REVIEW

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2D MXene Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Mechanism, and

Multifunctional Applications in Microwave Absorption
Xiaomeng Guan, Zhihong Yang,* Ming Zhou, Le Yang,* Reza Peymanfar,
Bagher Aslibeiki, and Guangbin Ji*

the vigorous advancement of novel elec-

MXene nanomaterials stand out among 2D nanomaterials and have been extensively tronic devices, the demand for lightweight,
studied by researchers because of their unique layered structure, chemical diversity, flexible, EM shielding, and absorbing mate-
and outstanding chemical and physical properties. In recent years, MXene materials rials is becoming more urgent.[5–8] In
response to this demand, researchers have
have rapidly opened the market for electromagnetic interference shielding technology
developed numerous functional conductive
due to their excellent electromagnetic wave absorption (EMA) capability. However, so nanocomposites, such as those based on
far, compared with the development of electromagnetic (EM) shielding technology, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, tran-
there is still much room for development in the construction of MXenes and the sition metal carbides (MXenes), and metal
application of electromagnetic wave absorption. Herein, the construction strategies, nanofibers.[9–12] Carbonitrides, nitrides,
and transition metal carbides are the latest
electromagnetic wave conversion mechanism, and applications of MXenes materials
and most popular class of 2D materials, col-
are reviewed. Through meticulous material design and an interdisciplinary approach, lectively known as MXenes.[8,13–15] Among
2D MXene materials are expected to become one of the smart tunable wave them, MXene, as the brightest star in the
absorbers, and their application scenarios will also become broader. 2D nanomaterial family, has shown great
application prospects in different fields by
its high conductivity and large surface
area.[16–18] Unlike other 2D materials,[19] how-
1. Introduction ever, MXenes themselves have emerged as a family of materials with
a wide range of properties, and dozens of MXene members have
With the rapid prosperity of 5G communication technology, peo- been successfully synthesized so far.[20–23] Among them, the first
ple are increasingly relying on electronic devices and information discovered MXene is a material with a Ti3C2Tx structure. The
transmission based on electromagnetic waves (EMW).[1] The EM Ti3C2Tx material is the most widely used because of its high electri-
absorber promotes the development of EM technology and cal conductivity and mature synthetic process (Scheme 1a,b).[24–26]
advanced EM equipment. The preparation and properties of At present, numerous reports have proved that MXenes have
novel EM shielding and absorption nanocomposites for different unique prospects in the field of effective absorption (EA) and
applications (including military and civilian applications) are electromagnetic interference (EMI).[4,27] However, they are still
increasing year by year.[2,3] EM shielding and absorbing materials poorly understood as absorbents and EMI shielding materials
are critical in the fields of portable electronics, wireless commu- for multifunctional applications.[28–31] Therefore, it is urgent
nications, aerospace, military, and medical equipment and are to explore its absorbing and shielding mechanism and its
integral to the proper functioning of equipment.[4] Thanks to extended applications (Scheme 1c).[32–34]

X. Guan, M. Zhou, G. Ji L. Yang

College of Materials Science and Technology Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Nanjing 211100, P. R. China 2 Fusionopolis Way, Singapore 138634, Singapore
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Z. Yang L. Yang
Engineering Department Department of Materials Science and Engineering
KLA Corporation National University of Singapore
4 Sera ngoon North Ave 5, Singapore 554532, Singapore 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore
E-mail: [email protected]
R. Peymanfar
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article Department of Chemical Engineering
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/sstr.202200102. Energy Institute of Higher Education
Saveh 39177-67746, Iran
© 2022 The Authors. Small Structures published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative B. Aslibeiki
Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and Faculty of Physics
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. University of Tabriz
Tabriz 51666-16471, Iran
DOI: 10.1002/sstr.202200102

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Scheme 1. a) Schematic diagram of obtaining MXene nanoflakes by adopting a certain etching strategy. b) Schematic diagram of the potential EMA
mechanism analysis of MXene structure. c) Schematic illustration of the multifunctional application of MXene composites.

In this review article, the construction route, EMA, EMI mecha- MXene materials and 2) the construction methods of different
nism, and application of 2D MXene materials and their composites forms of nanocomposites.
are mainly introduced.[35–38] First, the means of etching and delam-
ination, the structural design of MXenes, and the modulation of 2.1. The Etching and Delamination
surface groups are briefly introduced. Moreover, the effects of sur-
face groups on the structure and EM properties of materials are 2.1.1. Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Etching Method
discussed from the point of view of the mechanism.[39] The latest
progress in multifunctional applications, including wearable elec- Multilayer MXenes are named as such because their interlayers
tronic devices, intelligent tunable sensors, new energy desalination, are mainly connected by van der Waals forces or hydrogen
new energy electrodes, biomedical applications, etc., is elaborated bonds.[48] The delamination of MXenes weakens the interlayer
in detail.[40–42] Finally, future research focus is put forward on how interactions, resulting in the formation of 2D ultrathin nano-
to overcome the challenges and opportunities in this field.[27,43] sheets, monolayer, or multilayer structures. In 2011, the
researchers successfully prepared the Ti3C2Tx phase into
Ti3C2Tx nanosheets by hydrofluoric (HF) acid etching for the
2. Construction Routes of MXenes and first time. The earliest utilized etching method is HF acid etch-
ing, which can obtain 2D MXene materials with obvious “accor-
MXene-Based Composites
dion” morphology.[11] As shown in Figure 1a, the layered MAX
There are various synthetic routes of MXene, most of which are phase of Ti3AlC2 was used as raw material and the aluminum
derived from the etching of its precursor MAX phase.[44,45] Among layer was etched by HF in an aqueous solution.[44] Then, the sin-
them, M represents a transition metal element in the periodic gle or multilayer MXene nanosheets were successfully prepared
table, A is the main group element, generally, Si or Al, and X by soaking the HF-treated MAX phase in DMSO and applying
is N or C.[46] The desired layered MXene material can be obtained the ultrasonic effect. Typical MXene nanosheet structures with
by selectively etching away the A layer elements. In addition, the extremely special single-crystal properties can be observed in
regulation of surface chemistry is very important for the 2D lay- Figure 1b,c. In the selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pat-
ered nanosheets or nanoflakes composed almost of the surface, as tern shown in Figure 1d, the MXene prepared in this report has
it directly affects the properties and characteristics of materials.[47] hexagonal symmetry.[49,50]
Therefore, the construction of rational structures and the modu-
lation of surface chemistry are crucial for exploring the multifunc- 2.1.2. LiF and HCl Etching Methods
tional application fields of MXene materials. MXene composites
with outstanding physical and chemical properties can be obtained As the use of HF acid is dangerous in experimental operations, a
through surface modification or hybridization with foreign mate- series of solution synthesis methods based on fluorine-based
rials. In this section, we will focus on the synthesis of MXenes and etching have been developed, including the most widely used
their nanocomposites according to the presentation form of the etching methods of LiF and HCl routes.[52] Although longer etch
products, including 1) the main strategies for obtaining layered times and higher reaction temperatures may be required,

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Figure 1. a) SEM image of as-made Ti3AlC2 MAX phase powder after Al removal by HF. b) Ti3C2 MXene sheet after exfoliation. c) High-resolution
transmission electron microscopy image of the exfoliated Ti3C2 MXene. d) SAED pattern of the exfoliated Ti3C2 MXene. Reproduced with permission.[44]
Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. Schematic diagram of the synthesis of e) primitive MXene, f ) crumpled MXene, and g) stacked MXene films.
h) Observation of atomic distribution using spherical aberration correction TEM, i) monoatomic vacancy clusters, and j) titanium vacancy clusters.
k) Schematic diagram of ideal crystal structure, l) monoatomic titanium vacancies, and m) titanium vacancy clusters. n) Charge density distribution
near Ti vacancy. o) Energy difference between primordial MXene and folded MXene and dipole moment caused by Ti vacancy. The surface potential
distribution of creased MXene during chemical etching at p) 0 h, q) 2 h, and r) 6 h. s) SET, SER, and SE images etched for 2 h at different thicknesses.
Reproduced with permission.[49] Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH. t) Schematic illustration of the fabrication strategy process of layered Ti3CNTx/Ni@C com-
posites. u) Schematic illustration of the multifunctional layered Ti3CNTx/Ni@C composite. Reproduced with permission.[51] Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

utilizing this fluoride salt and acid mixture is much safer than the stress caused by atomic defects can lead to the wrinkled condition
highly oxidizing and harmful HF. In a previous report, a feasible of MXene films. The effect of Ti vacancies on the electrochemical
method is demonstrated in Figure 1e, where the precursors of performance and lattice structure of MXene nanosheets can be
Ti3AlC2 and LiF powders were dispersed into an HCl acid solu- further explained. Ti vacancies and the ideal crystal structure can
tion, leading to the synthesis of MXene nanosheets. To selec- be observed in the transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
tively etch the Al atomic layer, the mixed solution was stirred images of Figure 1k–m, respectively. It can be observed in
for 24 h and then rinsed several times with deionized water. Figure 1n that the distribution of titanium vacancies and the
After centrifugation for 35 min, the upper layer of MXene sus- charge density are asymmetric. This indicates that the formation
pension was observed. To meet the application requirements of of the electric dipole has an important effect on the electromag-
industrialization, MXene films can be successfully synthesized netic shielding caused by resonance absorption. Meanwhile, as
by the suction filtration process. shown in Figure 1o, dipole moments at different vacancy concen-
In addition, the pristine MXene was immersed in sulfuric acid trations were calculated. The energy difference represents that
solution and etched, and the wrinkled MXene was fabricated uti- the system energy increases with increasing vacancy concentra-
lizing the principle that Ti atomic vacancies cause internal stress, tion, implying that the chemical treatment of H2SO4 promotes
which further formed a stacked film (Figure 1f,g). In this experi- the formation of wrinkled MXenes. Moreover, the transmission
ment, folded MXene nanosheets with disordered and porous of dipoles in wrinkled MXenes can be determined by probe force
structures were successfully constructed. Figure 1h, as the com- microscopy, which displays the local surface potentials of
bined electron energy loss spectrum image, shows that the defect MXenes, as shown in Figure 1p. The potential of the untreated
type of the wrinkled MXene is Ti vacancy. It can be observed MXene surface is almost positive (Figure 1q). As the etching time
from Figure 1i that Ti atoms are etched from the lattice, and increases, the negative potential appears (Figure 1r), which may
as the Ti vacancy concentration is increased, the lattice evolves be related to the accumulation of electric dipole related to high-
into vacancy clusters (Figure 1j). It is obvious that the internal concentration vacancy defects. However, with the extension of

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etching time, wrinkles in the MXene film are destroyed, and the ions appear in the etching process, and there will only be chloride
difference in the surface potential is weakened, which indirectly (–Cl) and hydroxyl (–OH) group components on the surface of
reduces the polarization phenomenon. More importantly, the the as-prepared MXenes.[54] Further study shows that Ti2AlC will
EMI shielding performance of the fold film is also very outstand- be electrochemically etched into three layers. From the outside to
ing (Figure 1s). As shown in Figure 1t, the layered Ti3CNTx/ the inside, the structure is composed of carbide-derived carbon,
Ni@C composites were prepared by the synthesis route of LiF MXenes, and end-etched MAX. In addition, MXenes can be fur-
and HF acid.[51] It is worth noting that Figure 1u shows that ther separated from the three-layer structure by an ultrasonic
the 2D MXene materials obtained by LiF and HF acid etching method to obtain pure MXene. This result successfully proves
still possess a high-carrier transport rate, unique hierarchical that electrochemical etching can selectively remove the A layer
structure, and large specific surface area characteristics. The from the MAX phase without the use of fluoride ions and form
laminar porous Ti3CNTx/Ni@C composite possesses better MXenes materials without the –F group. Therefore, this method
electromagnetic wave absorption (EWA) and EMI shielding also has potential application prospects.[55]
performance due to its multicomponent and novel structure, The electrochemical etching process for fabricating EE-Ti3C2Tx
efficient heat transfer, as well as excellent flame-retardant ther- is depicted in Figure 2a, in which two identical Ti3AlC2 blocks are
mal insulation and high-infrared shielding properties. Although utilized as symmetrical electrodes. During the etching process, the
the above reports reasonably utilize a mixed solution of fluoride Ti3AlC2 cathode remains intact while the Ti3AlC2 anode is partially
salt and acid to obtain MXene materials with EMI performance, intact. According to previous reports, Al was corroded by Cl ion-
the F component cannot be completely removed, and inevitably containing electrolytes because of the vigorous reaction between
remains on the surface of the final product, posing potential Cl
ions and Al. In addition, alkaline solutions can also corrode
hazards to the environment and human health. Ti3AlC2 because of the violent reaction of OH
ions with Al. A
mixed solution containing chloride and hydroxyl groups was uti-
2.1.3. Alkaline Solution Chemical Etching lized for etching in this experiment. The bonding strength of Ti─C
bonds is stronger than that of Ti─Al bonds, resulting in the pref-
MXenes material etching agent can be prepared by a solution erential removal of Al. Moreover, Liþ ions enter the electrolyte and
containing a fluoride ion, which is the most effective chemical can be inserted into the Ti3C2Tx sheet, which not only weakens the
etching MAX precursor system.[51] Although this method is interaction between adjacent layers and widens the interlayer spac-
effective, it is harmful to the human body and the environment. ing, but also achieves the purpose of promoting corrosion progress
In addition, the inert fluorine functional groups will reduce the and accelerating M-Ti3C2Tx delamination. Because of this, M-
material properties (such as capacitance, etc.). Furthermore, HF Ti3C2Tx can be effectively layered by an ultrasonic strategy without
solution not only corrodes the Al layer but also corrodes transi- the use of any harmful organic chemical reagents for intercalation.
tion metal elements in the MXene structure. More importantly, Thus, compared with the electrochemical etching method previ-
some etching byproducts are insoluble in any solvent under mild ously reported, this strategy is more efficient and convenient.
conditions, which are difficult to remove from the prepared The EE-Ti3C2Tx obtained in Figure 2b can be well dispersed in
MXene. Therefore, a new fluorine-free method to remove “A” water. Furthermore, the dispersions have a pronounced Tyndall
layer atoms is urgently needed. In fact, alkalis are also expected effect, extremely low thickness, and excellent hydrophilicity. It also
to achieve selective etching of the MAX phase. High temperature shows that EE-Ti3C2Tx has outstanding film-forming ability. It can
and concentrated sodium hydroxide can easily dissolve be clearly observed from Figure 2c that the EE-Ti3C2Tx film fabri-
aluminum (oxide) hydroxide to form fluorine-free MXenes. cated by the vacuum filtration strategy possesses extremely high
The fluorine-free nature provides more OH and O terminals, flexibility and will not break even when folded into a special shape.
which contribute to the improvement of electrochemical perfor- Owing to the F-free and Cl-containing properties, EE-Ti3C2Tx
mance. In addition, the substitution of aluminum atoms by OH exhibits more stable properties compared with the F-containing
groups can form 2D Ti3C2(OH)2 nanosheets with larger lateral Ti3C2Tx. To confirm this, the EE-Ti3C2Tx dispersion was left at a
dimensions. In this method, the concentration of alkali can reach fixed temperature of 25 °C for 15 days, and the results showed
87.5%. Similarly, multilayer MXenes can be obtained by etching that the EE-Ti3C2Tx dispersion did not exhibit any change
Ti3AlC2 with a high concentration of KOH. In conclusion, etching (Figure 2d). In stark contrast, HF-Ti3C2Tx was no longer uni-
the MAX phase with concentrated alkali is effective and can yield formly dispersed after 15 days. To make matters worse, a precip-
highly hydrophilic products without F at the ends. Because of the itate and an almost clear supernatant appeared in the reagent
extremely strong combination ability of alkaline and amphoteric tube, proving that HF-Ti3C2Tx was oxidized by O2. Figure 2e
element Al, it is theoretically feasible to utilize the alkaline solution demonstrates that Ti3C2Tx can be layered by sonication alone
to etch the Al element of the “A” layer in MAX.[51,53] during synthesis without introducing any detrimental organic
intercalators. The resulting Ti3C2Tx films possess a tensile
strength as high as 20.5 MPa and can retain almost their full
2.1.4. Electrochemical Etching Method
capacity when used as a cathode under bending conditions.[54]
The scientists demonstrated that the corresponding MXenes
(Ti2CTx) phase can be fabricated from Ti2AlC in aqueous HCl 2.1.5. Molten Salt Etching Methods
by an electrochemical strategy.[53] Compared with chemical etch-
ing methods using HF or Li and HCl mixed solutions, adopting With the advancement of science, green and fluorine-free molten
this electrochemical etching strategy can ensure that no fluoride salt etching methods have been developed, which not only can

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Figure 2. a) EE-Ti3C2Tx synthesis schematic, b) dispersion photo, and c) film photo showing the Tyndall effect. d) EE-Ti3C2Tx and HF-Ti3C2Tx scatter
photos in an initial state and after 15 days. e) Ti3C2Tx without F and containing Cl was synthesized and assembled into a flexible zinc-ion hybrid capacitor
with high energy density. Reproduced with permission.[54] Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. f ) Schematic diagram of Ti3CNCl2 /RGO aerogel
prepared by improved molten salt etching method. g) Comparison of microwave absorption properties of aerogels. h) MA mechanism diagram of
Ti3CNCl2/RGO aerogel. Reproduced with permission.[56] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. i) Schematic diagram of the synthesis method and exfoliation process
of molten salt. j) Schematic illustration of the successful exfoliation of MS-Ti3C2Tx by inserting the organic molecule tetrabutylammonium hydroxide
(TBAOH). Reproduced with permission.[54] Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.

achieve the purpose of perfectly etching the MAX phase but can Ku band; when the thickness is further adjusted to 3 mm, the
also easily control and adjust the surface groups. The expansion EAB can be correspondingly increased, ranging from 10.2 to
of the synthetic route also promotes the extensive application of 18 GHz. The mechanism underlying the superior EMA perfor-
MXene materials. mance of M-D-Ti3CNCl2/RGO implied by Figure 2h includes
As shown in Figure 2f, the Ti3C2Tx suspension was mainly 1) Ti3CNCl2 which is constructed by the crosslinking effect of
obtained by an ultrasonic layering process after selectively remov- DA, supported by GO nanosheets, and interconnected to form
ing the Al layer in the Ti3AlCN MAX phase powder by improved a conductive network. The development of an adequate conduct-
Lewis molten salt etching. The appropriate proportions of gra- ing network provides more avenues for the transport and hop-
phene oxide (GO) nanosheets were then mixed with the ping of abundant carriers, thereby promoting the loss of
Ti3CNCl2 suspension by uninterrupted stirring. Dopamine conductivity. 2) The polarization loss is effectively enhanced.
hydrochloride (DA) was added drop wise into the solution to sat- Abundant heterointerfaces exist between nanosheets dedicated
isfy the appropriate polymerization rate and uniform distribution to the storage of charges in space, which can act as microcapa-
of the crosslinking agent. At this point, DA acts as a crosslinker, citors to generate violent polarization. In addition, due to the
and the charge-rich surface end groups on the Ti3CNCl2 nano- effect of the alternating EM field, the defects caused by the
sheets provide abundant active sites for DA to adhere to the GO remaining end groups on the nanosheets and the N atoms will
surface via electrostatic interactions, thereby anchoring on the play the role of polarization centers. These polarization relaxation
GO surface. Also, DA helps connect GO nanosheets to the behaviors are produced under the action of time-varying EM
Internet. Finally, PDA was decomposed into N-doped carbon fields, which have an indispensable effect on dielectric loss.
coating by carbonization treatment, which reduced the GO con- 3) The effect of magnetic loss. The multiple resonance behaviors
tent while maintaining the microstructure.[57] and eddy current phenomena induced by cobalt nanoparticles
The performance comparison of Ti3CNCl2/reduced graphene cannot be ignored, which promotes their magnetic attenuation
oxide (RGO) is shown in Figure 2g. At a thickness of 2.5 mm, the ability to microwaves to a certain extent. 4) Optimization of
minimum reflection loss (RL) intensity of the aerogel reaches matching behavior. The rational construction of the porous struc-

62.62 dB at 17.2 GHz. At the same time, it ensures that the ture, coupled with the magnetic action of the ferromagnetic ele-
effective absorption bandwidth (EAB) covers almost the entire ment, and the ferromagnetic element also played a magnetic

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role, fully balancing the impedance matching of the absorber, electromagnetic materials, including powder,[59] film,[5,20]
resulting in extremely many EMW transmissions instead of foam,[60] sponge,[61] aerogel,[62] etc.
reflection. After the EMA enters the nanostructure, multiple
reflection effects are generated between the nanosheets and
2.2.1. MXene-Based Powder Composites
the nanopores. By extending the EMW propagation path, the
EMA energy is structurally confined and may be dissipated as
In general, the performance of a single component as an EMA
heat.[56]
absorber possesses considerable limitations compared with the
As shown in Figure 2i, at the reaction temperature, CuCl2
composite EMA absorber. Therefore, a variety of nanocompo-
becomes molten together with NaCl and KCl. The Al layer in
sites including 0D nanoparticles, 1D CNTs, 2D MXenes, 3D
Ti3AlC2 is oxidized to Al3þ by coreduction of Lewis acid Cu2þ
microspheres, and nanoflowers have been widely used in the
to Cu on the MXene surface. The further formed AlCl3 gas
development of EMA materials. As a matrix for modified mate-
can be regarded as an effective intercalant to process MXene.
rials, 2D materials must be the most preferred due to their
In addition, the abundant Cu2þ also reacts with the exposed
unique properties. The strategy of combining different materials
Ti atoms on the surface to form metallic Cu, and the charge com-
to construct high-performance absorbers has proven to be very
pensation causes Cl
ions to participate in the reaction to form
promising. For example, Zhou et al. successfully etched multi-
Ti3C2Cl2. The purpose of the ammonium persulfate solution
layer Ti3C2Tx MXene into a 2D nanometer substrate, prepared
(APS) is to remove Cu particles from the Ti3C2Cl2 surface, result-
hollow magnetic nickel microspheres and solid magnetic nickel
ing in the addition of a group to the substrate surface. The mate-
microspheres by the metal–organic framework coordination
rial synthesized by the molten salt route is denoted as MS-
method, and then calcined respectively to generate a nickel par-
Ti3C2Tx, where Tx represents O and Cl surface groups, and
ticle hybrid (Figure 3a).[63] 1D CNTs are synthesized with a pyrol-
the experimental results prove that there is no –OH or –F surface
ysis process, which leads to the rational assembly of the 3D
on the MS-MXene surface terminal. The surface energies
conductive network and smooth transport of electrons. Due to
between DMSO and HF-MXene are matched, so in the tradi-
the electrostatic self-assembly of the nanohybrid and the 2D
tional HF-MXene synthetic route, the intercalation strategy of
nanosubstrate, 3D superstructure nano-composites have been
DMSO solvent is regarded as one of the most widely adopted
constructed which can improve the mechanical properties of
layering methods accompanied by sonication. However, layered
the materials. Furthermore, the EMA performance of MXene/
MS-Ti3C2Tx cannot be generated by this method. Herein, an
hollow microspheres Ni-MOFs/Ni-CNTs is significantly out-
intercalation method via the organic molecule tetrabutylammo-
standing to that of most MXene matrix composites
nium hydroxide (TBAOH) is reported (Figure 2j), which com-
(Figure 3b). At 8.4 GHz, the minimum RLmin is
57.78 dB when
bined with a sonication strategy resulted in the successful
the thickness is 1.49 mm, and the maximum EAB is 3.44 GHz
exfoliation of MS-Ti3C2Tx. The results suggest that this strategy
when the thickness is 0.8 mm. The potential EMA mechanism
for tuning the surface chemistry of MXenes possesses the poten-
of 3D-structured composites will be described from six perspec-
tial to improve the electrochemical performance of the material.
tives (Figure 3c). 1) Magnetic loss of magnetic nickel particles
In conclusion, the current methods for preparing 2D MXenes
includes natural low-frequency resonance, high-frequency
can be mass produced, but the large number of functional groups
exchange resonance and vortex loss. 2) There are a large number
generated during the etching process seriously affects the perfor-
of angry interfaces between MXene, N-CNTs, and Ni particles,
mance of MXenes.[58] For example, MXenes without functional
which aggravate the polarization of the interfaces. 3) The
groups exhibit metallic properties, while MXenes with functional
base-TX surface of MXene generates dipole polarization under
groups are semiconductors. Therefore, how to prepare pure
the variable EM field. 4) When N was mixed with CNTs, depend-
MXenes is an important research direction in the future.
ing on the action of a variable EM field, the dipole polarization
Moreover, the structure and morphology of MXenes prepared
and defect polarization would lead to charge redistribution and
by different methods are also different, so appropriate methods
the formation of structural defects correspondingly. 5) N-CNTs
should be selected according to research requirements.
construct a 3D wire network and semicentral coil baseline struc-
ture, promoting the generation and loss of electron transport
2.2. Construction Strategies of MXene Composites channels. 6) The dielectric and magnetic loss incited by multire-
sonance relaxation and polarization relaxation has a synergistic
The compounding of materials generally refers to combining the effect on microwave attenuation and resistance.
excellent properties of two or more components to improve the The common phenomenon of adjacent Ti3C2Tx MXenes is
physical and chemical properties of the target material. excessive agglomeration, which leads to a remarkable reduction
Depending on the characteristics of MXenes such as 2D mor- in EMA. Moreover, the nonmagnetic and extremely high electri-
phology and the surface possessing sufficient functional groups, cal conductivity of Ti3C2Tx MXene results in an imbalance of
they can be hybridized with other nanomaterials to achieve the electromagnetic parameters and an inability to produce effective
goal of modifying MXenes. It is difficult to obtain an outstanding reactions. Overall, 1D nanochains have better magnetic energy
absorption or shielding effect with a single material; thus, the than 0D particles. However, the defects of introducing magnetic
structure and composition design of the material are indispens- elements are usually associated with severe agglomeration,
able to meet the demand for MXene-based materials in the EMA which greatly limits the addition of magnetic elements and
and EMI fields. Based on previous reports, this section introdu- the amount of binder. Ultrasonic spray technology performs
ces several different product forms of high-efficiency effective recombination of two substances in a confined space

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Figure 3. a) Schematic diagram of the preparation process of MXene/Ni/N-CNTs nanocomposites. b) Performance comparison diagram of some typical
MXene-based composite absorbers. c) Schematic diagram of the EMA mechanism of MXene/hollow microsphere Ni-MOFs/N-CNTs material.
Reproduced with permission.[63] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. d) Flowchart of MXene/Ni synthesis. e) Scanning electron microscopy of MXene/Ni.
f ) RL values of samples at different thicknesses. g) 2D RL spectrum of MXene/Ni-2. h) MXene/Ni potential EMA mechanism description diagram.
Reproduced with permission.[64] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. i) Complete schematic of Ti3CNTX/HCF synthetic material. j) 3D RL images of samples with
different thicknesses from 2.0 to 18.0 GHz. k) Potential EMA mechanism diagram of Ti3CNTX /HCF composites. Reproduced with permission.[65]
Copyright 2022, Elsevier. l) Schematic diagram of CFMM sample preparation. m) The possible growth mechanisms of CoFe-MIL-88A derivatives
CoFe@C and CoFe-MIL-88A@Ti3C2Tx and MXene derivative CFMM were investigated. n) RL value image of 2D mapping of CFMM-500 samples.
o) The EMA mechanism of CoFe/C@TiO2/C composites. Reproduced with permission.[66] Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

and fast evaporation. This complex approach effectively goes component absorption mechanism is summarized in Figure 3h.
beyond traditional physical mixtures, simple loading, and local The porosity of MXene/Ni complex microspheres is abundant.
separation. For example, Cui et al. successfully assembled These large holes and mesopores penetrate EMW more effi-
Ti3C2Tx MXene and MXene/Ni nanochains using ultrasonic ciently, increasing the likelihood of reflection and scattering
spray technology. As shown in Figure 3d, by combining 2D from porous areas, expanding reflection, scattering paths, and
Ti3C2Tx with 1D MXene nanospheres, 3D polygonal micro- improving attenuation mechanisms. Furthermore, the MXene
spheres MXene/Ni can be created.[64] The complex microspheres surface possesses many functional groups and defects, and
of MXene/Ni effectively promote the extensive combination of the asymmetric distribution of charges generates dipoles.
MXene and Ni. The MXene assembled into a spherical structure During the relaxation of the variable EM field, the magnetic loss
is regarded as a dielectric framework that can effectively disperse is instigated by the natural resonance and exchange resonance of
the Ni nanochains, which can evenly distribute the Ni nano- the nanochains, which ultimately leads to the conversion of EM
chains in the porous region of the MXene spheres, resulting energy into heat energy mainly through multiple rotations of the
in the overall structure with significantly lower density and larger magnetic poles. More importantly, the combination of MXene
surface area. The dielectric loss and EMW efficiency are then fur- nanoparticles and Ni nanochains leads to an extremely large
ther enhanced by inducing and polarizing surface relaxation. number of conductive paths in the composite, which is equiva-
Subsequently, the microstructures (Figure 3e), dielectric proper- lent to increasing their losses in the EM field. Meanwhile, due to
ties, and EM properties (Figure 3f,g) of MXene/Ni nanocompo- the electrical conductivity of MXene and Ni nanochains, the
site microblocks were studied, and the EMA mechanism of charge accumulation on the nonuniform interface results in
MXene/Ni composite microblocks was found (Figure 3h). The the loss of interface polarization.
3D porous MXene/Ni composite exhibited excellent impedance In addition, Cai et al. successfully fabricated N-doped MXene
matching and EMA capability, specifically, RLmin was
52.7 dB, (Ti3CNTx) flakes and Co-ZIF (HCF) hollow particle hybrid mate-
and the thickness is 1.9 mm. As different mechanisms play rials using a controllable synergistic protective etching strategy
important roles in the EMA materials, the MXene/Ni complete and electrostatic self-assembly (Figure 3i).[65] Notably, at low

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loads, the hybrid EMA material achieves ultrathin (1.43 mm) and in the CFC samples. During the pyrolysis process, there are two
strong EMA (
55.02 dB RL) surpassing the performance of sim- forces in different directions, which greatly affect the morphol-
ilar compositions reported in the magnetic–media hybrid litera- ogy and internal structure of MOFs. Coating the large number of
ture (Figure 3j). Figure 3k briefly illustrates the possible EMA Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets containing oxygen end groups on the
mechanism for Ti3CNTx/HCF. Initially, electrons migrate freely surface of the MOF substrate facilitates the production of oxygen-
into free channels on the Ti3CNTx flakes, where they collide with rich regions on the surface of the CoFe-MIL88A@MXene
the lattice and eventually convert to other types of energy. As the precursor. Therefore, the driving force for the surface oxidation
accumulated electrons hop frequently between the sheets, caus- reaction of the CFMM-500 and CFMM-600 samples will be dom-
ing the electrical conductivity of the lattice to increase, an enor- inant, because the low-temperature carbothermal process cannot
mous amount of EMW energy is converted into heat. provide a strong enough reducing environment, resulting in the
Subsequently, HCF materials contribute significantly to the mag- precipitation of large particles in the CFMM-500 and CFMM-600
netic loss of the absorber using magnetic resonance and polari- CoFe2O4 samples. Pyrolytic carbon is exhausted. In addition, the
zation relaxation. In other words, the low-frequency natural adhesion will limit the shrinkage of the outer structure of the
resonance and the high-frequency exchange resonance act syn- fixture, resulting in the inevitable separation of the carbon-free
ergistically to enhance the EMW attenuation ability of the mate- outer layer, the shrinkage of the carbon-rich inner core, and a
rial. Moreover, electrostatically mounting HCF on the Ti3CNTx yellow shell microstructure. For CFMM-700 samples, the carbo-
flakes eliminated caking problems and improved magnetic thermic process can provide sufficiently strong reduction reac-
losses. The dielectric loss and the corresponding relaxation pro- tion kinetics on the surface and inside CFMM-700, excluding
cess caused by interface polarization and dipole polarization play the influence of hydroxyl-rich surfaces, thus forming the final
essential roles in the energy decay of EMA, which includes core–shell structure of CFMM-700. In Figure 3n, the RLmin
dipoles generated by an extremely large number of functional values at various thicknesses can reach
20 dB in the range
groups and defects and similar capacitive structures constructed of 1.6–5.0 mm, while EAB can reach 6.1 GHz at a thickness of
by a variety of heterointerfaces. On the one hand, the increase of only 2.0 mm. The underlying EMA mechanism can be summa-
dipole polarization is mainly committed to Ti3CNTx/HCF having rized as the high-performance EMA of CoFe/C@TiO2/C compo-
more polarization relaxation, which is conducive to improving sites mainly attributed to the synergy of its outstanding
the dielectric loss of Ti3CNTx/HCF. The capacitive structure, impedance matching ability and superior inherent attenuation
and on the other hand, focuses on accumulating charges and capability (Figure 3o). Like the previous mechanism, the carbon
interfering with the electron migration path, which in turn gen- matrix is responsible for providing extremely large defects as the
erates a massive interfacial polarization phenomenon in the center of dipole polarization and scattering, resulting in dipole
alternating electromagnetic field. More importantly, the intro- polarization under the support of alternating electric fields.
duction of magnetic properties is responsible for improving Then, CoFe/C@TiO2/C composites also exhibit sufficient het-
the complex dielectric constant of Ti3CNTx/HCF material, which erogeneous interfaces, which can availably improve the interface.
leads to the impedance balance of the material at a high attenua- In addition, the magnetic CoFe nanoalloys make the composites
tion coefficient, making Ti3CNTx/HCF as a high-performance have strong magnetic loss ability, which is the result of eddy cur-
EMA material inevitable. rent loss, natural resonance, and the main source of magnetic
Furthermore, Chen et al. fabricated a bimetallic composite loss due to exchange resonance. Overall, the high-performance
CoFe-MOF@Ti3C2Tx MXene with a controlled multilayer struc- EAB property of CoFe/C@TiO2/C composites is the result of dis-
ture using solvothermal, heat treatment processes, and electro- tinguished impedance matching and the electrical losses and
static self-assembly.[66] Among them, the change of heat strong synergy of magnetic.
treatment temperature is mainly to obtain the change of morphol- To break through the design limitations of Ti3C2Tx MXene
ogy, defect number, and phase composition. It is noteworthy that nanocomposites and make up for their deficiency of magnetic
the CoFe/C@TiO2/C core–shell composites manufactured have loss ability, researchers have developed quite a few design meth-
outstanding EMA properties, and an accurate sample diagram ods. For example, Hou et al., synthesized layered NiCo/TiC/TiO/
is shown in Figure 3l. Firstly, 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene flakes were CNTs by a simple etching–dipping–carbonization strategy.
obtained by etching the negative charge of Ti3AlC2 powder, Ti3C2Tx MXene was synthesized for the first time by selective
and then positively loaded CoFe-MOF was successfully performed etching of hydrofluoric acid (Figure 4a).[67] Ti3C2Tx was
utilizing MXene nanosheets. The CoFe-MOF@Ti3C2Tx deriva- immersed in a mixed solution of cobalt nitrate and nickel nitrate,
tives were treated with nitrogen at different temperatures. with P123 acting as a surfactant to facilitate the binding of metal
Finally, derivatives with curing temperatures of 500 and 600 in ions. After carbonization, the final composite product is success-
the egg yolk structure (named CFMM-500 and CFMM-600) were fully fabricated. The heat treatment process mainly aims at con-
obtained, as well as other derivatives (named CFMM-700) forming verting Ti3C2Tx into TiC and TiO, and the reduction of nickel and
core–shell structures. cobalt ions into corresponding particles also accelerates the gen-
The pyrolysis temperature generates a significant influence on eration of CNTs. Notably, the NiCo/TiC/TiO/CNT composite
the composition, morphology transformation, and growth of the exhibits prominent EMA capacity with an RLmin of
51.98 dB
CFMM composites, as shown in Figure 3m. The precursor CoFe- and when the thickness is only 1.9 and 2.1 mm, the maximum
MIL88A was directly calcined to prepare the composite Co3Fe7/ EAB is 7.76 GHz. More importantly, the underlying mechanism
CoFe2O4@C (CFC). Under nitrogen atmosphere, the tempera- of EMA was also analyzed (Figure 4b,c,d). Overall, the three
ture was 600 °C, and the calcination time was 10 min
1. No aspects synergistically contribute to the optimization of balance
apparent large particles or visible hollow structures were detected impedance and attenuation property of the NiCo/TiC/TiO/CNT

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Figure 4. a) The flowchart of the preparation of NiCo/TiC/TiO/CNTs samples. b) 2D RL value mapping images of NiCo/TiC/TiO/CNTs samples.
c) Effective EMA bandwidth diagram of Ti3C2Tx, TiC/TiO, NiCo/CNTs, and NiCo/TiC/TiO/CNTs. d) EMA mechanism diagram of NiCo/TiC/TiO/
CNTs samples. Reproduced with permission.[67] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. e) Schematic illustration of the preparation of Co/CNTs-MXene@CF.
f ) SEM image of the MXene@CF sample. g) TEM image of the outermost layer of Co-ZIF-derived CNTs. h) RL value images of
Co/CNTs-MXene@CF samples. i) The RL value images corresponding to different thicknesses. j) Schematic illustration of the EMA mechanism of
Co/CNTs-MXene@CF hybrid materials. Reproduced with permission.[68] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. k) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of Co9S8/
C/Ti3C2Tx-100 composites. l–n) Schematic diagram of potential EMA mechanism of Co9S8/C/Ti3C2Tx-100 hybrid material. Reproduced with permis-
sion.[69] Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

composite, thereby enhancing the EMA capability. One is to opti- Figure 4f, after coating the highly conductive MXene shell,
mize the impedance characteristics of the composite material. the surface of MXene@CF is smooth, and interconnection of
The cobweb-like interlayers composed of magnetic CNTs and adjacent Ti3C2Tx nanoflakes generates 1D core–shell hetero-
MXene sheets increase the EMW transport path and electronic structures. The TEM image (Figure 4g) shows the presence of
transition behavior between adjacent CNTs. The second aspect is nanoparticles embedded in 1D CNTs. The Co-ZIF surface is uni-
the promotion of electrical conduction, dipole polarization, and formly grown with curved CNTs wrapped with Co nanoparticles.
interfacial polarization. Among them, the heterostructure pro- In addition, the 1D Co/CNTs-MXene@CF heterostructure
vides sufficient active sites for the acceleration of electrons, while exhibits an optimal RLmin of
61.41 dB at 2.52 mm, a maximum
in the alternating electromagnetic field, the terminal groups and EAB of 5.04 GHz, and a thickness of only 1.5 mm, outperform-
defects in the composites are dedicated to generating polariza- ing all other samples (Figure 4h,i). Furthermore, the EMA prop-
tion centers. The multiphase structures of MXene sheets and erties of the layered Co/CNTs-MXene@CF material may be the
magnetic CNTs form multiphase interfaces of Ni (Co)/CNTs, result of the synergistic effect of multiple depletion mechanisms.
TiC/CNTs, TiO/CNTs, and TiC/TiO. It is evident that the mul- The main source is that heterogeneous composites with uniform
tiphase structure of MXene nanoflakes and magnetic CNTs pores provide more propagation paths to trigger multiple reflec-
forms multiphase interfaces of Ni(Co)/CNT, TiC/CNT, TiO/ tions and scattering, consuming extremely large amounts of
CNT, and TiC/TiO. The metallic phase in the magnetic CNTs EMW energy. Specifically, the EMW captured by this material
in the composite material is regarded as the source of the mag- can be reflected in the middle layer of the MXene, and then dif-
netic loss, focusing on the phenomenon of natural resonance, ferent magnetic fields are used to excite free electrons to move
exchange resonance, and eddy current loss synergistic to ensure along the 3D conductive network, thereby dissipating the EMW
the further depletion of the EMW. energy in a way that generates Joule heating. More importantly,
Meanwhile, Wang et al. proposed a general method to synthe- heterointerfaces such as Co/CNTs, CNTs/MXene, and MXene/
size 1D-layered core–shell structures on cotton fiber (CF)- CF can also be fully utilized, all of which lead to the accumulation
supported MXenes using Co-ZIF array-derived CNT materials, of charges on the interface, and then the rearranged electrons
termed Co/CNTs-MXene@CF (Figure 4e).[68] As shown in constitute the internal electric field to generate the capacitive

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structure. The direction of the internally generated electric field dipole polarization. Remarkably, the unique structure of the
is kept opposite to the direction of the applied EM field, resulting composites may lead to multiple reflections and multiple deple-
in the energy of the EMW that can be effectively canceled. At the tions of incident electromagnetic waves and combine multiple
same time, the CNTs contain sufficient N defects, which cause factors to synergistically improve the EMA capability of the het-
the symmetry centers of C and N atoms to deviate from the orig- erogeneous composites.
inal positions, resulting in the generation of dipole polarization.
The focus of Co nanoparticles wrapped on CNTs is mainly 2.2.2. MXene-Based Film Composites
responsible for the generation of multiple 3D magnetic coupling
networks, resulting in the energy of EMW attenuated by the strat- Sustainable energy and green environment have always been two
egy of magnetic polarization and multiple scattering. eternal topics, which greatly affect our lives. The fabrication of
Hou et al. successfully fabricated a novel multilayered Co9S8/ materials with excellent EMI shielding properties and good recy-
C/Ti3C2Tx hybrid material using hydrothermal and annealing clability is of far-reaching significance for the application of
processes (Figure 4k).[69] The Co9S8 particles were homo- MXene-based green energy storage and EMI shielding materials.
geneously immobilized on Ti3C2Tx and carbon flakes and exhib- Films are more attractive as absorption-dominant lightweight
ited outstanding EMA properties. With a matching thickness of EMI shielding materials than traditional reflection-dominant
2.51 mm, the maximum RL of the hybrid material at 7.6 GHz is shielding materials and can minimize secondary pollution from

50.07 dB and the EAB is 4.24 GHz. Figure 4l,m,n shows the reflected EMW.[70–72] Xu et al. adopted a simple freeze-drying
potential EMA mechanism of the Co9S8/C/Ti3C2Tx-100 hybrid strategy to synthesize porous f-Ti2CTx/PVA foams and films.[60]
material. The outstanding impedance matching characteristics Figure 5a shows the fabrication strategy for f-Ti2CTx/PVA foams
of the composite will absorb a large amount of EMW and avoid and films and f-Ti2CTx nanosheets were obtained using LiF and
excessive reflection on the surface. The multicomponent forms a HCl to etch the Ti2AlC MAX phase. Then, the polyvinyl alcohol
huge number of interfaces, which promote the generation of (PVA) solution was mixed with the f-Ti2CTx solution to obtain the
interface polarization. At the same time, the introduction of precursor pure sol (Figure 5b). The f-Ti2CTx/PVA foam was
Co9S8 particles and carbon nanosheet components resulted in placed on the dandelion without falling off, proving that it exhib-
the accumulation of giant multiple charges at the heterointerface its the characteristics of light density, and the measured density
and at the bonding sites, which accelerated the generation of is only 10.9 mg/cm3. In addition, f-Ti2CTx/PVA-1 also has an

Figure 5. a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of f-Ti2CTx/PVA syntactic foams and films. b) A sheet off-Ti2CTx /PVA foam standing on a dandelion,
showing its ultralow density. c) The picture of flexible f-Ti2CTx /PVA thin film. d) 2D profile and reflection coefficient curves versus frequency. e) EMI SET,
SEA, and SER of Ti2CTx /PVA hybrid materials. f ) Schematic illustration of the EMI shielding mechanism of MXene/PVA composites with foam or film
structure. Reproduced with permission.[60] Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. g) Schematic diagram of the preparation of MMT/SA-Ca2þ
solution. h) Preparation flow diagram of layered Ti3C2Tx nanosheets. i) Synthesis process of sandwich pearl-inspired films. Reproduced with
permission.[35] Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. j) Synthesis schematic of transparent MXene/AgNWx-PVA thin films. k)The photo
of MXene/AgNW632-PVA sample. l) Mechanism diagram of EMW transport through MXene/AgNWx-PVA films. m) EMI shielding properties of
MXene/AgNWx-PVA films. Reproduced with permission.[34] Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.

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extremely high porosity (99.3%), which stands out in the category show that the EMI SE of TCF is 32 dB, and it exhibits the char-
of ultralight aerogels. Figure 5c depicts the strategy by which acteristics of brilliant interfacial adhesion and remarkable flexi-
f-Ti2CTx/PVA composite thin films can be fabricated by bility. In addition, the high conductivity of the crosslinked
compressing the f-Ti2CTx/PVA composite. The 2D profile of network and the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)
the f-Ti2CTx/PVA foam-1 (Figure 5d) shows that the RLmin is effect endow the TCF with low-voltage-driven Joule heating prop-

18.7 dB and the thickness is 3.9 mm at 8.2 GHz. The average erty and outstanding photothermal effect, respectively, ensuring
shielding efficiency (SEA) of f-Ti2CTx /PVA foam-1 is 26 dB, SET the normal operation of the TCF under extremely cold condi-
is 28 dB, and SER is 2 dB, as shown in Figure 5e. As reflection, tions. Given the combined performance, this work provides a
transmission, and absorption occur when the EMW reaches new solution to the challenge of next-generation transparent
the surface of the prepared sample, the underlying mechanism EMI shielding (Figure 5k,l,m).
for the absorption-dominated EMI shielding properties of Faced with the increasingly critical threat of EM radiation,
MXene/PVA composites can be observed in Figure 5f. highly conductive Ti3C2Tx Mxene-based EMI shielding materials
Whether absorption or reflection contributes the most to the show remarkable application potential, but their single loss
shielding properties depends largely on the type of product being mechanism limits their application potential.[76,77] Liang et al.
manufactured. For the MXene/PVA composite with a film-like assembled Ti3C2Tx MXenes and conductive CNTs into brick-like
structure, the conductivity is 8.0  10
4 S m
1, and EMW reflec- NiCo/MX CNT films with both magnetic and elastic properties
tion is the primary shielding mechanism, while for foamed while achieving high electrical conductivity and brilliant EMA
MXene/PVA composites, the structure of the product leads to attenuation capability (Figure 6a).[78] Notably, the fabricated
better impedance matching, and EMW reflection is relatively brick-like NiCo/MX-CNT films comprehensively demonstrate
low. When the EMW enters the inside of the foam, due to the the necessity of compositional and beneficial structural design.
porous structure of the foam and the layered structure of the The EMI SE is 99.99999991% (90.7 dB) and the NiCo/MX-CNT
MXene flakes, the EMW is reflected inside, which is beneficial composite film with a thickness of only 53 mm can reflect and
to the dissipation of the EMW. Dipoles and interface polarization absorb the SE of EMW at the same time, which is one of the
can dissipate as much of the multireflected EMW as possible, composite films with the best SE, compared with pure CNT films
resulting in absorption-dominated EMI shielding performance. (71 dB) and pure MXene films (61 dB), both exhibiting more
With the rapid advancement of flexible device hardware and prominent advantages (Figure 6b,c). By adjusting the film thick-
portable electronic devices, the requirements for ultrathin EMI ness from 9 to 116 mm, the composite film can achieve
shielding films with both high flexibility and brilliant mechanical 46–105 dB of EMI shielding performance modulation. More
performance are increasing.[73–75] Focusing on solving the prob- importantly, the dense brick-like-layered structure endows the
lem of EMW pollution, Zhang et al. prepared for the first time an composite membrane with remarkable flexibility, bendable fold-
electrically insulating sandwich structure film based on calcium ability, and stable mechanical properties, which greatly improve
ion-crosslinked sodium alginate montmorillonite (MMT) and the practical application potential of the composite membrane in
Ti3C2Tx MXene using a vacuum-assisted stepwise filtration pro- complex application environments.
cess.[35] This strategy of designing an EMI shielding network The widespread popularity of portable and wearable electronic
inside the material also satisfies the other two demands, both products requires researchers to develop high-performance and
as a remarkable fire barrier and as exceptional protection for elec- flexible EMI shielding materials to deal with the increasingly
tronic equipment in the event of an accidental fire. The interlayer severe EMW pollution problem.[80] On this basis, it is compatible
film can maintain prominent EMI shielding property (50.01 dB), with outstanding EMI shielding ability and excellent mechanical
significant mechanical properties (84.4 MPa), and distinguished flexibility. Luo et al. adopted a convenient vacuum-assisted filtra-
fire prevention performance compared with other Ti3C2Tx layers. tion strategy to construct a crosslinked MXene network in natural
In particular, comparing the EMI shielding effect of the hybrid rubber (NR) matrix and then fabricated flexible and highly con-
film with the interlayer film, the EMI shielding effect of the inter- ductive Ti3C2Tx MXenes NR nanocomposite films (Figure 6d).[79]
layer film is more significant, and the interlayer film also per- The electrostatic repulsion generated by the negative charges of
forms well in the long-term thermal aging test at 80 °C. MXene and NR latex enables the MXene flakes to be uniformly
Transparent conductive films (TCFs) have broad application distributed at the interface of the NR particles to create an inter-
prospects in the field of optoelectronic instruments. However, connected network, leading to efficient electron transport at
there still exists a challenge to design a TCF that is robust, stable, lower MXene content. When the MXene content is 6.71 vol%,
flexible, and capable of shielding EMW and operating under the conductivity of the nanocomposite reaches 1400 S m
1 and
harsh conditions. Zhou et al. proposed an ordered coating of the EMI shielding performance reaches
53.6 dB (Figure 6e).
Ti3C2Tx MXene and silver nanowire (AgNW) hybrid conductive The 3D MXene network can significantly enhance the NR matrix,
networks utilizing a convenient, scalable solution-processed and its tensile strength and modulus are significantly increased
approach (Figure 5j).[34] Air plasma-treated polycarbonate (PC) by 700% and 150% compared with pure NR, respectively. The
films are usually sequentially sprayed with MXene and AgNW MXene/NR nanocomposite films possess stable EMI shielding
to build a highly conductive crosslinked network, and the inter- ability and tensile properties under cyclic deformation and are
facial adhesion is enhanced by spin coating combined with hot expected to be a significant component of next-generation flexible
pressing. In addition, the network is transferred and partially and foldable electronic devices. To analyze the EMI shielding
embedded in ultrathin PVA (PVA) film. The best optoelectronic mechanism, Figure 6f schematically illustrates the possible
properties of the peeled MXene/AgNW-PVA TCF are the resis- EMW attenuation mechanism. It has been reported that polymer
tance of 18.3 Ω sq
1 and the transmittance of 52.3%. The results nanocomposites possess large surfaces and interfaces with

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Figure 6. a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of NiCo/MX hybrid materials and NiCo/MX CNT films. b) Diagram of the possible EMA mechanism for
NiCo/MX hybrid materials. c) Schematic illustration of the effect mechanism of different CNT contents on the EMI shielding performance of NiCo/MX
CNT films. Reproduced with permission.[78] Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry. d) Synthesis schematic of the Ti3C2Tx/NR film. e) EMI SE of
MXene/rubber composites under different MXene loadings. f ) Schematic of nanocomposite film’s potential for shielding EMI properties. Reproduced
with permission.[79] Copyright 2019, Elsevier. g) Schematic diagram of the preparation of PIF/MXene conductive flexible composite films. h) Average
values of SET, SER, and SEA for different MXene loadings in the frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz. i) Average values of SET, SER, and SEA for PIF/MXene
composite films with different thicknesses in the frequency range from 8.2 to 12.4 GHz. j) Schematic diagram of the EMI shielding mechanism of the PIF/
MXene composite film. Reproduced with permission.[79] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

multiple reflections, and their shielding mechanisms against interface/dipole polarization losses, as well as the layered struc-
EMI are more complex than homogeneous conductive materials. ture that favors multiple reflections and scattering between adja-
For MXene/NR nanocomposites, the porous crosslinked net- cent layers, the PIF/MXene composite films are found in the
work of MXenes facilitates the penetration of incident EMW frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz and has a 49.9 dB EMI shield-
through the internal porous structure instead of direct reflection. ing effect (Figure 6h). Moreover, the EMI shielding ability
Through multiple scattering and intrainterface polarization, the ensures that the material exhibits excellent environmental suit-
incident wave is effectively attenuated and dissipated on the sur- ability and durability in various harsh environments such as
face and interface of the porous structure, resulting in an uncom- extreme temperatures, special solutions, long-term cyclic folding,
monly improved EMA performance. The adequate endgroups and bending. Based on its stable and excellent electrical conduc-
and a large number of charge carriers on the MXene sheet tivity, it exhibits rapid, stable, and long-lasting Joule heating per-
can interact with the incident EMW and slake the incident formance and exhibits an outstanding thermal deicing effect
EMW by converting it into heat. under actual working conditions (Figure 6i). Thus, flexible con-
To realize the application of conductive MXenes in wearable ductive PIF/MXene films with outstanding electrical conductiv-
electronic devices, the design of flexible multifunctional compo- ity and harsh environmental tolerance have great potential in
sites based on MXenes is evolving into a research hotspot. Sun EMW protection and personal thermal management, which is
et al. fabricated a flexible conductive polyimide fiber (PIF)/ worthy of recognition. As shown in Figure 6j, to better under-
MXene composite film with an imitation steel-brick-cement stand the aforementioned EMI shielding mechanism, a sche-
structure by a facile vacuum filtration heating imidization matic diagram of the transport behavior of EMW through the
strategy(Figure 6g).[33] The precursor polyurethane (PU) of the PIF/MXene composite membrane is accurately proposed.
water-soluble polyimide acts as a binder and dispersant, ensuring Initially, it was primarily attributed to the existence of many free
uniform dispersion of MXene and favorable interfacial adhesion electrons on the surface of the MXene, which unbalanced the
with PIF, thereby optimizing the mechanical stability and high impedance matching between the free air and the EMI shielding
electrical conductivity of the material. Due to the absorption of material and eventually caused most of the EMW to reflect imme-
surface reflections, conduction losses within the material, and diately after being injected into the surface of the composite film.

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Afterward, the electrical potential inside the material is weakened possessing remarkable mechanical properties, piezoresistive sens-
by the loss of conductance through the interaction with the high- ing properties, compression and rebound stability properties,
charge-density MXene. Indeed, the state of asymmetric distribu- human motion detection, and EMA properties.[84] The preparation
tion of charges at the interface of MXene and PIF, as well as the process of PINF/MA composite aerogel is shown in Figure 7a.
presence of MXene defects and terminal functional groups, can First, Al in Ti3AlC2 was removed by a mixed solution of HCl/
lead to different degrees of polarization loss at the incident LiF, and the surface groups F, O, and OH were exposed to the
EMW. At the same time, the special layered structures of steel Ti3C2Tx flakes. Then, the as-spun hydrophilic PAANFs before
bars, bricks, and cement are also conducive to the multiple reflec- imidization were selected as the building blocks for the prepara-
tions of EMW inside the material, which further enhance the tion of MXene aerogels. A suitable concentration of PAA spinning
EMW dissipation capability of the material. Therefore, both solution was prepared by the polycondensation reaction of ODA
reflection and absorption of the EMW are beneficial for optimiz- and PMDA monomers. PAANF films were shear dispersed by
ing the material’s EMI shielding capability. electrospinning and high-speed homogenization treatment.
Finally, MXene flakes were assembled with PAANF in water
2.2.3. MXene-Based Aerogel Composites under weak magnetic stirring to prepare homogeneous
PAANF/MXene materials, which were freeze dried and thermally
The 3D macrostructures assembled from 2D MXenes possess imidized to obtain PINF/MA. PINFs act as crosslinking agents to
extremely remarkable electrochemical and mechanical facilitate the 3D shaping of MXene flakes. As shown in the inset of
properties.[81–83] Considering the dissatisfactory interfacial interac- Figure 7a, the PINF/MA aerogel can easily stand on the dandelion,
tions of MXenes, Pu et al. constructed a 3D layered-columnar exhibiting the characteristics of being lightweight. In addition,
PINF/Ti3C2Tx MXene composite aerogel (PINF/MA) material PINF/MA materials also exhibit excellent thermal insulation
using a synergistic assembly strategy. PINF/MA is unique in and satisfactory hydrophobicity, aiming to maintain their stability
structure and can be applied in multiple functions while and versatility in harsh environmental conditions (Figure 7b,c).

Figure 7. a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of PINF/MA composite aerogels. The photo in the corner proves that this composite aerogel is light-
weight. b) Photographs of water droplets on the surface of the PINF/MA composite aerogel and the corresponding water contact angle. c) Infrared
thermal images of PINF/MA at different times (heating stage 300 °C). Reproduced with permission.[84] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.
d) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of MXene (Ti3C2Tx)/ANFs composite aerogel. e) SEM and digital images of the MXene (Ti3C2Tx)/
ANFs composite aerogel. f ) EMI SE images of PINF/MA composite aerogels. g) Schematic diagram of EMI shielding mechanism of PINF/MA composite
aerogel. Reproduced with permission.[85] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. h) Schematic diagram of the preparation process of NiMR-H aerogel. i) Schematic
illustration of the electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding effects between graphene oxide nanosheets, Ni nano chains, and MXene. j) Off-axis
electron hologram and corresponding TEM image between two adjacent Ni nanochains. k) RL value image of NiMR-H composite aerogel. l) Potential
EMA mechanism diagram of NiMR-H aerogel. Reproduced with permission.[15] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. m) Schematic diagram of the
fabrication process of M@GAMS aerogel. n) RL diagram of M@GAMS at different thicknesses in the S-band. o) Schematic diagram of the potential EMA
mechanism of M@GAMS aerogels. Reproduced with permission.[86] Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

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Lu et al. prepared porous MXene/aramid nanofiber Ti3C2Tx MXene layer, leading to conduction losses. On the other
(MXene(Ti3C2Tx)/ANFs) composite aerogels by freeze drying hand, the formed complexes provide abundant defects such as
(Figure 7d).[85] ANFs exhibit oxidation resistance, backbone com- heterointerfaces, boundaries, stacking faults, and surface func-
pressibility, and EMI shielding properties. Among them, the tional groups, which optimize the polarization loss. The above
EMI shielding performance can be adjusted using factors all make a huge contribution to the attenuation of EMW.
MXene(Ti3C2Tx) content and thickness. The porous size and
toughness of MXene/ANFs composite aerogels will increase with
2.2.4. MXene-Based Foam and Sponge Composites
the increase in MXene(Ti3C2Tx) loading. It is worth noting that,
as shown in Figure 7e, the MXene(Ti3C2Tx)/ANFs exhibit a dis-
In order to ensure the thinness, wide absorption bandwidth, and
tinct porous structure and are lightweight. The MXene
lightweight of EMA materials, researchers have been working
(Ti3C2Tx)/ANF composite aerogel has relatively outstanding
hard to break through many obstacles.[87–90] Li et al. combined
EMI shielding property, with SE values of 13.12, 30.74, and
the wet chemical method, self-assembly method, and sacrificial
56.8 dB at 12.4 GHz under loadings of 7, 14, and 21 wt%
template method to construct a unique reduced graphene oxide
(Figure 7f ). The potential EMI shielding mechanism of the
(RGO)/Ti3C2Tx syntactic foam and realize the regulation of EMA
MXene(Ti3C2Tx)/ANF composite aerogel is shown in
properties.[89] Briefly, as shown in Figure 8a, polymethyl meth-
Figure 7g. Functional groups in MXene(Ti3C2Tx) nanosheets,
such as F, O, and OH, are responsible for providing polarization acrylate (PMMA) spheres and Ti3C2Tx flakes were dispersed in
centers, leading to dielectric relaxation, and generating extensive water, mixed, and centrifuged to form Ti3C2Tx/PMMA spheres
dielectric relaxation, acting on the dielectric loss. by self-assembly through hydrogen bonding and van der Waals
To design novel EMA materials by combining microstructure forces. GO/Ti3C2Tx/PMMA spheres were synthesized by the
design and multicomponent strategy, Liang et al. synthesized same method. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images
magnetic Ni nanochain-anchored Ti3C2Tx MXene/reduced gra- and corresponding schematic diagrams are shown in Figure 8a1,
phene oxide (RGO) aerogels by directional freezing method and a2, and the RGO nanoflakes act as bridges for the stability of the
hydrazine gas-phase reduction method.[15] As shown in foam structure. Compared with all reported foam-based counter-
Figure 7h,i, the fabrication process of Ni/MXene/GO(NiMR- parts, the RGO/Ti3C2Tx foam exhibits superior EMA perfor-
H) aerogel is facilitated, and the prepared Ni nanochains, gra- mance with EAB covering almost the entire X-band. The EMA
phene oxide, and Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets can be directly mechanism of RGO/Ti3C2Tx syntactic foam is shown in
assembled into NiMR-H aerogel in aqueous solution. The mag- Figure 8a3. Mainly relying on the increased EMW scattering
netic coupling phenomenon can be demonstrated by off-axis of the microporous core–shell structure, the enhanced polariza-
electron holography, in which magnetic currents emanating tion loss caused by the abundant heterointerfaces, and the con-
from adjacent Ni nanochains interact to generate a dense 3D duction loss caused by various defects, all these factors all play an
magnetic coupling network on the NiMR-H aerogel essential role in the process of improving the performance
(Figure 7j). Furthermore, the EMA performance of the NiMR- of EMA.
H aerogel is shown in Figure 7k, with RLmin of
75.2 dB at a The structural design is applied not only to high-performance
lower thickness of 2.15 mm and a wide EAB of 5.4 GHz. In con- EMA materials but also to high-performance EMI shielding
clusion, the EMA mechanism of NiMR-H aerogels is described materials. Ma et al. successfully constructed a lightweight,
as follows. On the one hand, the good impedance matching self-healing, and tunable EMI shielding sponge based on shield-
brought by the porous structure leads to the NiMR-H aerogel ing capsules using a concise dip-coating method.[91] Briefly, the
absorbing more EMW while reflecting as little as possible from uniform pores of the melamine sponge are covered by the
the surface. The incident EMW is then captured, multiple scat- formed MXene film, resulting in the porous framework being
tered, and attenuated by the 3D electrical/magnetic coupling net- connected to the structure of the shielding capsule
work within the cell space. On the other hand, EMA is also (Figure 8b–h). The unique structural design results in a signifi-
gradually depleted under the synergistic effect of dielectric losses cantly enhanced interaction between EMW and the MXene film,
(dipole polarization, heterogeneous interface polarization, con- which in turn leads to the constructed composite sponge, achiev-
duction losses) and magnetic losses (magnetic coupling effects, ing an EMI shielding effect of 90.49 dB in the x-band (Figure 8i).
magnetic resonance, eddy current losses, etc.) (Figure 7l). Furthermore, the introduction of a PU interlayer contributes to
Composites composed of different 2D nanomaterials are also the self-healing function of the hybrid sponge. Therefore, after
an effective means to prepare novel EMA materials. Li et al. con- repeated cutting and repairing, the EMI SE value of this hybrid
structed a composite aerogel microsphere material composed of sponge can still reach 72.89 dB, proving that the MXene/
graphene oxide (GO) and Ti3C2Tx MXene utilizing a method of PU@MS composite sponge shows superior application potential
rapid freezing combined with electrospinning.[86] This unique in wearable devices.
absorber takes full advantage of the newly generated heterointer- More interestingly, the sponge foam material can also be com-
face and adequate surface groups, and the Ti3C2Tx MXene@GO bined with terahertz (THz) absorption technology, which can be
hybrid aerogel microspheres (M@GAMS) exhibit remarkable developed in the fields of EMI shielding, radar stealth, and the
EMA performance (Figure 7m,n). Based on the earlier basis, soon-to-be-popular 6G communication. To solve the problems of
Li et al. proposed a potential EMA mechanism for M@GAMS the complex manufacturing process and the narrow band of THz
(Figure 7o). The introduction of Ti3C2Tx MXene group compo- absorbing materials, Shui et al. designed a scheme to obtain
nents improves the polarization ability and dielectric loss capa- Ti3C2Tx MXene sponge foam (MSF) by a dip-coating method
bility. On the one hand, the carriers migrate in the conductive and successfully fabricated a lightweight, broadband, and

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Figure 8. a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of Ti3C2Tx spheres and RGO/Ti3C2Tx foam. (a1,a2) The SEM image and structural diagram of
RGO/Ti3C2Tx foam. (a3) 2D contour image of the RL value of S2 with a thickness of 0.5 mm. Reproduced with permission.[89] Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH.
b) Schematic diagram of the preparation process of MXene-supported MS (1) and MXene/PU@MS (2). c) Schematic illustration of the dynamic fracture
and self-healing mechanism of MXene/PU@MS induced by interfacial hydrogen bonding. d) Cross-sectional SEM image of MXene/PU@MS
(16 mg mL
1 MXene suspension). e–h) Photographs and SEM images of damaged MXene/PU@MS and healed MXene/PU@MS samples.
Reproduced with permission.[91] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. i) EMI SE values of MXene/PU@MS with different Ti3C2Tx contents in x-band.
j) Schematic diagram of the preparation process of MSF. k) SEM image of MSF sponge and three existing states of Ti3C2Tx nanosheets in MSF.
l,m) MSF samples exhibit lightweight features and MSF twistable images. Reproduced with permission.[92] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH.

hydrophobic THz absorber.[92] The schematic diagram of the electronic devices are extremely urgent.[93,94] Flexibility, light-
preparation process of MSF is shown in Figure 8j. The PU weight, and safety are the most basic requirements for wearable
sponge with a pore size larger than 300 m was soaked in the electronic devices. Improving its electromagnetic performance
Ti3C2Tx colloidal solution. After 5 min of extrusion, the and anti-interference ability is the ultimate goal of constructing
Ti3C2Tx quickly covered the sponge skeleton. After the drying electromagnetic devices. Flexible textiles are considered the most
process, the Ti3C2Tx flakes fill the entire sponge. From suitable choice in the field of portable wearable electronic devi-
Figure 8k, it can be observed that there are three filling states, ces.[95] The most superior manufacturing techniques can maxi-
including filling, adhering to the framework, and forming a thin mize the application of flexible textiles, including EMI shielding,
film on the pores. The THz absorption properties in these three energy storage, human thermal management, human health
states are not consistent. In addition, the lightweight and flexi- monitoring, and other fields.[96–99] Here, Liu et al. developed
bility of MSF can be observed in Figure 8l,m. Therefore, the the vacuum-assisted layer-by-layer assembly strategy to fabricate
new strategy of combining large-aperture porous structures with multifunctional flexible conductive textiles with extraordinary
2D nanosheets paves the way for meeting the needs of high- EMI shielding performance, highly susceptive humidity
performance multifunctional terahertz absorbers. response, and superhydrophobicity. Leaf-like nanostructures
composed of silver nanowires (AgNWs) and MXene nanoflakes
serve as highly conductive frameworks (Figure 9a,b).[100] The
3. Contributions of MXenes-Based Materials in existence of MXene can prevent the AgNWs from being oxidized
Other Application Fields and increase the binding strength of AgNWs to the fabric matrix,
resulting in the self-derived hydrophobicity of the flexible textiles.
3.1. Multifunctional Applications in Portable and Wearable Figure 9c demonstrates that the highly conductive MXene can
Electronic Devices further heighten the conductivity of the original silk by signifi-
cantly reducing the interfacial resistance of the original silk. By
With the advancement of 5G electronic communication technol- comparing the EMI shielding properties of MXene and AgNWs-
ogy, the development and application of portable and wearable codecorated silk textiles with those of silk textiles with only MXene

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Figure 9. a) Preparation of hydrophobic, permeable, and conductive silk fabrics by the vacuum-assisted layer-by-layer assembly. b) Leaf-like network of 1D
AgNWs and 2D MXene nanoflakes assembled on silk substrates. c) Schematic diagram of the humidity response mechanism of (MA)nF silk that can
monitor human sweating. d) Comparison of contact angle and water droplet surface behavior. e) Synergistic effects of MXene and AgNW on EMI SE and
electrical resistance of multifunctional silk fabrics. f ) Optical photographs of the original silk and the (MA 0.3)10F silk. g) Two glass jars with ammonium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, covered with (MA 0.3)10F silk. It is a porous structure as evidenced by a large amount of white smoke. h) The breathability
of natural silk and its multifunctional derivatives. i) The resistance changes of MAF wire under different humidity conditions. j) Schematic diagram of
sweat humidity detection by MAF silk. k) Graph of the change of resistance with humidity. l) Sensitivity of A wire and m) MAF wire to resistance change at
57% RH and the relationship between humidity response time and recovery time. n) The humidity response of MAF filaments is like that of commercial
sensors. The humidity response of a homemade humidity sensor was measured at 20 °C. Reproduced with permission.[100] Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH.
o) The preparation of multifunctional fibrous membranes is shown. p–s) SEM images of TF, TDF, TAF, and TAMF. t,u) EMI shielding performance of
TAMF after exposure to air for 30 days and EMI shielding performance after 1000 bending times. v) Schematic illustration of the EMI shielding mecha-
nism of the TAMF sample. w) Temperature distribution under different voltages. x) Saturation temperature of U2 at different voltages. y) Temperature
response at 0.4 V over ten heating cycles. z) Digital and infrared camera images of electric heaters with voltages of 0, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8 V. A) TAMF
heater temperature on the skin at 0, 0.6, and 0.8 V. Application of TAMF in micro- and large human motion. B–D) Fingers flexed, wrist flexed, and elbow
flexed. E) Fetal electromagnetic protection. F) Schematic diagram of fetal movement. G) Simulated fetal movement using a balloon. Reproduced with
permission.[101] Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

or AgNWs in Figure 9d, it can be proven that the two effects on the resistive response (ultralow detection limit is 0.1%, ultrahigh
shielding properties are indispensable. The EMI SE is 90 dB at GF is 7853, and large detection range is 200%) (Figure 9w–z).
12.4 GHz under the thickness of 480 m (Figure 9e). Notably, Therefore, the future of the fabricated TAMF materials is
the protective role played by the MXene layer could endow the final extremely bright in the fields of portable wearables and high-
material with a humidity response and thus self-derived hydropho- performance electromagnetic wave protection (especially the pro-
bicity. Therefore, the synergistic effect of AgNWs and MXene on tection of pregnant women) (Figure 9A–G).
the EMI shielding performance, long-term structural stability, and
self-derived hydrophobicity of multifunctional silk fabrics can 3.2. Multifunctional Applications in Intelligent Tunable Sensor
ensure the stable application of new materials in portable wearable
electronic devices and other fields (Figure 9f–n). 3.2.1. Tunable Hydrogel Sensors
Zhai et al. adopted the strategy of spraying technology com-
bined with electrospinning to prepare a TPU/PDA/AgNP/ MXene conductive hydrogels have become increasingly widely
MXene (TAMF) material that integrates multiple functions, utilized as flexible smart sensor devices. With the characteristics
including electric heating, EMI shielding, and biodetection of ordered orientation and anisotropy, they can meet the appli-
(Figure 9o–s).[101] The optimized TAMF exhibits ultrahigh con- cation requirements of medical monitoring and human–
ductivity, remarkable EMI SE of 108.8 dB (Figure 9t–v), outstand- machine interface compatibility.[102] Inspired by the orderly
ing Joule heating capability (80 °C, 1 V), and highly sensitive structure of muscles, Feng et al. produced anisotropic MXene

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conductive hydrogel by directional freezing method, which per- conversion of sensing signals (Figure 10h–i). In addition, a
fectly solved the problem that traditional homogeneous conduc- 3D sensor array can be assembled from multiple flexible sensors
tive hydrogel and flexible sensor lacked directionality and the to monitor stress changes and spatial distribution. Hence, the
application temperature range was not wide enough construction of muscle-induced MXene-based smart hydrogels
(Figure 10a).[103] The ordered-oriented intelligent tunable hydro- is a new opportunity that will propel the field of flexible electronic
gel material (PMZn) was synthesized by mixing MXene nano- devices to explore biofunctional hydrogels.
sheets with biocompatible polymer and ZnSO4 solution as the
precursor. To further expand the application range of hydrogels
and make conductive hydrogels have a wide sensing range and 3.2.2. Contactless and Continuous Self-Powered Sensors
fast response speed, it is necessary to soak PMZn in binary sol-
vent for solvent replacement, leading to the manufacture of The traditional contact mode sensor has some obvious disad-
PMZn-GL hydrogels (Figure 10b–g). The results demonstrate vantages, because the contact friction between materials may
that the PMZn-GL conductive hydrogel has multifunctional generate noise and a certain degree of wear, resulting in a
application and can be utilized as a wearable flexible sensor decrease in the reliability of triboelectric nanogenerators
for detecting a series of human activities such as hand and facial (TENGs) and an unnecessary increase in cost indirectly.[105–108]
movements. On the mobile phone, different images can be To avoid potential pitfalls, contactless TENGs have become a
observed along with the movement, which is due to the promising solution. Sohel Rana et al. reasonably designed a

Figure 10. a) The fabrication process of PMZn-GL hydrogels and their multifunctional applications in wearable flexible sensors and 3D sensor arrays. b) The
sensing device is assembled with the conductive hydrogel and the electrochemical workstation. c) The resistance change of the flexible sensor responds to
the bending angle (0, 30, 45, 60, 90). d) The wrist is bent down and up. e) Opening and closing of the mouth. f ) The person said A and How are you three
times. g) Quickly bend the fingers about 30 times and repeat 9 times in the cryostat. h) Monitor human behavior through wearable flexible sensors, and
transmit sensing signals to mobile phones through wireless communication. i) The fingers are bent differently, and the changes are displayed on the mobile
phone through wireless technology. j) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of ZiF-67 and Co-NPC. k) Schematic diagram of the molecular structure
and synthesis process of Co-NPC/Ecoflex nanocomposites. l) Step-by-step scheme for bilayer TENG fabrication. Reproduced with permission.[103] Copyright
2021, Wiley-VCH. m) Schematic diagram of the Co-NPC/Ecoflex nanocomposite bilayer noncontact mode TENG. n) Field emission scanning electron
microscopy image of Co-NPC/Ecoflex nanocomposite. o) Working principle diagram of double-layer noncontact mode TENG. p) The peak voltage response
fit curve is based on acceleration. q) The peak-to-peak voltage signal of the TENG towards the sensor. r) The output voltage signal of TENG stepping along
the sensor. s) Potential applications of TENG in robot car obstacle prevention and related electronic modules. t) Experimental setup (frontal) of the robot car
obstacle prevention TENG. u) The experimental setup of the robot car for obstacle prevention TENG (back). v) The schematic diagram of the application of
the obstacle sensor in the robot avoiding human objects. w) Application of obstacle sensors in robots avoiding human objects. x) Schematic diagram
of the smart door lock password authentication system. y) Prefabricated prototype of smart door password authentication system. z) Schematic diagram
of CDL-TENG password authentication and output voltage waveform. Reproduced with permission.[104] Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH.

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noncontact double-layer TENG (CDL-TENG) and ultraflexible 3.3. Multifunctional Applications in New Energy Desalination
self-powered sensor utilizing MXene/Ecoflex and cobalt
nanoporous carbon (Co-NPC)/ecoflex nanocomposites Energy depletion and environmental pollution are the two core
(Figure 10j–m).[104] Each component has a clear division of problems that have led the entire planet into a dangerous state.
labor, which synergistically affects the humidity and accelera- Issues such as water pollution are posing a serious threat to the
tion sensitivity of CDL-TENG by directionally regulating the health of the human beings. Therefore, the development of new
characteristic output voltage, current density, and charge den- energy is imminent, and solar energy utilization technology is
sity of CDL-TENG. The CDL-TENG mainly utilizes MXene/eco- currently recognized as one of the most influential and promis-
flex composite as a dielectric layer to capture charge, while the ing technologies. The global freshwater resources are very lim-
porous structure of Co-NPC is mainly responsible for providing ited, and how to efficiently extract fresh water from seawater is an
a high surface area for storing more charge (Figure 10n). This urgent problem to be solved.[109,110] Renewable solar energy for
design makes up for the insufficient charge trapping of the sin- desalination is the most accessible way. MXene, a promising can-
gle-layer noncontact TENG and improves the output perfor- didate 2D material, has been applied in the field of solar desali-
mance of the TENG. At the same time, the study of surface nation by its wide absorption bandwidth and high absorption
potential proves that the surface potential of CDL-TENG is efficiency in the solar spectrum. To overcome the disadvantages
increased by 8 times, and the output power of the fabricated of the slow efficiency of traditional solar desalination, Xiao et al.
CDL-TENG is more than 4 times higher than that of pure designed an emulsion dip-coating scheme to fabricate a super-
Ecoflex-based TENG. In addition, noncontact situational moni- hydrophobic fabric material with deep interfacial evaporation
toring of CDL-TENG in the range of 20 cm is also demonstrated (Figure 11a).[88] The synthetic fabric with superoleophilic prop-
(Figure 10o). When CDL-TENG is applied to vehicles and erties can effectively separate the oil in the polluted seawater,
robots, new functions of real-time detection of obstacles and ensuring the long-term operation of the evaporation equipment
alarm prompts are developed. Furthermore, CDL-TENG also without being blocked by the oil. In addition to the thermal insu-
contributed to the design of the application of noncontact door lation design of the device itself, the superhydrophobicity of the
locks (Figure 10p–z). To sum up, this material possesses a fabric is responsible for trapping air bubbles between water and
bright future in manufacturing, self-powered sensors, wearable the material, reducing heat transfer during evaporation. In addi-
electronics, artificial intelligence, and other fields. tion, when desalinating high salinity seawater, the accumulation

Figure 11. a) Fabrication process and working principle of superhydrophobic fabric composites with efficient interfacial evaporation. Reproduced with
permission.[88] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. b) An overview of research on 2D MXenes with antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. Reproduced with
permission.[111] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. c) Process flow diagram for fabricating stretchable MSCs using unidirectional freezing technology and 3D
printing strategy. Reproduced with permission.[112] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. d) Schematic diagram of PL-MXene electrodes composed of MXene
flakes and protective PVPh polymer layers and their multifunctional applications. Reproduced with permission.[113] Copyright 2021, American
Chemical Society.

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of salt is avoided. Thus, the efficiency of seawater desalination is conductivity. The insulating layer present in the PL-MXene elec-
as high as 93.3%, and the water production is stable at trode is not only the main factor that hinders the transport of free
1.526 kg m
2 h
1. All the above results demonstrate the stable carriers but also the main reason that PL-MXene is widely uti-
application of MXene-based composites in the field of solar sea- lized in electric field-operated electronic devices. Meanwhile,
water desalination. the PL-MXene electrodes fabricated from polymer laminates
can be used for electroluminescence (EL) displays under alternat-
3.4. Multifunctional Applications in Biomedical Science ing current (AC) operating mode. In addition, PL-MXene electro-
des can be applied to TENGs and pressure sensors, all of which
When the global COVID-19 pandemic started to rage, scientists exhibit outstanding operational stability. The results demonstrate
immediately began to study strategies to eradicate the SARS- that PL-MXene electrodes expand the application potential of
CoV-2 virus, including using 2D nanomaterials.[114,115] Thus, conventional electrodes and become a new generation candidate
it has become possible to rationally utilize the unique properties in the field of wearable electronics.[113]
of nanomaterials to inhibit the spread of viruses. Unal et al. first
used four different forms of MXenes to inhibit four different
SARS-CoV-2 genotypes of viruses and then observed the inhibi-
4. Conclusion and Outlook
tory effect of MXenes on viruses by evaluating cell viability MXenes have evolved into a novel and popular 2D material with a
(Figure 11b).[111] Finally, the researchers found that MXenes pos- variety of extraordinary properties, which can be used to develop
sess a clear antiviral ability against SARS-CoV-2. Also, it was con- many promising composite materials. In this article, we review
firmed that MXenes possess immunecompatible and the recent research progress on the commonly used synthesis
biocompatible qualities and can help human immune cells to strategies of 2D MXenes, the design of MXene-based nanocom-
fight inflammatory inflammation. posites, and the mechanism of EMA and EMI shielding. The
most widely used etching methods are still HF etching or
3.5. Multifunctional Applications in Microsupercapacitors fluorine-salt-assisted etching to separate MXene nanoflakes from
the parent phase MAX. However, the development and applica-
Microsupercapacitors (MSCs) are widely used in wearable elec- tion of more green and environmentally friendly treatment path-
tronic devices and integrated circuits due to their superior elec- ways remain the focus of future research. It is worth noting that
trochemical performance, strong durability, and short response the choice of different etching methods will directly determine
time.[116,117] However, it is extremely challenging to create a the yield of MXene and the changes in surface chemistry.
device that is compatible with both high areal capacitance and Therefore, researchers need to choose suitable surface modifica-
energy density but also has stretchability.[118] Li et al. combined tion and composite schemes for different experimental needs.
3D printing technology and a unidirectional freezing strategy to Furthermore, the physical and chemical properties of MXene-
design a composite gel material printed from a composite ink based materials can be regulated by special structures. In other
composed of Ti3C2Tx MXene nanoflakes, silver nanowires, full- words, the construction strategy, potential EMA, and EMI shield-
erenes, and manganese dioxide nanowires (Figure 11c).[112] The ing mechanisms of MXene-based composites have a profound
MSCs are designed into a unique honeycomb-like porous inter- impact on their multifunctional applications in the future.
secting structure, and the higher specific surface area facilitates More importantly, in recent years, MXene matrix composites
the fast transport of ions, resulting in a significant improvement have been widely studied and applied in many fields, such as
in the area energy and power density. The results show that 3D- intelligent sensors, solar seawater desalination, tunable electro-
printed MSC materials exhibit area capacitance of up to des, biomedicine, and 3D printing, in addition to their applica-
216.2 mF cm
2 when injected with polymer gel electrolytes, tions in EMA and EMI shielding fields. Studies on 2D Mxenes
which exceeds that of previously reported stretchable MSC mate- absorbing and shielding materials combined with other multi-
rials. Furthermore, the MSC material still exhibits a stable capac- functional applications are increasing rapidly. While some
itive state after 1000 stretching/releasing cycles. As a result, the achievements have been made, there are still some challenging
design of this device significantly promotes the development of problems waiting for researchers to explore, for example, how to
stretchable MSCs in wearable electronics applications. develop and widely apply a green treatment strategy and how to
effectively avoid the problem of easy oxidation of MXene in the
3.6. Multifunctional Applications in New Energy Electrodes process of dealing with MXene precursor.

Optically transparent MXenes (Ti3C2Tx) materials have proven 4.1. Improving EMA and EMI Shielding Performance
promising in the development of wearable and patchable field-
driven electronics.[119–122] However, the successful fabrication In recent years, the reasonable construction of EM absorbers pro-
of flexible and transparent electronic components presents chal- motes the development of EM technology and advanced EM devi-
lenges. Lee et al. designed a thin polymer film (PL-MXene) ces, and it possesses a bright prospect to design various devices
composited on the MXene layer to ensure environmental stability utilizing EM energy conversion EM absorbers.[123–126]
of the fabricated PL-MXene electrodes (Figure 11d).[113] The eas- Deepening the understanding of the fundamental physical
ily oxidizable MXene nanoflakes are safely protected by a thin and chemical properties of MXene and adopting physical or
polymer layer, resulting in outstanding antioxidative properties chemical strategies to exploit these properties are crucial for
without compromising their transparency and electrical researchers. In particular, the effects of MXene surface

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modification on electrical conductivity and electromagnetic fluorine-free, green, and efficient synthetic strategies is the main
parameters are revealed, and different composite strategies are goal.[135,136] Some environmentally friendly biomass precursors
designed to improve the EA broadband and EMW.[127] It should have already been proven to be of applicative value, such as algae
be noted that in the laboratory, the EM parameters of MXenes are extraction, which has been used as intercalation agents. In addi-
mainly measured with vector network analyzers, so in real appli- tion, there have been numerous findings that MXene nanoflakes
cation scenarios, the gap between basic research and practical will be oxidized upon contact with water and oxygen during
applications needs to be bridged. Whether the process of the delamination and storage, which is very detrimental to the appli-
manufactured product is suitable for mass production, and cation stability of MXene. Therefore, the defects of 2D MXenes
whether there is a large fluctuation in the EMA performance should be avoided before considering mass production
of the product after the mass production process, requires fur- applications.[137–139]
ther detailed research. Specifically, in the EMA field, MXene- From a long-term perspective, converting MXenes into truly
based products are required to possess outstanding dielectric loss desired products for mass production applications means that
and impedance matching. For example, higher microwave atten- MXenes should be scaled up in yield, rather than at the laboratory
uation capabilities can be expected to be produced by the integra- scale. Developing a production strategy that guarantees yield
tion of different dimensions and different structural materials. while reducing the burden on the environment is the top priority
MXene-based materials are mainly fabricated as MXene films in getting MXenes out of the lab and into the industry.
to measure EMI SE, and the EMI shielding performance is also Undoubtedly, the strategic vision for 2D MXene materials has
dependent on the EMA performance. However, the high electri- been cast, with the EMA application being an important mile-
cal conductivity of MXene will cause some incident EMW to be stone. We believe that MXenes will become one of the outstand-
reflected on the surface, and the absorption rate will also ing microwave absorbing and shielding materials with a wide
decrease. Therefore, high-conductivity MXene-based materials range of applications through sophisticated processing technol-
are most suitable for shielding applications rather than as ogy and innovation of multifunctional designs.
absorbers.[128]

4.2. In-Depth Analysis of EMW Mechanism Acknowledgements

Financial support from the National Nature Science Foundation of China
The mechanism of EMA is mainly composed of dielectric loss
(no. 51971111) and the Foundation of National Key Laboratory (no.
mechanism and magnetic loss.[129] An in-depth exploration of 6142908-KQ111501114) is gratefully acknowledged.
the decay behavior of EMW possesses profound implications
for material design. Among them, the dielectric loss mechanism
includes interface polarization, dipole polarization, conduction
loss, and defect-induced polarization. Various mechanisms are
Conflict of Interest
different, and researchers should rigorously analyze the contri- The authors declare no conflict of interest.
bution of different polarizations to EMA.[130] In addition, the
magnetic losses including magnetic coupling effects, magnetic
resonance, eddy current losses, etc. synergistically deplete the
EMW gradually.[41] The EMI shielding mechanism is also based Keywords
on EMA as the main factor, combined with the reflection of the electromagnetic characteristics, electromagnetic interference shielding,
material on the EMW. It is worth noting that there may be mul- electromagnetic wave absorption, multifunctional structures, MXenes
tiple mechanisms operating in a material, but discriminating the
degree of contribution between mechanisms remains a challeng- Received: May 30, 2022
ing task. Revised: July 2, 2022
Published online: August 19, 2022

4.3. Expanding the Wider Range of Applications

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Xiaomeng Guan is a Ph.D. candidate in the College of Materials Science and Technology of Nanjing
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Her research focuses on electromagnetic wave absorption/
shielding materials and multifunctional nano-/micromaterial synthesis.

Zhihong Yang graduated from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering of Nanjing
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics and received his Ph.D. from the Department of Chemical and
Biomedical Engineering of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He has published more than 80
peer-reviewed papers including advanced materials, progress in materials science, nature
communications, etc. He has been a long-term reviewer for more than ten academic journals such as
Carbon, Journal of Materials Chemistry, and ACS applied Materials and Interfaces.

Yang Le is currently a group leader (“PROFESS” Group (Printed Organic Flexible Electronics & Sensors))
at the Institute of Materials Research & Engineering (IMRE, A*STAR). Her group’s current scope
includes smart biomedical sensors, luminescent materials, and flexible electronics. She received a Ph.D.
(optoelectronics, physics) from the University of Cambridge under the supervision of Professor Sir
Richard Friend. She and her colleagues discovered a new emission mechanism in a class of new
materials, leading to record-efficiency organic light-emitting diodes (Science, 2017), an achievement
useful for next-generation printable display technology.

Guangbin Ji currently a full professor at the College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He is an editorial board member of the Journal of Colloid
and Interface Science, Current Nanoscience, and Nanomaterials. He has published more than 150
research papers on advanced materials, advanced functional materials, etc. and was selected as the
highly cited researcher by Clarivate Analytics (2020, 2021), Elsevier Highly Cited Chinese Researchers
(2021). His major research interests include microwave absorption/shielding and magnetic materials.

Small Struct. 2022, 3, 2200102 2200102 (23 of 23) © 2022 The Authors. Small Structures published by Wiley-VCH GmbH