
➢ It is the email client of the Office Suite
➢ The file extension for an Outlook file is “.pst”

6. MS OneNote

➢ It was released on November 19, 2003

➢ It is a note-taking application
➢ When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it free,
standalone and easily available at play store for android devices
➢ The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
➢ The extension for OneNote files is “.one”
➢ It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application

Microsoft Office Versions

➢ Microsoft Office for Windows Version was launched in the year-1990.

➢ Microsoft Office 3.0 Version was started in- August 30, 1992.

➢ Microsoft Office 4.0 Version was commenced in the year- 1994.

➢ Microsoft Office 95 Version was launched in-August 24, 1995.

➢ Microsoft Office 97 Version was commenced in the year -1997.

➢ Microsoft Office 2000 Version was launched in-June 7, 1999.

➢ Microsoft Office XP Version was launched in- May 31, 2001.

➢ Microsoft Office 2003 Version was launched in- October 21, 2003.

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➢ Microsoft Office 2007 Version was started in-January 30, 2007.

➢ Microsoft Office 2010 Version was initiated on -June 15, 2010.

➢ Microsoft Office 2013 Version was inaugurated in-January 29, 2013.

➢ Microsoft Office 2016 Version was started in- September 22, 2015.

➢ Microsoft Office 2019 Version was started in- September 24, 2018.

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WORD PROCESSING

Word processing – the use of a program (software application) running on a computer that allows
users to create, edit, format, and store documents.

Create a Document

Steps to create a new word processing

document (Word, Office 365):

1. Start Microsoft Word.

2. Click the File tab.
3. Click the New tab.
4. Click Blank document. (A new blank
document appears.)
5. Type your text. The text you type will be
inserted into the document.

Edit a Document

Editing a document – making revisions to a document, focusing on correcting errors, improving the
accuracy of language, rearranging, making words and sentences clearer and more effective, etc.

Editing in word processing may include the following tasks:

➢ Adding text (terms, phrases, paragraphs, etc.)

➢ Deleting a part of a text
➢ Copying text
➢ Moving text
➢ Pasting text
➢ Checking for grammar and spelling
➢ Formatting text

Select Text

Before editing text, you’ll need to select it. This is also sometimes called “highlighting text.”

1. Click File Explorer icon.

2. Go to the location where stores your file or folder (hard drive, USB, etc.).

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3. Open the document you wish to edit.

4. Move the I-beam pointer to where you wish to select text.

1. To select a word: double-click the word.
2. To select an entire line of text: move the I-beam to the left of the line

until it turns into a right-pointing arrow , then click.

3. To select a paragraph: triple-click the paragraph.
4. To select any amount of text: click and drag the I-beam over the text to highlight it.
5. To select an entire document: move the I-beam to the left of any text until it turns into

a right-pointing arrow , then triple-click. Or click the Home tab, under Editing,
click Select, and then click Select All.

Delete (or remove) text

Method 1

1. Select the text you wish to delete.

2. Press the Delete key (on the keyboard).

Method 2

1. Move the I-beam pointer to the text you want to delete. Click to set the insertion point there
(a blinking vertical line).
2. To delete text to the left of the insertion point, press the Backspace key on the keyboard. (On
a Mac keyboard, press the Delete key.)

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3. To delete text to the right of the insertion point, press the Delete key on the keyboard. (On a
Mac keyboard, press the fn key plus the Delete key.)

Copy and Paste

Copy vs. cut

➢ Copy – duplicates the selected item (text, symbol, table, image, etc.).
➢ Cut – removes the selected item from its original position.

Copy and paste vs. cut and paste

➢ Copy and paste – duplicates the selected item. The selected item can be found in both original
and the new, pasted location(s).
➢ Cut and paste – duplicates the selected item then deletes the original. The selected data can
be found only at the new, pasted location (the item has moved from one location to another).

Steps to copy / cut and paste

Method 1

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Select the item you wish to Copy or Cut.
3. Right-click the highlighted item and click Copy or Cut. You can also use your keyboard:
a. Copy: Cntr + c (On a Mac, it is Cmd + c)
b. Cut: Cntr + x (On a Mac, it is Cmd + x)

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4. Position the insertion point where you wish to insert the item.

5. Right-click and click the Paste icon. You can also use your keyboard by
pressing Cntr + v (On a Mac, it is Cmd + v).

Method 2

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Select the item you wish to copy or cut.
3. Click the Home tab at the top (on the ribbon). Click the Copy button.
4. Position the insertion point where you wish to insert the item.
5. Under the Home tab at the top, click the Paste button.

Review a Document

Check Spelling and Grammar

Method 1

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Right-click a word that is underlined with a wavy line (that indicates a misspelled word).

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3. Select the correct spelling from the suggestion list to correct the spelling error. For each error,
Word will offer one or more suggestions.

Method 2

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Click the Review tab.
3. Click the Editor button (it may also say, “Spelling and Grammar”). If the program finds spelling
errors, the Spelling & Grammar pane will appear.
4. Click one of the options from the suggestion list to change the spelling error. The program will

move to the next misspelled word.

Find Synonyms

Method 1

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Right-click a word for which you wish to find a synonym for.
3. Click the Synonyms command from the pop-out menu.
4. Find a desired word in the list and click it to replace the original word.
5. If none of the synonyms are desired, click the Thesaurus command to open the full thesaurus.
(The Thesaurus pane will appear.)
6. Find a desired word in the Thesaurus pane list and right-click it and then click Insert.

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7. Close the Thesaurus pane.

Method 2

1. Open the document you wish to edit.

2. Select a word for which you wish to use the thesaurus.
3. Click the Review tab.
4. Click the Thesaurus button.
5. Find a desired word in the “Thesaurus” pane and right-click it and then click Insert.
6. Close the Thesaurus pane.

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MICROSOFT WINDOWS

MS Windows
Developer Microsoft
Initial Release 20th November 1985
Marketing Target Personal Computing
Languages Available in 138 languages
Default User Interface Windows Shell
Official Website microsoft.com

What is Windows Operating System?

By definition, an Operating System is a group of several GUIs (Graphical User Interface) families, all
of which are developed, sold and marketed by Microsoft.

The latest version of Microsoft Operating System which is being widely used across the world is
Windows 10.

History and Development of Windows

It was 1983 when work on “Interface Manager” was started by Microsoft but it was in November
1995, when the first Windows 1.0 was introduced. Later on, with developments in technology, the
requirement of the people and increased demand for Graphical User Interface, Microsoft kept
releasing revised versions of Operating Systems.

Versions of Windows Operating System

Let us understand the different versions of Windows Operating System along with the features of
each of them individually.

1. Windows 1.0

➢ It was released on November 20, 1985

➢ Pure Operating Environment
➢ Used Graphical User Interface
➢ Simple Graphics
➢ Offered limited multi-tasking was expected to have a better future potential

2. Windows 2.0

➢ It was released on December 9, 1987

➢ 16-bit Graphic User Interface (GUI) based operating environment
➢ Introduced Control Panel, and the first version of MS Word and Excel
➢ Unlike Windows 1.0, it had the capacity to allow applications to overlap each other
➢ It was also the last Windows OS which did not require a hard disk
➢ Hardware played an important role

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3. Windows 3.0

➢ It was released in 1990

➢ It was better at multitasking
➢ Used 8086 microprocessors
➢ It has both, conventional and extendable memory
➢ First version of Windows to gather critical appreciation
➢ Better memory/ storage

Note* – None of the above mentioned Windows was Operating Systems. They all came under the
category of Windows, working based on a graphical operating environment. It was Windows 95,
which was the first Operating System released by Microsoft.

4. Window 95

➢ It was the first complete Operating System

➢ It was released on August 15, 1995
➢ It merged MS-DOS and Windows products
➢ It simplified plug and play features
➢ Taskbar and Start menu was introduced with this Windows OS
➢ Advanced from 16 bit GUI to 32 bit GUI
➢ Long file names could be saved
➢ Initially, computers with Windows 95 did not have Internet Explorer installed but by the
release date of Windows 95, the first version of Internet Explorer was installed in the software
➢ On December 31, 2001, Windows declared this version of OS outdated and ended its support
for the same

5. Windows 98

➢ It was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998

➢ It was a 16 bit and 32 bit product based on MS DOS
➢ It was not an entirely new version but just a tuned-up version to Windows 95
➢ Internet Explorer 4.01 was released along with this Windows version
➢ It did not support USB printers or mass storage devices
➢ An update to this version “Windows SE” was released in 1999

6. Windows 2000

➢ It was officially released on February 17, 2000. However, its manufacturing had begun in late
1999

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➢ A core set of features was followed for manufacturing Windows 2000 but 4 different editions,
targeting different sectors of the market were released. These included: Server, Professional,
Advanced Server and Datacenter Server
➢ It was considered as one of the most secure OS ever
➢ A local disk manager was introduced with these Windows
➢ Multilingual User Interface – it supported many different languages
7. Windows XP

➢ While the manufacturing started on August 24, 2001, the official product was released on
October 25, 2001
➢ Advanced portable PC support
➢ Automatic wireless connection support
➢ Fast start-up
➢ Better Graphical User Interface (GUI)
➢ Help and support centre

8. Windows Vista

➢ It was released on January 30, 2007

➢ It had an upgraded version of Graphical User Interface
➢ It was the first operating system to use DVD-ROM for installation

9. Windows 7

➢ It was released on October 22, 2009

➢ A large number of new features were introduced
➢ Redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar
➢ Incremental upgrade to the Windows line
➢ Libraries were added in the file management system
➢ A few features from the past Windows were removed
➢ Extended hardware support

10. Windows 8

➢ It was released for retail on October 26, 2012

➢ Optimisations for touch-based
➢ Installed in new devices like Laptops, Mobile phones, tablets, etc.
➢ Increased integration with cloud services
➢ Windows Store service for software distribution

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➢ Task manager had been redesigned
➢ New security features were introduced
➢ Online Applications could be directly downloaded

11. Windows 10

➢ It was released on July 29, 2015

➢ Addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8
➢ A virtual desktop system
➢ It had the ability to run windows store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in the
full-screen mode
➢ Included new icons
➢ To reduce storage shortcomings, Windows 10 automatically compresses the file size

Applications in Windows

There are all kinds of applications which are available at the Windows store and people can easily
access them and download them for their personal or professional usage.

Given below is a list of such application available on Windows:

➢ Web Browsers
➢ Adobe Photoshop
➢ Adobe Reader
➢ Messenger
➢ Media Players
➢ Games
➢ Audio/ Video Chatting Apps
➢ Maps & Calendar and this list goes on

List of Important Commands for Windows

Since Computers run over a set of commands which are entered in the form of input, which with the
advancement of Operating Systems can be entered through various Hardware devices.

Important Commands for Windows

cd – change directory help – help about a command
cls – clear window notepad – windows notepad text editor
dir – display list of contents of current type – displays content of text file
directory
assoc – display/modify file extensions attrib – displays/ change file attributes
call – calls one batch program file from color – set text and background colour
another
comp – compares the contents of two files copy – to copy one or more files to another

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location
date – displays date del – delete multiple files
edit – Run MS-DOS text editor exit – close MS-DOS window
find – search for a text string in a file move – move one or more files to another location

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INTERNET

A global system of interconnected computers, using a standardised Internet Protocol suite for
communication and sharing information is called the Internet.

History and Evolution of the Internet

➢ The first development was the introduction of host-to-host network interactions. This was first
observed in ARPANET in 1969. It was developed by Advanced Research Projects Agency
(APRA) of the Department of Defence, U.S. It was one of the first general usage of computer
networks.
➢ Next step was commercialising the usage and making the transistors and transmitters fit in
smaller devices for convenient Internet usage for the general public. This was introduced in
the 1970s.
➢ Moving forward, satellites and wireless communication was the main target. Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (formerly ARPA), supported satellite-based radio packets
for mobile usage of networks.
➢ The next was the development of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This enabled different
machines and networks across the world to assemble data packets. It was in the 1980s that
the TCP/IP approach was adapted by researchers and technologists, following the footsteps of
the U.S. Department of Defence.
➢ With the introduction of personal computers, the demand for commercial Internet usage
increased. This was the time when Ethernet and other Local Area Networks cam in the
foreground.
➢ In 1993, the web browser was introduced, which followed the point-and-click approach and is
now a widely used operation for Internet users.
➢ The late 1990s was the time when thousands of Internet Service Providers has taken up the
market and most of them were from the U.S.
➢ And then the 21st century brought in an amalgamation of technology and wireless Internet
accessibility for its users. Wherein, wireless broadband services came in as a boon for Internet
users.

Ways To Connect To Internet

The different ways in which one can connect to the Internet are discussed below in brief:

➢ Dial-Up – In such connections, users are required to link their phone line to a computer to
access the Internet. Under this connection, the user cannot make or receive phone calls
through tier home phone service.
➢ Broadband – Provided either through cable or phone companies, Broadband is a high-speed
internet connection which is widely used today.
➢ Wireless Connection – Wi-fi and Mobile service providers fall under this category. Internet
connectivity is made via radio waves and the Internet can be connected anywhere,
irrespective of the location. Given below are a few examples of wireless connection:

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• Wi-fi – Wireless Fidelity or wi-fi allows high-speed internet connectivity without the use
of wires.
• Mobile Phones – All smartphones are now equipped with an option for Internet
connectivity which can be availed using Internet vouchers and packs. No external
connection or wire is required for these.
• Satellite – Where broadband connections are unavailable, satellites are used for
wireless Internet connectivity.
• Integrated Services Digital Network – ISDN allows users to sent audio or video data
using telephone lines.

Internet Connection Protocols

Protocols are a set of rules that help in governing the way in which any particular body or technology
works.

Internet Connection Protocols can be divided into three major types:

➢ TCP/IP Network Model – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
the most widely used protocols for connecting networks. It divides any message into a series
of packets which are sent from source to destination.
➢ File Transfer Protocol – Program files, multimedia files, text files, documents, etc. can be
transferred from one device to another, using FTP.
➢ Hypertext Transfer Protocol – Used for transferring a hypertext from one device to two or
more devices. HTML tags are used for creating links and these links may be in the form of text
or images.

Pros and Cons of Using the Internet

Intentionally or unintentionally, Internet usage is a part in the day to day lives of every individual.
The Internet has made lives easy and comfortable, but at the same time made human being
dependable for the smallest or biggest of information. Discussed below are the uses of the internet,
along with a few cons that it brings along.

Pros of Internet

➢ Easy Access to Information – Information on anything and everything are available online. The
Internet makes it convenient to learn about new things at any point in time and get details on
various subjects, irrespective of time and place.
➢ Platform for Online Education – With the advanced technology, even students and adults
wish to learn new things and gaining knowledge at various online portals has become more
accessible.
➢ Job Hunting – Employers can look for employees on the internet and the job seekers can
apply online for jobs using the Internet.
➢ Platform to become an Entrepreneur – Today, thousands of people have started their own
websites and getting good business and users/customers by making their own websites and
selling products or services. This has become accessible due to Internet connectivity.

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➢ Visual and Graphical Representation of Things – Various researches have shown that a
person tends to get more engaged with a graphical representation of things. Internet has
made this facility also convenient for both user and creator.
➢ Reduced the parameter of Distance – Social media has reduced the distance between people
as communication has become much easier because of Internet connection.

Cons of Internet

➢ Dependency – The dependency of people for looking things and information online has
increased massively since the introduction of Internet and its easy access.
➢ Cyber Crime – People do not just use internet for learning purposes, cybercrime has also been
at a distinctive high because of effortless availability of resources.
➢ Distraction – People can easily find online games, interesting information, etc. online which
may be a cause of distraction for may.
➢ Bullying and Trolls – Online platforms are being used for unethical practises like bullying
people and trolling them.

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COMMON COMPUTER ABBREVIATIONS

➢ AAC : Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2
standad)
➢ ABI : Application Binary Interface
➢ ABR : Area Border Router
➢ ABR : Available Bit Rate
➢ AD : Active Directory
➢ ADC : Analog – To – Digital Converter
➢ ADC : Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
➢ AH : Active Hub
➢ AHA : Accelerated Hub Architecture
➢ Ajax : Asynchronous Java Script and XML
➢ AL : Active Link
➢ ALGOL : Algorithmic Language
➢ ALU : Algorithmic and Logical Unit
➢ AM : Active Monitor
➢ AMD : Advanced Micro Devices
➢ AMR : Audio Modem Riser
➢ AoE : ATA over Ethernet
➢ APCI : Application- Layer Protocol Control Information
➢ API : Application Programming Interface
➢ APIPA : Automatic Private IP Addressing
➢ ASCH : American Standard Code for Information Inter change
➢ ASG : Abstract Semantic Graph
➢ ASP : Application Service Provider
➢ AST : Abstract Syntax Tree
➢ ATA : Advanced Technology Attachment
➢ ATM : Asynchronous Transfer Mode
➢ AVC : Advanced Video Interleaved
➢ AWT : Abstract Windowing Toolkit
➢ BASIC : Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
➢ BCD : Binary Coded Decimal
➢ BEEP : Blocks Extensible Exchange Protocol
➢ BER : Bit Error Rate
➢ BFD : Binary File Descriptor
➢ BGP : Border Gateway Protocol
➢ Bin : binary
➢ BINAC : Binary Automatic Computer
➢ BIOS : Basic Input Output System
➢ Bit : binary digit
➢ Blob : Binary large object
➢ Blog : Web Log
➢ BMP : Basic Multilingual Plane
➢ BOOTP : Bootstrap Protocol
➢ BPEL : Business Process Execution Language
➢ Bps : bits per second
➢ CAD : Computer- Aided Design
➢ CAE : Computer- Aided Engineering
➢ CAI : Computer- Aided Instruction
➢ CAT : Computer- Aided Translation
➢ CAQ : Computer- Aided Quality Assurance
➢ Cc : C Compiler

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➢ CD : Compact Disc
➢ CD-R : CD-Recordable
➢ CD-ROM : CD Read-only Memory
➢ CD-RW : CD- Rewritable
➢ CG : Computer Graphics
➢ CGA : Colour Graphics Array
➢ CGI : Common Gateway Interface
➢ CGI : Common -Generated Imagenry
➢ CIFS : Common Internet Filesystem
➢ CLI : Command Line Interface
➢ CLR : Common Language Runtime
➢ CNC : Computer Numerical Control
➢ COBOL : Common Business-Oriented Language
➢ CPU : Central Processing Unit
➢ CRT : Cathode Ray Tube
➢ CSI : Common System Interface
➢ CT : Computerised Tomography
➢ CTCP : Client-To-Client Protocol
➢ CTL : Computational Tree Logic
➢ CTS : Clear To Send
➢ CUA : Common User Access
➢ DAC : Digital-To-Analog Converter
➢ DAP : Directiory Access Protocol
➢ DB : Databse
➢ DBA : Database Administrator
➢ DBMS : Database Management System
➢ DCC : Direct Client-to-Client
➢ DDR : Double Data Rate
➢ DES : Data Encryption Standard
➢ DFD : Data Flow Diagram
➢ DFS : Distributed File System
➢ DHTML : Dynamic HTML
➢ DIVX : Digital Video Express
➢ DLL : Dynamic Link Library
➢ DLP : Digital Light Processing
➢ DMA : Direct Memory Access
➢ DOS : Disk Operating System
➢ DPI : Dots Per Inch
➢ DPMI : DOS Protected Mode Interface
➢ DSL : Digital subscriber Line
➢ DSL : Domian- Specific Language
➢ DSN : Database Source Name (ODBC)
➢ DTE : Data Terminal Equipment
➢ DTR : Data Terminal Ready
➢ DVD : Digital Versatile Disc
➢ DVD : Digital Video Disc
➢ DVD-R : DVD- Rewritable
➢ DVI : Digital Visual Interface
➢ DVR : Digital Video Recorder
➢ EAP : Extensible Authentication Protocol
➢ EBCDIC : Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
➢ EDO : Extended Data Out
➢ EEPROM : Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
➢ EFF : Electronic Frontier Foundation

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➢ EFI : Extensible Firmware Interface
➢ EGA : Enhanced Graphics Array
➢ EGP : Exterior Gateway Protocal
➢ eID : electronic ID card
➢ EIGRP : Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
➢ ELF : Executable and Linkable Format
➢ ELM : Electronic Mail
➢ EOM : End of Message
➢ EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
➢ EUC : Extended Unix Code
➢ EXE : EXEcutable
➢ FAP : FORTRAN Assembly Program
➢ FAT : File Allocation Table
➢ FAQ : Frequently Asked Questions
➢ FDC : Floppy Disk Controller
➢ FDD : Floppy Disk Drive
➢ FIFO : First In Fist Out
➢ FHS : Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
➢ FCS : Frame Check Sequence
➢ FPU : Floating Point Unit
➢ FS : File System
➢ FSB : Front Side Bus
➢ FTP : File Transfer Protocol
➢ FXP : File eXchange Protocol
➢ Gb : Gigabit
➢ GB : Gigabyte
➢ GCR : Group Code Recording
➢ GDI : Graphics Device Interface
➢ GIF : Graphics Interchange Format
➢ GIGO : Garbage In, Garbage Out
➢ GPU : Graphics Processing Unit
➢ GUI : Graphical User Interface
➢ HAL : Hardware Abstraction Layer
➢ HCI : Human Computer Interaction
➢ HDD : Hard Disk Drive
➢ HD DVD : High Definition DVD
➢ HDL : Hardware Description Language
➢ HHD : Hybrid Hard Drive
➢ HID : Human Interface Guidelines
➢ HIG : Human Interface Guidelines
➢ HPFS : High Performance File System
➢ HSM : Hierarchical Storage Management
➢ HTM : Hierarchical Temporal Memory
➢ HTML : Hypertext Markup Language
➢ HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
➢ HTX : Hyper Transport eXpansion
➢ HURD : Hird of Unix- Replacing Daemons
➢ HVD : Holographic Versatile Disc
➢ IBM : International Business Machines
➢ ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol
➢ ICP : Internet Cache Protocol
➢ IDL : Interface Definition Language
➢ IE : Internet Explorer
➢ IGMP : Internet Group Management Protocol

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➢ IGRP : Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
➢ IHV : Independent Hardware Vendor
➢ IIOP : Internet Inter-Orb Protocol
➢ IIS : Internet Information Services
➢ IM : Instant Messaging
➢ IMAP : Internet Message Access Protocol
➢ I/O : Input/Output
➢ IP : Internet Protocol
➢ IPC : Inter-Process Communication
➢ IPP : Internet Printing Protocol
➢ Ipsec : Internet Protocol security
➢ IPTV : Internet Protocol Television
➢ IPX : Internetwork Packet Exchange
➢ IRC : Internet Relay Chat
➢ IRP : I/ORequest Packet
➢ IRQ : Interrupt Request
➢ ISC : Internet Storm Center
➢ ISO : International Organisation for Standardisation
➢ ISOC : Internet Society
➢ ISP : Internet Service Provider
➢ ISR : Interrupt Service Routine
➢ ISV : Independent Software Vendor
➢ IT : Information Technology
➢ ITU : International Telecommunication Union
➢ J2CE : Java 2 Cryptograhic Edition
➢ JDS : Java Desktop System
➢ JMX : Java Management Extensions
➢ JMS : Java Message Service
➢ JNDI : Java Naming and Directory Interface
➢ JNI : Java Native Interface
➢ JPEG : Joint Photographic Experts Group
➢ JS : Java Script
➢ JSON : Java Script Object Notation
➢ JSP : Java Server Pages
➢ JUG : Java Users Group
➢ Kb : Kilobit
➢ KB : Kilobyte
➢ kHz : Kilohertz
➢ LAN : Local Area Network
➢ LIFO : Last In first Out
➢ LSB : Least Significant Bit
➢ MAN : Metropolitan Area Network
➢ MANET : Mobile Ad- Hoc Network
➢ Mb : Megabit
➢ MB : Megabyte
➢ MBCS : Multi Byte Character Set
➢ MBR : Master Boot Record
➢ MDI : Multiple Document Interface
➢ MICR : Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
➢ MIMO : Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
➢ MIPS : Million Instructions Per Second
➢ MIME : Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
➢ MMX : Multi-Media Extensions
➢ MNG : Multiple-Image Network Graphics

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➢ MPEG : Motion Pictures (Coding) Experts Group
➢ MPL : Mozilla Public License
➢ MSB : Most Significant Bit
➢ MS-DOS : Microsoft DOS
➢ MVS : Multiple Virtual Storage
➢ NEXT : Near- End Cross Talk
➢ NFS : Network File System
➢ NIO : New I/O
➢ NMI : Non- Maskable Interrupt
➢ NNTP : Network News Transfer Protocol
➢ NOP : No Operation
➢ NOS : Netwrok Operating System
➢ NTP : Network Time Protocol
➢ OOP : Object- Oriented Programming
➢ OPML : Outline Processor Markup Language
➢ OS : Operating System
➢ OSS : Open- Source Software
➢ P2P : Peer-To- Peer
➢ PAN : Personal Area Network
➢ PAP : Password Authentication Protocol
➢ PATA : Parallel ATA
➢ PC : Personal Computer
➢ PCI : Peripheral Component Interconnect
➢ PCLe : PCI Express
➢ PCL : Printer Command Language
➢ PGA : Pin Grid Array
➢ PIC : Peripheral Interface Controller
➢ PIC : Programmable Interrupt Controller
➢ PINE : Program for Internet News & Email
➢ PIO : Programmed Input/ Output
➢ PnP : Plug-and- Play
➢ PoE : Power over Ethernet
➢ PPC : Power PC
➢ PPI : Pixels Per Inch
➢ PPP : Point-to-Point Protocol
➢ PPPoA : PPP over Ethernet
➢ PPTP : Point- to-Point Tunneling Protocol
➢ PSU : Power Supply Unit
➢ QDR : Quad Data Rate
➢ QFP : Quoted For Permanence
➢ QoS : Quality of Service
➢ RADIUS : Remote Authentication Dial In User Service
➢ RAID : Redundant Array of Independent Disks
➢ RAM : Random Access Memory
➢ RARP : Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
➢ RDBMS : Relational Database Management System
➢ RDF : Resource Description Framework
➢ REFAL : REcursive Functions Algorithmic Language
➢ RIP : Routing Information Protocol
➢ ROM : Read Only Memory
➢ ROMB : Read-Out Motherborad
➢ RTOS : Real Time Operating System
➢ SaaS : Software as a Service
➢ SAN : Storage Area Network

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➢ SATA : Serial ATA
➢ SAX : Simple API for XML
➢ SBP-2 : Serial Bus Protocol 2
➢ SBU : Standard Build Unit
➢ SCSI : Small Computer System Interface
➢ SDL : Simple Direct Media Layer
➢ SDN : Service Delivery Network
➢ SDR : Software-Defined Radio
➢ SDRAM : Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
➢ SMBIOS : System Management BIOS
➢ SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
➢ SP : Service Pack
➢ SPI : Serial Peripheral Interface
➢ SQL : Structured Query Language
➢ SUS : Single UNIX Specification
➢ SVD : Structured VLSI Design
➢ TCP : Transmission Control Protocol
➢ TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
➢ TTA : True Tap-Audio
➢ TTF : True Type Font
➢ TTS : Text-to-Speech
➢ TTY : Teletype
➢ UAC : User Account Control
➢ UART : Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
➢ UEFI : Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
➢ UI : User Interface
➢ UL : Upload
➢ UPS : Uninterruptible Power Supply
➢ URI : Uniform Resource Identifier
➢ URN : Uniform Resource Name
➢ USB : Universal Serial Bus
➢ Var : variable
➢ VB : Visual Basic
➢ VBA : Visual Basic for Applications
➢ VBS : Visual Basic script
➢ VFAT : Virtual FAT
➢ VFS : Virtual File System
➢ VGA : Video Graphics Array
➢ VGCT : Video Graphics Character Table
➢ VLAN : Virtual Local Area Network
➢ VM : Virtual Memory
➢ VOD : Video On Demand
➢ VoIP : Voice over IP
➢ VPN : Virtual Private Network
➢ VT : Video Terminal
➢ WAFS : Wide Area File Services
➢ WAIS : Wide Area Information Server
➢ WAN : Wide Area Network
➢ WAP : Wireless Application Protocol
➢ Wi-Fi : Wireless Fidelity
➢ WiMAX : Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
➢ WInFS : Windows Future Storage
➢ WINS : Windows Internet Naming Service
➢ WLAN : Wireless Local Area Network

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➢ WMA : Windows Media Audio
➢ WMV : Windows Media Video
➢ WOL : Wake-on-LAN
➢ WOM : Wake-on-Modem
➢ WPA : Wi-Fi Protected Access
➢ WSDL : Web Services Description Language
➢ WUSB : Wireless Wide Area Network
➢ WWID : World Wide Identifier
➢ WWW : World Wide Web
➢ XAML : eXtensible Application Markup Language
➢ XHTML : eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language
➢ XML : eXtensible Markup Language
➢ XMMS : X Multimedia System
➢ XNS : Xerox Network Services
➢ XSL : eXtensible Styleheet Language
➢ XSL-FO : eXtensible Stylesheet Language Formatting Objects
➢ XSLT : eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformatons
➢ XUL : XML User Interface Language
➢ Y2K : Year Two Thousand
➢ ZIFS : Zero Insertion Force Socket
➢ ZISC : Zero Instruction Set Computer
➢ ZMA : Zone Multicast Address

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COMPUTER VIRUS

A computer virus is a kind of malicious computer program, which when executed, replicates itself
and inserts its own code, which spreads a harmful virus in the system. This computer virus ultimately
affects the functioning and programming of the device.

History of Computer Virus:

Viruses have been infecting various devices for a long term via the Internet or some other
medium. The viruses are created with an intention to steal information, completely destroy the
device, etc. The “Creeper system, ” the first computer virus, was an experimental self-Multiplying
virus launched in 1971. Then, the Rabbit virus came in the mid-1970s and was extremely active
and it self-replicated very fast & wrecked the functionality at the same speed. The first PC virus
was known as “Elk Cloner” and was built in 1982, by Rich Skrenta. It spread by a floppy disc with a
game on it and hooked itself to the Apple II operating system.
“Brain,” the first computer virus for MS-DOS, was introduced in 1986. The boot sector of the
floppy disc would be overwritten, preventing the computer from booting. It was created by two
Pakistani brothers and was intended to be used as a copy protection system. In 1988, the age of
catastrophic viruses began. Most viruses were basically joked with humorous names and messages
till then. In 1988, “The Morris” was the first virus that propagated widely.

Types of computer virus

➢ Boot sector virus: This virus infects the boot sector of the computer and runs every time the
computer boots and before the operating system loads. Floppy discs and other bootable
media become infected. They are sometimes referred to as memory viruses because they do
not infect the file system.
➢ File Virus: Infects the system by appending itself to the end of a file. It changes the start of a
program such that the control jumps to its code.
➢ Email-Virus: They are comprised of malicious code that is propagated through email
messages and can be activated when a user clicks on a link in an email message, opens an
email attachment, or interacts in any manner with the infected email message.
➢ Polymorphic Virus: Poly means many and morphic means forms. So this virus changes its
form every time. A virus signature is a pattern that can be used to assess whether a virus
exists or not (a series of bytes that make up virus code). This virus changes itself every time
when it is installed so that it can avoid detection by antivirus software. Here, only the
signature of this virus is updated, the functionality remains the same.
➢ Macro Virus: These viruses are activated when a program capable of performing a macro is
executed. Macro viruses, for example, can be found in spreadsheet files.
➢ Multipartite Virus: This virus has the power to infect a computer’s boot sector, memory,
and files, among other areas. This complicates its detection and containment.
➢ Encrypted Virus: To avoid detection by antivirus software, this type of virus is encrypted.
There’s also a decryption algorithm included. As a result, before running, the virus decrypts.
➢ Stealth Virus: This virus is difficult to detect because it modifies the code used to detect it.
As a result, virus detection is extremely difficult.
➢ Resident Virus: A virus that saves itself in the computer’s memory before infecting
additional files and programs after the original software stops working. Because it is hidden
in the computer memory and difficult to remove, this virus can easily infect other files.

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➢ Direct action Virus: If a virus is tied to an executable file and when the file is opened or run,
that virus gets installed/ spread, it is known as “direct action”. This virus does not delete any
files or lay impact on the speed of the system; it just renders your files inaccessible.
➢ Browser Hijacker Virus: This virus attacks and can adjust the computer browser’s settings. it
can also force your browser to malicious sites.

Anti-Virus-

An anti-virus is a software which comprises programs or set of programs which can detect and
remove all the harmful and malicious software from your device. This anti-virus software is designed
in a manner that they can search through the files in a computer and determine the files which are
heavy or mildly infected by a virus.

Given below is a list of few of the major antivirus software which is most commonly used:

➢ Norton Antivirus
➢ F-Secure Antivirus
➢ Kaspersky Antivirus
➢ AVAST Antivirus
➢ Comodo Antivirus
➢ McAfee Antivirus

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