WILDERNESS SURVIVAL

ESSENTIALS

ROLF GUNDERSON
 # Copyright & Disclosures

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Extreme Environment
Chapter 3: Shelter
Chapter 4: Natural Shelter
Chapter 5: Fire
Chapter 6: Water
Chapter 7: Tools
Chapter 8: Rope
Chapter 9: Signaling for Help
Chapter 10: Food
Conclusion
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Basic instincts play a role in every single decision humans make,
whether consciously or subconsciously. They are programmed into
our internal makeup, almost as if on autopilot, to activate whenever
we need them. All living things have two basic instincts in common:
reproduction and survival. However, humans may address these two
instincts differently than other living beings because of our ability to
make maximum use of the resources available.
Surviving in the wilderness may not be something people think about
every day, but it is the function of our survival instincts that would
have us give the consideration its due. Popular television shows like
AMC's The Walking Dead and CBS's Survivor entertain millions of
people with story plots about surviving in unknown terrains and
conditions, but watching them won't teach viewers about survival. To
survive in the wilderness, you need to understand the essentials
needed and know what to expect in a survival situation. You never
know when one of these survival hacks may come in handy.
Let's take the Survival Rule of 3s, for instance. It is a great basic rule
of thumb for outdoor survival that stipulates, on average, a human
can live:

The great thing about the Rule of 3s is that it clarifies the maximum
time frame humans can go without basic essentials in an easy-to-
remember way. It also alerts us to what essentials we should
prioritize in survival situations.
You'll know to pack plenty of food, a tent, appropriate clothing, and a
couple of lighters and flint to prevent cold conditions and provide a
heating source for cooking. Additionally, you're likely to bring your
mobile phone along just in case an emergency arises that requires
medical or official attention. But what happens if it rains? Or snows?
Or even worse—you encounter an unexpected predator like a
venomous spider, venomous snake, or hungry bear? That's where
Wilderness Survival Essentials comes in handy.
This book will not only expound on the Survival Rule of 3s, but it will
also walk you through the essentials needed to survive the most
relevant wild terrain that you may find yourself subjected to. We'll
cover:
Survival essentials for extreme environments and
conditions, like hypothermia and heatstroke.
Preparing and building shelter, including sleeping bags,
tents, camps, and natural shelters.
Essential fire-making techniques, such as sparks,
light/lens, friction, and chemical techniques to build your
fire.
The essentials of finding and storing a water supply, such
as allowing birds to lead the way to water sources and
preparing natural containers for storing water.
Essential tools for surviving the wilderness, like flashlights,
knives, saws, and spears.
Survival essentials for your roping needs, including making
natural cords by using resources like grass and plant
fibers, knot basics, and hitching.
Duress techniques for signaling for help with mirrors,
flashlights, fire, and rocks.
Finding food in the wilderness, including plants to avoid
and baiting and catching techniques for fish and game.

Knowing the essentials to survive in the wilderness can be the

difference between experiencing extreme panic when faced with
elements in the wild versus being able to calmly and effectively
handle whatever challenges come your way. The wilderness doesn't
have to be a scary place that only the fittest are capable of surviving.
This book will explain how anyone with a willingness to learn
wilderness survival essentials can make it in the wild.
 CHAPTER 2: EXTREME
ENVIRONMENT
Most of us don't realize how unprepared we are to withstand
extreme environments until we find ourselves in one. While it may
not be too late to learn how to survive in an extreme environment
once you are in this situation, being prepared ahead of time is
recommended. Different extreme environments require different
survival essentials. Campers will require different clothing and
shelter than hikers, while canoers will require different resources
than winter backpackers.
With millions of people visiting wilderness areas every year, half of
which are within a day’s drive of major cities, understanding how to
survive these terrains is essential to hiker and backpacker safety. In
this chapter, we'll cover some wilderness essentials for surviving in
extreme conditions like rain, snow/ice, and heat/sun.
#
Rain
Rain is a factor all hikers and backpackers should prepare for. Many
hikers and backpackers become the victims of an inaccurate
weather forecast on a rainy day that was predicted to be warm and
sunny. Whatever the case may be, it doesn't have to be a terrible
day if you know some handy rainy weather survival essentials. When
choosing your clothing for rainy conditions in the wilderness,
consider the following:
Avoid cotton on your skin at all costs:
Cotton absorbs moisture, including rain and even your own
sweat.
Cotton clothing on your skin chills you.
Avoid cotton underwear (i.e. boxers, bras, etc.) as they can
contribute to hypothermia.
Choose clothing with wicking material instead (i.e. nylon,
polyester, wool, etc.).

Don't forget the rain cap:

Rain jackets with hoods, whether brimmed or not, just don't
suffice in protecting your face or glasses from the rain.
Ballcap-styled rain caps may be worn under the hood of
your raincoat for added protection.
Broad-brimmed rain caps are recommended.

Choose jackets that have synthetic insulation:

Down jackets don't function as well when wet unless they
are lined with synthetic insulation.
For added protection, go with either water-resistant down
jackets or down jackets with hybrid functionality that
include both resistance to water and synthetic insulation.
For milder weather, opt for soft-shell jackets or lightweight
fleeces instead.

Evaluate your gear:

 Consider upgrading to rain gear in bright colors, as they
can brighten your mood on rainy days and make it easier
for emergency services to locate you.

Footwear:
Waterproof footwear (i.e. shoes or boots) is great for
keeping the water out initially but should be renewed at the
start of each season or whenever large dark spots begin
forming after encountering wet terrain.
Mesh footwear offers faster drainage and drying after
getting wet, making it a better option for milder conditions.
Footwear with super traction is necessary when
encountering slippery terrain (i.e. logs or rocks).
Muddy terrains require footwear with deep lug soles.

Extras to pack for added protection:

Don't forget to pack a few ziplock bags to make small
possessions temporarily waterproof.
They don't take up much space and they're very
light.
They are also handy for putting over socks before
putting on boots to keep your socks and feet dry in
rainy conditions.
Include waterproof cases for your electronics (i.e. mobile
phones, earphones, helmet cams, etc.).
Line your gear pack with lightweight dry sacks to protect
your most vulnerable belongings.
Bring additional rain cover along with you, which may be
included in your gear daypack or purchased separately to
cover the size of your pack.
Pack some trash bags as they provide multifunctional
protection from the rain, including the ability to cover your
gear pack or act as a tarp.

In addition to the above wet weather clothing and gear

considerations, you can improve your ability to function in wet terrain
with the following essentials:

Headlamp:
It provides a hands-free light source as it attaches to
headgear, allowing clear illumination of the terrain ahead.

Bandanas:
Useful for drying off wet gear.
Useful as a head covering as well.
Multitowels may also be used, as they are synthetic as
opposed to the cotton in bandanas.

Having the appropriate clothing, gear, and accessories to survive wet

conditions prevents the rainy weather from ruining your trip. The key
is keeping your skin dry and the water out of your clothing/pack.
Just knowing what to wear and bring isn't always enough—you will
also need to know what to avoid and the best way to navigate.

Things to avoid in wet terrains include:

Flash floods, mudslides, and related hazards:
Get familiar with your surroundings (i.e. locate danger and
hazard signs that mark zones for floods, mudslides, or
hazards).
Avoid areas where flooding or mudslides are likely to occur.
Don't hike in low areas like arroyos or along creek beds.
Aim for high ground whenever possible.

Lightning:
Avoid water (i.e. mud puddles, ponds, waterfalls, etc.) as
lightning can still shock and kill you if it hits the water, even
if the actual lightning doesn't strike you.
Avoid camping or sheltering under trees or related areas in
which lightning may strike unexpectedly.
Refrain from using umbrellas or items with metallic
materials that are likely to attract lightning.
Avoid high ground areas when lightning is present as you
may become the quickest path for the lightning to reach the
ground.
Choose areas lined with low-growing shrubs.
If you need to retreat to a ditch or other depression for
shelter, ensure no water is flowing into the area and stay as
close to the ground as possible. Abandon the area if water
begins flowing in.
Wait at least thirty minutes after lightning or thunder has
finished before leaving your safety zone.

#
Snow/Ice
Surviving snow or icy weather conditions may seem old-hat for
anyone living in cold weather environments, but surviving cold
conditions in the wilderness is vastly different from preparing for
snowfall at your home. Even being exposed to cold weather in wild
terrains for as few as five minutes can have devastating
consequences because of the isolation.
Since snow and ice present wet conditions, many of the essentials
described above for rainy weather may also be applied to extreme
cold conditions. Along with rainy conditions, your main focus will be
staying dry and warm; thus, the same water-resistance clothing and
gear will be needed. However, you will also need to stay warm, so
your clothing, gear, and accessories should be able to provide both
functions. In addition, you'll want to have a separate winter
essentials bug-out-bag (BOB), which is derived from the term
‘bugging out’ and refers to leaving your home for an unexpected
emergency, etc.
A BOB serves as your survival kit stocked with essentials to help you
survive an emergency, and your winter BOB is a prepacked bag with
essentials needed to survive for at least 72 hours in extreme cold
conditions in the wilderness.
Your winter BOB should be thick, durable, and water-resistant with
airtight constriction. It should also be equipped with padded hip
straps, additional pockets, and compartments for added storage. It
may include a roll-top construction for even more expanded storage.
When packing it, in addition to the wet weather essentials previously
discussed, you should include:
1. Metal cups (for warming beverages and soups).
2. Cold weather clothing (sleeping bag for extra warmth).
3. Wool socks (for extra warmth - even if wet).
4. Long underwear (for extra warmth).
5. Hand and body warmers (for extra warmth).
6. Modern fire starters (i.e. flint, lighter/matches, magnesium,
etc.).
 7. Fire tinder such as paper towels or newspaper.
8. Ski goggles and ski mask (to protect your face).
9. Insulated water bottle (to keep beverages warm or hot for
extended periods of time).
10. Reflector/space blankets (for attracting and absorbing
heat).
11. Folding saw (for chopping wood, clearing pathways, and
preparing shelter).

While your BOB and extreme cold weather essentials are helpful for
surviving such conditions, staying warm and dry should be your
number one priority. Not only are you at risk for frostbite, but you're
also at risk for dangerous conditions like hypothermia. Thus, your
priorities should be addressed as follows if staying for a long period
of time (more than 4 hours):
1. Find or build a shelter (your BOB should be equipped with
the resources to help).
If inside a vehicle (i.e. snowed in), remain inside your
vehicle until help arrives.
If outside, seek caves or overhangs, create a makeshift
snow cave by digging into a snowdrift, or construct a tent
with the resources available to you.

2. Heat water to keep your body temperature up.

Cold water and eating snow results in an increase in
calorie burn, which is counterproductive to your survival.

3. Start a fire to preserve your body temperature and maintain

warmth.

4. Signal for help if you need to be rescued or require the aid

of emergency responders (more on distress signaling in
Chapter 7).
 5. Find food if your BOB and/or other resources don't include
enough food to last the duration of your trip.
Build snare traps to hunt game.

In addition to the above, the following three are final reiterations for
surviving in extreme cold conditions.
Prevent hypothermia by:
Staying dry.
Wearing the proper clothing and gear.
Avoiding the wind.
Keeping active.
Building a fire.
Consuming energy-rich food.

Treat frostbite as quickly as possible:

Symptoms include numbness; tingly/cold fingers, toes,
ears, or nose; stiff or waxy skin; and/or limited mobility of
the joints.
Mild frostbite may be treated by fifteen minutes of skin-to-
skin contact to warm the body.
Superficial frostbite may be treated by splinting and
covering the impacted area of skin before loosening the
clothing around it and seeking medical aid.
Deep frostbite requires emergency attention (i.e.
evacuation).

#
Heat/Sun
Extreme heat poses its own dangers, beyond the risks for sunburn,
dehydration, hyponatremia, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke.
Sunburn is not only an annoying hazard, but it can also be
significantly painful and uncomfortable. Although sunburn doesn't
necessarily mean you're cooking your skin, it means that skin cells
are under attack by ultraviolet radiation, which causes your skin to
swell and redden hours after being exposed to the sun unprotected.
Prevention is key—do your best to reduce sun exposure,
keep your skin covered while in the sun, and use
sunscreen.

Dehydration occurs when your body's water source is depleted from

the loss of water (i.e. sweating).
Mild depletion of water supply typically signals familiar
symptoms, including dry mouth, increasing thirst levels,
poignant urine that appears more yellow than usual,
dizziness, headaches, and/or drowsiness.
Severe water depletion results in quickened breathing,
intense headaches and/or dizziness, increased pulse, dark
yellow urine, feeling of confusion or lethargy, or even
fainting.
Monitor for signs of dehydration (i.e. urine frequency and
color) in yourself and anyone you're with to stay ahead of
severe dehydration.

A change in your usual urine frequency or failure to

urinate every two or three hours is a good indicator of
dehydration.
Drink water more frequently until your urination
frequency is back to normal, but be cautious not to
overhydrate yourself with only plain water because doing
so may lead to hyponatremia.
Hyponatremia occurs when profuse sweating from humidity and/or
heat is combined with someone consuming only plain water for an
extended time (i.e. days), causing your body's usual sodium supply
to deplete to dangerously low levels.
This may be deadly, especially for anyone already suffering
from kidney problems or other related issues.
Symptoms may be easily confused with dehydration.
Mild symptoms include headaches, confusion, and
drowsiness.
Severe symptoms include mild to severe muscle cramps
and spasms, confusion, and seizures.
Electrolyte depletion without replacement can result in
swelling of the brain, thereby leading to coma and/or death.
To prevent it, you must steadily replace your salt and other
electrolytes whenever you sweat profusely in extreme heat
conditions.
Start by pouring a handful of sugar combined with a
pinch of table salt into each gallon of water you drink.
Also, consider including oral rehydration salts (i.e. Drip
Drop, NUUN) in your BOB or survival kit.

Heat exhaustion can be as deadly as hyponatremia and the

combination of high temperatures and humid climates can be a
recipe for disaster when you're out in the wilderness.
Your body loses its ability to cool itself because the water-
saturated air prevents the evaporation of perspiration.
Symptoms may vary, including profuse sweating, clammy
skin, extreme drowsiness, dizziness, and weakness.
Your body's internal temperature will typically rise above
100° Fahrenheit—which happens to be the technical term
for hyperthermia (not to be confused with hypothermia
which is below the normal 98° Fahrenheit).
Treat as soon as possible by seeking emergency services
and taking the following steps:

Lay the victim down in the most shaded area available.

 Slightly raise the victim's feet.
Have the victim drink plenty of cool liquid, preferably
including electrolytes.
Proceed with the above until the victim recovers.
Allow the victim to rest for the remainder of the day and
the day following the heat exhaustion to assure it doesn't
reoccur.

Heatstroke (or severe hyperthermia) may occur if your body

temperature reaches 104° Fahrenheit or above. Symptoms include
dizziness, headache, hot dry skin, and loss of consciousness.
Dry skin is the easiest symptom to identify, noticeable
when a person stops perspiring.
Request emergency services (i.e. 911) immediately.
Move the victim to the coolest place available.
Raise the victim's head and cool their body with a wet cloth
or article of clothing while also fanning them to help lower
their body temperature.
Monitor the victim's temperature to see when it goes below
104° Fahrenheit, then replace the victim's wet clothing with
dry clothing as you resume monitoring.
Monitor for any signs of shock and be prepared to offer
resuscitative services if warranted.
Get the victim to a medical facility or professional as soon
as possible.

#
Chapter Summary
Knowing how to survive extreme conditions can be the difference
between life and death during hazardous circumstances. Having the
proper clothing and gear enhances your ability to weather these
conditions, but remaining calm and knowing what to do to prevent
and handle these dangerous conditions are key to your survival.
Understanding the risks that different types of extreme environments
pose will help you address your survival in these conditions. Now
you should have the groundwork for surviving just about any extreme
environment you may find yourself in while exploring the wilderness.
In this chapter, you learned:
The hazards that extreme weather conditions pose when in
the wilderness.
Survival essentials for surviving extreme rain/wet
conditions in the wilderness.
Survival essentials for surviving extreme cold conditions in
the wilderness.
Survival essentials for surviving extreme heat conditions in
the wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn about finding and building shelter
to survive in the wilderness.
 CHAPTER 3: SHELTER
Finding or building shelter in the wilderness is just as crucial as
preparing yourself for the elements as it will also protect you against
animals and insects. As briefly discussed in the previous chapter,
survival shelters can range from tents and sleeping bags to
manmade shelters using natural or available resources.
As the Rule of 3s prescribes, you can only survive for up three hours
in extreme conditions without shelter. Therefore, the three-hour
window of survival should be highly focused on locating or building
shelter. Locating shelter may be as simple as retreating to your RV
or Winnebago, locating a cave, or spotting an abandoned shack.
Building shelter, on the other hand, will depend on what is packed in
your BOB or other travel packs/gear, along with the natural
resources available to you.

Locate coverage:
Your natural surroundings (i.e. large trees and protruding
rocks/stones/walls) can offer invaluable protection if you're
unable to build or find other readily available forms of
shelter.

Provide elevation for your bedding:

Elevating your bed helps keep you dry and enhances your
protection from insects and other creepy crawlers.
Insulate your bedding from the ground with twigs, etc.—
similar to a bird’s nest.

Stay dry at all costs:

As thoroughly advised in Chapter 1, staying dry is crucial to
your survival in the wilderness.
It's much more difficult to dry yourself in the wilderness and
get your body warmed back to safe core temperatures than
it is to stay dry and prevent any exposure to wet conditions.
Preparation is key.

#
Prepackaged Shelter
When locating shelter is not a viable option, you'll need to use the
resources at your immediate disposal, and your travel pack and BOB
are great places to start. In addition to the essentials previously
discussed, you'll want to consider including ultralight shelters like
tents, tarps, sleeping bags, and ground pads in your packs or BOBs.
A shelter is considered to be an ultralight shelter when it lacks poles
dedicated to maintaining its structure, so some self-standing tents
are not considered ultralight shelters. Whether poled or ultralight,
prepackaged shelter is always a good resource to include in your
travel pack or BOB. Often, when wilderness travelers find
themselves in need of shelter, they are already low on energy,
making it that much more difficult to build a shelter with natural
resources. Thus, you should consider traveling with the following
prepackaged shelter options:
Tents. There are many tents available for various camping needs.
Although tents can be costly and are typically heavier and less
versatile than some other shelters, they do offer considerable
benefits. Some pros of packing a tent into your travel pack or BOB
include:
Relatively easy setup.
Self-standing once they have been set up.
Provides shield from water and protection from weather
and insects.

Tarps.
Tarps are cheaper, lighter, and more versatile than tents, but they
aren't self-standing or as weatherproof, and don't provide protection
from insects. However, they offer more flexibility than tents and allow
you to build a variety of shelter shapes. They also allow for fresh air
circulation and can make you feel closer to nature. For instance, a
lean-to allows you to prepare dinner while protected from the wind
but still being able to view the night sky. Typically, tarp shelters are
used for the following scenarios:
 Ultralight Shelters - When tarps are used instead of tents
for lighter weight packing.
Section Options/Plan Bs - When a tarp is packed as the
last resort in the event you're unable to reach a physical
shelter.
Hammocks - People who prefer to sleep in hammocks
while outdoors may opt to pitch a tarp above the hammock
for overhead protection.
Survival - Survivalists often like carrying tarps, just in case
they find themselves in conditions in which it's the best
sheltering option.

Sleeping Bags.
A sleeping bag is another important essential for your sheltering
needs, and you will benefit from its use in just about any outdoor
wilderness environment. The key is packing the appropriate sleeping
bag for your journey. When making your selection, the following
characteristics should be taken into consideration:
Shape:
Rectangular sleeping bags maximize roominess but
aren't as warm as mummy bags.
Semi-rectangular sleeping bags, aka barrel-shaped or
modified-mummy bags, come in various shapes for
comfort, but some designs tend to compromise either
warmth or roominess.
Mummy bags are slim and hooded to provide more
warmth and less weight, offering a snug fit.
Temperature Rating:
Consider the climate in which the sleeping bag will be used
by researching the historical temperatures in the area:
Identify the average low temperature for the winter months
in the area you will be using your sleeping bag in. Use that
number to select a sleeping bag with an appropriate
comfort rating to accommodate the climate you'll be in.
Select a sleeping bag with an EN comfort rating equal to or
colder than your expected average low for the climate the
bag will be used in.

Insulation:
Down Insulation: Generally considered to be more expensive, but
also lighter in weight and offers more compression for easier
packing.
Retains warmth for more years than synthetic insulation.
Usually treated with water-resistant material.
Durable.
Performs well in cold, dry conditions.

Synthetic Insulation: Typically cheaper than down insulation and

durable even when wet.
Insulates even when wet.
Dries fast.
Hypoallergenic.
Ideal for damp climates.

Ground Pads.
Many people pack a ground pad as an extra layer of protection from
the ground in your tent, tarp, or sleeping bag. Alternatively, if you
bring a sleeping bag, it may have a ground or sleeping pad included
(the temperature rating displayed on your bag is based on testing
with a sleeping pad; R-value, so sleeping pads with higher R-values
offer more insulation. The higher the better).
CHAPTER 4: NATURAL SHELTER
Natural Shelter
While a prepackaged shelter is ideal, it's more likely that anyone
requiring wilderness survival essentials will not have a prepackaged
shelter with them. Therefore, they will have to rely on whatever
resources they have available and bend them to their needs. Natural
resources are likely to be available and the rest of this book will be
primarily focused on non-prepackaged wilderness essentials,
beginning with natural shelters. Natural shelters are considered any
natural resource that can shield you from the elements (rain, cold,
heat, wind, etc.).
Reserving your energy is a crucial priority when trying to survive in
the wilderness. Being able to find natural shelter goes a long way in
preserving your energy, especially if you can find a shelter that
requires no work on your part, such as a cave or a natural
windbreak. Use caution when considering natural shelters as they
may already be inhabited. This can include during the day as well as
partial natural night-time habitation for venomous and predatory
animals. If you can locate one of the following natural shelters, you
will be able to conserve the energy you would use building a shelter:
Caves: Arguably the best type of natural resource available when
locatable:
Dual Purpose: Protects against the elements and shields
you from potential dangers/prey.
Use caution when entering because it may already be
inhabited (i.e. others seeking shelter, animals, bats, wild
game, etc.).
Set up camp near the entrance just in case you find an
imminent need to vacate.
Be wary of starting a fire near the rock wall because the
heat build-up can encourage cracks and cause rocks to
fall, posing a considerable risk. Build reflector fires instead
that you can lay near for warmth.
Don't build a fire that will block the entrance and keep it
small so it doesn't use all the oxygen in the cave.

Rock Formations: They take many shapes and forms, so finding

the perfect formation for shelter without any additional work on your
part can be challenging.

Abandoned Structures: Surprisingly more common than most

people think:
There's a good chance that the wilderness area you're
trying to withstand has been previously inhabited by people
at some point in history.
Even when they don't provide full shelters, they are a great
base to build a shelter and offer at least a wind-break.

Deadfalls: Fallen trees often offer great shelter through the exposed
roots from the trunk that is lying on the ground:
A tarp can be pitched over the trunk for added shelter.
The root exposure of the trunk can serve as the basis of a
lean-to shelter (discussed further in the following section).
Undercut Banks: Not suitable in situations involving heavy rain;
otherwise, a great singular-sided form of shelter:
Great for pitching tarps.

Animal Dens: Caution needed because some may still be inhabited

by animals. Dens may likely require work to enlarge them for
sheltering:
Sizes vary based on inhabitants (i.e. dug out holes, cleared
brush, etc.).

Trees: Provide a variety of sheltering options:

Pine trees have long branches that often extend near or to
the ground, making them ideal instant shelters.
Large shade trees are great for shielding you from rain.
Hollow trees are more likely to be found in forests with
towering trees.
Great for immediate shelter when available.

Since locating fully constructed natural shelters is not always

possible, wilderness survivalists often have to build on what is
available. As noted above, trees are a great natural resource to use
as a base for building your shelter. However, just as with caves and
other natural habitats, there are animals and bugs to be on the
lookout for when picking trees for shelter. For instance, though small
and seemingly nonthreatening, ants often inhabit trees and can
become a nuisance when you disturb their habitat. There also may
be wild game occupying the tree or surrounding trees. Just watch the
tree and surrounding trees for potential problems before building
your shelter.
Tree shelters can be built from the ground up (i.e. deadfalls) or built
above off-the-ground structures. We'll cover sheltering options for
both tree-type shelters and you can pick which one is best, based on
your circumstances:
#
On-Ground Shelters:

1. Lean-to
One of the more common forms of shelters used, as it can be set up
easily and provides great wind protection:
Overhung or fallen trees serve as a wall for you to pitch your lean-
to shelter, but you can also build a wall if unable to locate an
overhung or fallen tree.
The wall is your foundation and must be sturdy enough to
withstand the total weight of your roofing materials.
If you're unable to find an overhung or fallen tree, look for a
log or long stick that can be propped up as support for your
roof:
Use a tree limb or two sticks to prop up each side of the
log/long stick, creating an overhead horizontal structure to
support the weight of your roofing material.
Collect more sticks and/or branches for your lean-to
structure and arrange them closely on the horizontal
structure at a 45° angle, minimizing openings for any wind,
water or debris to seep through.
For wet weather, if your wall is facing the rain, consider
making the angle deeper (60° angle) to prevent leaking into
your shelter.
Collect any available debris you can find to construct your
lean-to wall, including bark, leaves, boughs, pine needles,
and twigs. However, use caution as animals like snakes
may be lurking underneath dry debris.
Assemble the debris thickly to plug up gaps between the
sticks.
Stack a few small branches on top to hold things in place.
You can also consider adding ribs on the side of your newly
constructed shelter for extra protection from the wind.
2. Debris Shelters
This is a harder shelter to build, even considered the last resort
option to some, but provides insulation to keep you warm without a
fire.
You'll need to construct a ridgepole by using the crook of a
tree, a strong stick, or two sticks bound together with a
cord or twine.
Collect branches that may be structured as two uprights to
support the ridgepole if needed and tie them together on
each side to prop up the ridgepole.
Place the ridgepole in the grooves of the upright to form
your roof, then secure it with the cord or twine.
Secure the other end of the ridgepole on the ground. A
heavy rock is sometimes used to keep the other end in
place.
Add sticks on each side to create the walls of the shelter.
Add ribs to the side with smaller sticks, but don't arrange
them above the ridgepole because it may cause water to
leak inside or cause the ridgepole to break altogether.
Gather debris, such as dead leaves, pine needles, and/or
dead grass to use to form a thick bed (at least one to two
feet), the walls, and for the floor of your shelter. It will
insulate you from the ground, shield you from the air, and
serve as your resting place.
A door may be added for extra warmth by collecting
branches to tie together at the entrance if desired.
3. Fallen Trees
Root balls and tree trunks from fallen trees offer great sheltering
opportunities:
Root balls often provide sufficient roofing or walling for
shelter. Tarps may be used for additional overhead
coverage or for ground padding to protect against direct
ground contact or insects.
Root balls from trees that have fallen long before your
arrival may be more flexible and allow for bending and
clearing for expanded shelter.
Tree trunks can be great resources for walls, roofing, or
ridgepoles, and can also be a base for pitching tarp for
more walling or roofing.
4. Teepees (Tipi)/Wicki-up Shelters
One of the oldest forms of manmade shelters available, these
shelters are designed to fit two to three people, they allow for starting
a fire inside without posing a risk, and may also be used for long-
term use.
Conical (cone-like) structure.
Collect three 7-8 feet long, thick logs (at least 6-8 inches
thick) for your tripod base:
Fasten the top of the three logs together with a cord or
twine, then spread out the three ends in a conical shape.
Secure the bottoms of the three logs into the ground with
stones or by sharpening the bottom of each log to dig into
the ground for security.
Collect more logs to fill in between the three large conical-
shaped logs (fill until there are no gaps) and make sure
they are secure.
Stack debris onto the outside of the structure from the
bottom up until completely covered.
Create a bed inside by stacking thick leaves or soft debris.
5. Round Lodge Shelters
Similar to teepees/wicki-ups, but these include a solid doorway and
are typically constructed with a hole in the roof or a sunroof:
Sunroof allows for building fires without posing a risk.
May be built with thatched grass or thick debris.
Off-Ground Tree Shelters:
1.Nests
Just like birds, you can build a large nest above the ground in a tree
using wood, rocks, and debris:
Use debris like vegetation, tall grass, and evergreen and
fern boughs for the first layer that will surround you in the
nest.
Build a sloping roof using wood (i.e. tree branches/sticks).

2. Bough Bed
Provides an elevated shelter with relative ease:
Collect two 7-8 feet long, thick logs (at least 6 inches) and
two 4-5 feet long logs:
Place the long logs on the ground next to each other.
Lay the two shorter logs across the long logs.
Fasten the logs together with twine or a cord to secure
them.
Collect small sticks to stack on top of the long logs for the
frame of your bed, then tie them together with twine or a
cord.
Collect soft needles, pine, spruce, dry leaves, or debris to
pile together for the bedding cushion.

3.Bog Ken/Platform Shelter

Built on stilts with various designs, but a common lean-to platform
design may be built as follows:
Gather two 8-9 feet long logs.
Dig two 6-inch holes into the ground to drive each log into
firmly, then fill the holes with mud for added security.
Repeat the above steps with two slightly smaller logs,
placing them parallel to the larger poles. This will create a
2x1 meter rectangle-shape frame.
Gather two more thick logs to assemble on top to connect
the other four with and form your thatched roof, which
should be at a 30° angle once assembled.
Add ribs to the side for extra security.
Stack debris on top of the roof from the bottom up and
secure with rocks or branches to protect against the wind.
Collect two more logs for the platform, placing them in the
form of a crossbar, then secure them by tying them to the
lower end of the roof and tying them in a straight line to the
long log.
Collect grass and broad leaves to stack together on top of
the frame to form your bed, ensuring the length of the bed
is the same length as the shelter, so it can be properly
placed on the crossbars.

#
Tarp Shelters
For travelers with tarps, the following sheltering options are also
viable:

1. Wedge/C-Fly Tarp Shelter

Great option for areas experiencing windy conditions, as it's
designed with an aerodynamic shape that facilitates its ability to
resist strong winds and heavy rain:
Lay your tarp onto the ground between two trees.
Use 2-4 pegs to secure a tarp into the ground at the long
side edge.
Form an edge line between the trees, then fold the
remainder of the tarp, covering over that edge line.
Use more pegs to secure the edges of the overlaying roof
into the ground.

2. Elevated horizontal roof

Also provides good protection from wind and rain:
Use pegs to secure the rear-middle section of the tarp to
the ground (this is the back of your shelter).
Tie a long, sturdy stick at the front of the tarp to elevate the
entrance.
Secure the edges of the front two corners into the ground
with pegs.
Secure the edges of the back two corners into the ground
with pegs.
You can make adjustments for additional headroom by
resizing and repositioning the pole, elevating the entrance.

#
Snow Cave/Quinzee Shelters:
Often the only option for survivalists located in deep snow areas, this
is arguably one of the most dangerous types of shelters to build
when the snow selection isn't adequately checked-out. A Quinzee is
made by piling the snow in the form of a dome and then hollowing
out the shelter from the inside.
To build a Quinzee shelter, you should:
Pile your equipment or some easily removable pine
branches in the form of a dome, etc. in the desired location.
Cover the pile with a tarp if you have one.
Bury your pile with snow in the shape of a dome about 7
feet high. Pack the snow covering to at least a depth of 2
feet of snow on top of your equipment pile or 7 feet total
(more snow if you don't have a large pile).
Wait about 2 hours for the snow covering to compact and
freeze together. This is often called "sintering".
While waiting for the sintering, break some sticks into 1 foot
to 1.5-foot lengths. Stick these into the snow toward your
equipment pile while it is sintering. These sticks will be
used to measure the walls to be 1 to 1.5 feet thick.
After 2 hours, dig an entrance that isn't facing the wind and
start pulling out your equipment and stuffing materials. This
will leave a hollowed-out area.
Climb into the hollow where your supplies/stuffing used to
be and begin gently scraping the snow until you hit a stick.
You know the wall is about 1 to 1.5 feet thick now.
For ventilation, dig a 6-inch hole into the roof.

Precautions
It doesn't always provide enough oxygen to sustain
habitation. Make sure to add a ventilation hole.
The ceiling runs the risk of collapse, which can result in the
inhabitants getting buried alive. However, the walls aren't
that thick so you should be able to stand up and be OK.
#
Setting Up Camp
You should also prioritize finding a suitable location to set up camp.
If the camp location isn't chosen wisely, you could be uncomfortable
or exposed to unnecessary danger. You'll want to focus on safe
areas that also offer the necessary resources such as wood and
water.
When choosing your location, you should consider the following five
vital factors:

1.Water.
Areas with water are good to camp near because you can have a
nearby source of water. However, you don't want to set up camp too
close to the water because it may end up posing a risk to your
shelter.
Take note of high and low terrain and look for signs of
erosion (i.e. dirt or leaves that seem unnaturally settled in a
specific direction).
Set up camp at least 200-300 yards away from the water
source to ensure you're close enough for quick access
while also being far enough away so the water won't pose
any threat to predators or sudden changes in water flow
(flash floods).
Avoid setting up camp in low areas where water may pool if
a rainstorm occurs.
2.Wind.
Wind not only affects your sheltering options, but it can also drop
your body's core temperature.
When choosing areas to set up camp, notice the wind
direction because your shelter will need to block the wind.
A light breeze will help keep the mosquitoes and other
bugs away.
If you encounter areas with varying wind directions, it may
be best to opt for a different location that doesn't have
multi-directional winds.
Camping in areas with natural elements like heavy
vegetation or rock outcrops will help with blocking
unwanted wind from your campsite.
Be mindful that night air flows downhill as it cools and
settles in valleys so camping higher is normally better.

3. Sun.
Warming up to the rising sun.
Choose a place where the rising sun will warm you up.
The rising sun will help dry out your shelter and clothes in
the morning.

4.Wood.
Wood will be your primary source of fire, so you want to choose a
location that has a sufficient supply of wood suitable for building and
sustaining a fire.
Wood for starting your fire will need to be small in size (i.e.
roughly between 2-6 inches long) because it will dry and
burn faster and will allow the fire to build the heat needed
to grow.
Keep the fire burning with larger pieces of wood (i.e. at
least the size of your wrist), so locating dead fallen trees
may provide a good resource for wood to sustain your fire.
 In wet conditions, deadfall (wood on the ground) will be wet
so look for dead, low-hanging branches on trees to break
off. They're typically drier because they're protected by the
branches above and they dry faster because they're
exposed to the wind.

5. Wildlife. Being aware of the wildlife in the area you're camping in

can save you from encountering unwanted danger.
Be aware of wild game in the area you're traveling to
before traveling there whenever possible.
Scout the area for signs of wildlife (i.e. tracks, game trails,
or scat) before setting up your campsite.
Avoid camping too close to a game trail.

6. Widowmakers. Rotting/rotted trees can result in fatal deadfalls,

so you want to be sure your campsite doesn't pose the risk of falling
rocks or branches, especially since this will be your sleeping area
and you want to prevent encountering any danger while rebuilding
your energy.
Observe both overhead and underneath the area for any
potential dangers or signs of danger (i.e. visual signs of
decay found at the base of tree trunks).
Watch rock overhangs for rocks that may dislodge in a
rainstorm, etc.
With trees of various heights, the direction of a deadfall can
be unpredictable, so it is crucial to ensure there are no
visible signs of decay, even for trees that appear healthy.
Be aware that tree branches for tall trees appear much
smaller than they actually are when viewing them from the
ground. You don't want to realize their actual size by having
them crash down on your campsite.

#
Building a Fire Pit
While fire building techniques will be discussed in more detail in the
next chapter, it is an important consideration when choosing your
camp location. When choosing a location suitable for a fire pit, you
want to be able to redirect the heat toward yourself and prevent a
runaway fire.
A circular wall of rocks helps keep the fire contained.
Make sure your fire pit is at least 10 feet away from your
shelter if it's a natural shelter because these shelters pose
a greater risk of going up in flames if ignited by a tiny spark
from the fire pit.
Tents and tarps can easily be burned from sparks/cinders
from the fire pit, so be aware of the direction that the wind
will blow them.
Locations with bushes, rocks, and fallen trees are great for
blocking the wind from affecting your fire.
Many campers opt to build their fire pits to the east of their
shelter because westward blowing wind is most common
across most of the west coast of the United States.
Gather wood to keep near your campsite to fuel your fire.
Keep the wood 10 feet away from the fire to prevent
accidental fires from sparks.
For extra installation from the ground, stack up pine
boughs or other nearby soft debris and build the fire on top.
This is handy for building a fire on wet ground.

#
Food and Bathroom
Two final considerations that should be made when deciding where
to set up camp are food and bathroom.

Food
Your safety is important so you want to avoid attracting potential
predators. Food is a major attraction for predatory game. To
safeguard your food and yourself from encountering predators
attracted by food, avoid leaving any traces of food at your campsite
(i.e. crumbs, scraps of eaten food). It is also a good idea to store
your food away from your campsite in a nearby location such as a
tree.

Bathroom
Don't pee into a body of water because this contaminates the water.
It is better to pee at least 100 feet from water and on a rock where it
will evaporate quickly. Don't pee into the wind or uphill.
Not only does the food you prepare attract predators, but your
bathroom activity can also draw unwanted wild game. Feces can
attract animals to your campsite and contaminate your water supply.
Bury your poop by digging a hole 6-8 inches deep to dump it in along
with any toilet paper and then cover the hole with dirt and debris.
Going to the bathroom will also result in a need to cleanse yourself
afterward. In the unfortunate event that you don't have a preferred
method of cleaning up available to you (i.e. tissue, cloth, etc.), resist
the urge to reach for fresh leaves on living trees if you can. While
they may seem like your best option because they are soft and
flexible, it may be a poisonous plant. Instead, choose moss, leaves,
or grasses that you know are not poisonous. However, a smooth,
clean rock is actually a better and safer option.

#
Chapter Summary
Surviving in the wilderness requires serious consideration, on-the-
spot planning, and effective execution. While being prepared with a
travel pack or BOB is optimal, there is always the chance you won't
have either when you find yourself needing (not simply desiring) to
survive the outdoors. Knowing where and how to build a shelter will
be crucial to your survival. The options presented to you in this
chapter will go a long way in preparing you to survive the
unexpected should you find yourself needing to set up camp and
build a shelter in the wilderness.
In this chapter, you learned:
How to prepare prepackaged shelters in the wilderness.
How to build natural shelters in the wilderness.
How to build tarp shelters in the wilderness.
How to build snow caves/igloos in the wilderness.
Necessary considerations for choosing your location to set
up your campsite in the wilderness.
Necessary considerations for storing food and using the
bathroom in the wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn various techniques for building a
fire.
 CHAPTER 5: FIRE
Being able to build a fire is critical to your survival in the wilderness if
you are going to be there for more than a day. Fire provides the
necessary heat to keep you warm, and also functions as a heating
source to warm liquids (needed to sustain your internal body
temperature) and cook food. Luckily, there are many ways to build a
fire, which include using natural elements along with manmade
resources.
No matter what method is used to build your fire, three essential
elements remain necessary for creating any type of fire: air, fuel,
and heat:

Air provides the oxidation needed to sustain a fire:

Air generally contains about 21% of oxygen.
Fire generally requires about 16% of oxygen to facilitate
burning.
The chemical process that results from igniting a fire is
supported by the oxygen in the surrounding area, as the
fire continuously reacts by releasing heat and producing
combustion by way of smoke, embers, and gases.

Fuel may be typically associated with gas or oil, but it actually

includes any type of combustible material. Fuel is generally
characterized based on its size, shape, quantity, and its moisture
content (which affects its ability to burn).
Heat (or a heat source) is needed to ignite the initial fire and to start,
sustain, and keep your fire from spreading. Heat dries out and
preheats surrounding fuel sources which is why a fire pit/circle is
needed to contain the fire.
Understanding these three key elements to build a fire will help you
better understand the process of building and sustaining your fire.
#
Sparks
Building a fire by using sparks is probably the easiest way to build a
fire, but that measure of ease can vary based on the source used to
ignite the spark. The spark method requires something that is easy
to ignite such as tinder or cloth. Tinder may be the easiest resource
to use in the wilderness because it can be anything from dry leaves
or grass to bark and dry pine needles, to twigs and wood shavings.
Thus, nearby debris can become tinder for your fire when available.
Note that whatever source is used to ignite the spark must be dry.
This is because water suffocates a fire and air is needed for a fire.

Char Cloth: A useful form of tinder is a char cloth, but it has to be

created, which is done by burning cotton cloth in a low-oxygen
environment. This results in a black charcoal that makes it easy for a
spark to grow into a fire.
Place 1 or 2 pieces of cotton from a T-shirt or denim jeans
into an Altoid Mint tin.
Use a small nail to put a hole in the tin. This must be a very
small hole.
Bury the tin in the coals of a fire for 15 to 20 minutes.
Remove from the coals and let cool. Gently remove the
char cloth because it will tend to disintegrate in your
fingers.
Catch a spark on the char cloth to create an ember. Gently
blow on the ember to grow it. As the ember grows, it will
reach a point where it will burst into flames.

Lighters are the simplest method to use for igniting your spark, so if
you have a lighter with you, building your fire will be much easier.
Ignite the tinder or cloth to get the fire started, then you can build on
it with gradually larger sticks and wood.

The Flint and Steel combination is considered the most reliable

spark method because it is an almost unlimited source of sparks.
 Flint is a form of quartz, which is an extremely hard rock.
Striking 2 pieces of flint together generates a spark.
Striking flint against steel also creates a spark.
Keep your wrist-movement as loose as possible when
striking the flint and steel.
It’s easiest to use the char cloth to start the fire but any
tinder can be used.
Create a small bundle of tinder from grasses or tree bark.
Including some dry pine needles is also helpful because
pine needles are very combustible.
Continue striking the flint and steel until a spark lands in
your tinder to create an ember. Then gently blow on it to
spread the ember and create a flame for starting the fire.

Firesteel magnesium is another great source for sparking a fire

when available. To spark your fire with this method, you'll need tinder
or another flammable source, a scraper (i.e. knife or flint), and
firesteel or a magnesium stick:
Place your scraper or the scraping edge of your knife
against the firesteel or magnesium stick at a 30° or 45°-
angle and scrape down with adequate pressure to ignite a
spark on your timber.
Only strike down to about half a centimeter from the bottom
of the firesteel or magnesium stick to avoid extinguishing
the flames before they get going.
As above, catch the spark on a char cloth or tinder and
then gently blow on the growing ember until a flame
appears.

#
Light/Lens
To start a fire in the wilderness on a sunny day, you can use the light
and lens method. You'll need a convex lens to concentrate the light
on the tinder. Convex lenses are thicker in the middle than on the
edges and can be found in eyeglasses, magnifying glasses,
flashlights, camera lenses, binocular lenses, or telescopic lights. You
can also focus light with a silver parabolic mirror, or even a polished
soda can. This method offers an indefinite number of fire-starting
opportunities, as long as you have plenty of sun and tinder to start
your fire and wood to keep it burning.

Follow these steps to create a fire with a lens and light:

Angle the lens so that the sunlight is focused on your pile
of tinder. Move the lens closer and farther from the tinder
until you find the spot of maximum light concentration
where the light is brightest and also smallest.
Keep the lens held over the same spot until the
concentrated light causes the tinder to begin smoldering.
Gently fan or blow the tinder to further oxidize it into a
flame and build up your fire, then place it over your pit.
If you don't have a readily available lens to concentrate your light
with, you can use natural resources like ice or water to create a lens.

Lens from Ice

When using ice, the objective is to use sources that don't contain
gas bubbles, so try to locate ice from a pond or clear lake to use for
your lens. To shape the ice into a lens, scrape it into form with a knife
or grind it with a rock or stone. Make sure the middle is thicker than
the edges (a convex lens). Then, smooth it out by using the heat
from your hands as a heating source. Keep in mind that larger
lenses are better because they can collect more light, so try to aim
for a lens around 2 inches thick and at least 7 inches in diameter.
Once your lens is formed, hold it over your tinder at an angle
perpendicular to the sun, then focus the brightest beam of light onto
your tinder until it smokes and ignites. Make sure no water drips from
your ice lens onto your tinder, so it remains dry for ignition.

Lens from Water

Another alternative, if you don't have a ready-made lens available to
concentrate the light with, is a water bottle/container. You'll need to
fill the bottle or container with water, but you have to make sure there
are no air bubbles. Next, flip the bottle or container upside down so
you can see the rounded bottom to use as your lens for
concentrating the light onto your tinder (paper with dark ink works
best as tinder for this method, so if you have it handy, use it instead
of debris).
A few other options for starting a fire with light and a non-traditional
lens include:
Coke Can—A coke can or a can with a similar metallic
bottom can be used to concentrate the light, but you'll need
to polish the bottom of the can (a chocolate bar is a great
resource for polishing if you happen to have one) to make it
shiny.
Flashlight—Without damaging the rest of the flashlight,
remove the glass from the cover and take out the silver cup,
which should be shaped like a cone or funnel. Fill the bottom,
narrow portion of the silver cup with tinder, then angle the
silver cup toward the light to concentrate it and ignite the
tinder.

Plastic Wrap—Same as the water bottle method, except the

plastic wrap serves as a magnifying glass.

Empty Light Bulb—Same as the water bottle method,

except the empty light bulb serves as a magnifying glass.

#
Friction
Starting a fire by friction is a more tiring process than the prior two
methods discussed. It requires patience and technique, which makes
it one of the more temperamental fire-starting techniques as well.
Although it may not be the technique most rush to deploy to get their
fires started, the concept behind friction fires is easily
understandable as we commonly do it in our everyday lives.
One instance that you have likely used friction to develop heat is
when your hands are cold and you rub them together. Rubbing
causes the molecules that touch to move faster which generates
energy. More energy means more heat. For another example to
illuminate how much heat friction can generate, consider your
childhood days speeding down a slide with your hands clenching the
sides for dear life and the sting from the burn that the friction
generated. That's the power of natural energy, which becomes a
major asset when short on resources to start your fire while stuck in
the wilderness.
To apply the theory of friction to the three essentials for starting a fire
(air, fuel, and heat), friction becomes your source of heat. Your
environment will provide the air and the objects used to generate the
friction, which will erode when rubbing them at the source of fuel.
The key is choosing the correct objects with which to generate the
friction since they must be able to generate heat and erode into a
source for fuel. Two common methods for starting friction fires are
hand drill and bow drill.
Hand Drill.
The hand drill method is one of the simpler methods for spinning to
generate friction. It requires the use of a long, thin spindle, a hearth
board, and your hands. Generating friction by way of spinning is an
effective method because the energy generated is concentrated on
one spot. Although considered one of the simplest methods, don't
confuse simplicity with ease of execution—it is one of the most
difficult spinning methods to execute because it relies solely on your
hands and strength. If you are patient and methodical with your
execution, you can reduce the mental frustration that's often
associated with this difficult task.
Selecting the proper materials is key.
The drill or spindle should be a long, straight stick (i.e.
between 1-2 feet) of dead and dry wood (wood that is
green or has moisture will not work to generate the friction
needed to yield heat). The drill may be sanded or scraped
with a rock to smooth it out since your palms will be
spinning it. The thicker end of the drill is usually used for
friction and rubbed against the board.
The hearth board should be as flat as possible, at least
twice as wide as the drill you'll be using and about half an
inch thick. The bottom half of the board should be flat
enough to prevent wobbling (basswood, cedar wood, and
weeping willow wood are good options for a board). You'll
need to punch out a pilot hole in the board (roughly ⅛ inch
deep) as a slot for the drill to sit in. You can use a sharp
rock to form this but be sure to position the hole at least a
½ inch from the edge of the board.

Notch the edge of the board by carving at a 45°-angle.

Place your knee or foot on the board to hold it in place,

then begin spinning the drill between your hands into the
pilot hole while pressing down with considerable pressure
to create the hole.
Place some dead leaves or pieces of bark underneath the
board to shield it from the moisture of the ground before
you start drilling. You'll also want to place dry material (i.e.
a chip of wood or a thick dry leaf) under the notch you
created, so the sawdust created through your drilling may
be collected.

Sit or kneel near the drill with a knee or foot on the board to
hold it in place. Moisten your hands with spit or dried-up
pine before you begin drilling so you're better able to grip
the drill.

Spin the drill as fast as possible while applying pressure

down onto the board in a continuous motion to generate
heat and fuel. As your hands slide down the drill, you'll
want to hold the drill in place in the hole with one hand
while quickly moving your way back up to the top of the
drill. You should do this to get back to spinning as fast as
possible and preserve the heat you're generating.
 Continue drilling until smoke appears and your notch is full
of sawdust. Once your notch is full of dust and continuously
spewing out dark brown dust, speed up your drilling for
several runs to ignite the dust. You want the dust to glow or
generate several seconds worth of smoke to ensure an
ember/coal has formed.

Once the ember has formed, carefully carry the board over
to your pile of tinder and nest the ember in the tinder before
enclosing it in a bundle. Then, blow gently to fan the ember
into a flame.

Bow Drill.
The bow drill is the most widely recognized friction fire-starting
method known in the northern hemisphere. It's also one of the
friction fire-starting methods people choose to experiment with first
because it can be used on a bigger variety of wood than other
methods. Similar to the hand drill, you'll need a spindle and hearth
board for this technique, and you can apply the same techniques
needed for hand drilling to the specifications of your drill and board
for the bow drill method. However, instead of using your hands, you'll
need a bow.
Your bow should be made with wood that is flexible enough
to spring and maintain tension against rope (willow limbs
are a good option).

Find a piece of wood that fits comfortably in your hand and

carve a hole into the end of it. This will be the top handhold
for your bow drill.

For your bow, find a slightly curved stick around the length
of your arm and with a base that's about as thick as your
thumb. Tie a string or vine to the bottom of the stick, then
bend it to tie the other end of string or vine to the top of the
stick, ensuring that the knot is easily adjustable. Leave
enough slack in the string or vine to allow room for your
spindle to be twisted in, but not so much slack that it's at
risk of slipping around.

Drill holes into your hearth board and handhold with a knife
or sharp rock to prevent the spindle from slipping out while
drilling.

Secure the hearth board with your left knee or foot to the
left of the notch carved into it. Position your other knee
comfortably behind your left foot in a kneeling position.

Twist the spindle into the hearth board as follows:

Secure the thick end of the bow under your right arm and
against your side, freeing up your hands. The string should
be over the bow.

Position the rounded end of your spindle on the right of the

hearth board with the string resting in the center of the bow.

Grab the left side of the spindle with your right hand and
the right side of the spindle with your left hand, then twist
the spindle clockwise while pulling up slightly to twist the
string with the spindle. You can release your hold on the
bow if desired; just make sure the spindle stays in place.

Place your handhold on top of the spindle with the notch on

the tip and hold it in place with your left hand.

Use your right hand to hold the end of the bow, then start
drilling into the hearth board slowly by moving the bow
back and forth with pressure as you build up your speed
and push down harder. Once smoke begins to emanate,
continue drilling until you can't drill any further.

Remove the spindle and allow it to untwist as it cools down,

then grease the tip of the spindle with the oil from your hair
or any other source of lubricant. Make sure to only grease
the top, which is the side that will be in the handhold.

Carve a triangular-shaped notch into the socket of your

hearth board to form an area for your ember to form. To
ensure the ember gets enough air to burn, make sure the
triangular-shaped notch is deep enough to almost reach
the middle of the hearth board and just shy of the size of ⅛
slice of pie. Also, carve out a little in the bottom to allow for
extra oxidation. Then, place a piece of wood or bark
underneath the hearth board to catch the ember.

Repeat the steps for twisting the spindle into the hearth
board to begin drilling, but be sure to keep the bow flat and
level. You'll also want to maintain a straight arm on the bow
and keep your back straight for support. Use the entire
bowstring to drill, and apply pressure and increase your
speed until you generate enough smoke to form the dust
and ember. Fan the ember until it starts to glow, then
remove it from the hearth board while sprinkling extra dust
onto it to keep the coal burning.
Put your tinder on the ember and wrap it around it, blowing
on it to help grow the flame. Once it bursts into flames,
place it on your fire pit.

Cover the tinder with small pencil-sized sticks at first, and

as the flame builds, use larger firewood.

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Chemical Combustion
Chemical combustion is the last method for starting a fire in the
wilderness that we will be discussing. The most common chemical
combustion method is matches. While igniting a fire using a match
may appear like a spark method, it is actually chemical combustion
that occurs when a match is struck to create a flame. Phosphorous
sulfide in a match bursts into flame when heated by friction.

1. Matches.
You can create a one-match fire using the resources available to
you:
Start by setting up your fire pile in the shape of a cone,
using twigs, sticks, and kindling (tinder that requires a
match to catch fire) to build it up about 1 foot tall. You don't
want your pile to lay too close to the ground and you want
to pack it in the center with kindling (feel free to go
overboard).
Collect firs, pines, and dead conifer twigs to start your fire
with. These contain sticky, highly combustible sap.
Combining them with your kindling should be sufficient to
get your fire burning with a single match.
When igniting your fire, you'll want to strike your match as
close to your fire pit as possible to limit the distance it has
to travel before encountering the fuel. Do your best to
shield the match from the wind with your hand and body to
ensure it isn't extinguished before starting the
tinder/kindling.
Ignite the fire low in your fire pit to allow it to grow, as fire
tends to rise along with heat. Try to light your fire pit in the
direction of the wind flow so the breeze will encourage the
flames and increase the heat.

2. Battery and steel wool.

Another chemical combustion method is using a 9-volt battery and
steel wool. Steel wool is a bundle of flexible, fine, sharp-edged steel
filaments that are found in household cleaning products like Brillo
pads. The finer the steel wool, the better for your chemical
combustion needs.
Collect a pile of tinder for your fire pit.
On top of the tinder, place small sticks of kindling.
Rub the charged end of the 9-volt battery against the steel
wool to get an instant spark.
Steel wool burns very fast, so do this as close to your
tinder pile as possible.
Light the tinder with steel wool to get your fire going and
build it up as necessary to keep it burning.

3. Battery and gum wrapper.

If you have a pack or stick of gum with foil or metallic wrapping (i.e.
Extra or Wrigley's 5 gum) and an AA battery, you have another
option for your chemical combustion fire.
Collect your tinder into your fire pit.
Place small sticks of kindling on top of the tinder but allow
a lot of space for air.
Crease the edge of the gum wrapper and tear a long, thin
strip.
Fold the strip in half and cut the edge diagonally.
Apply each end of the strip to the positive and negative
charges of the AA battery to ignite a flame, ensuring the
metallic or foil portion of the strip touches the foil side, not
the paper side.
Light your kindling with the flame to get your fire going.

Building Your Fire

Getting your fire started is only one part of the task of getting an
ongoing fire burning. You also have to build up your fire to ensure it
keeps burning. Many of the steps described above for igniting your
fire included preparing your fire pit. Preparing your fire pit and
gathering the necessary tinder, kindling, and wood before starting
your fire is necessary to ensure you can continue building it.
1.Gathering tinder.
Tinder is any material that is easily ignitable by a spark. Sparking
requires dry materials that are small and fine enough to be bundled.
Some common, natural resources for tinder include grass, bark, dry
leaves, and dry pine needles. Lint and cotton are also great options
for tinder. The finer and dryer, the better.
2.Gathering kindling.
As previously discussed, kindling is tinder that requires a match to
be ignited. Thus, it also consists of dry and fine materials, but they
can be larger than what you'd use for tinder (i.e. small for tinder
versus medium for kindling). Twigs, bark, sticks, and dry leaves
serve well for kindling.
3.Gathering wood.
Your wood will be the largest of the items needed for your fire. Use it
to build your fire and keep it going. Like the other items, it must also
be dry as well as dead. Recall that dead wood is seasoned wood
that contains little to no moisture (i.e. wood obtained from the
underside of deadfalls or dead tree limbs). You'll want to gather
wood of various sizes to adequately be able to feed your fire with the
appropriate wood size.

Once you've gathered all of your tinder, kindling, and wood for your
fire, you're ready to build your fire structure. Since there are multiple
options for building your structure, we'll cover three of the most
common formations: teepee (also written as tipi), log cabin, and
lean-to.

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Teepee Formation.
The teepee (or tipi) fire structure is similar to the teepee formation for
building your shelter.
Bundle your tinder into about a 4-inch ball and center it in
your fire pit.
Use your kindling to build a cone around your tinder,
stacking it around the tinder. Be careful not to put so much
kindling that air can't reach the tinder.
Lean your logs of wood against the kindling into a teepee
formation.
If you'll be using a lighter or matches to ignite your flame,
be sure to leave an opening at the bottom of your teepee to
spark the tinder as low as possible. Sparking it low will
allow the flames to rise and make a large fire.
Once you ignite your flame (using the previously discussed
methods of starting your fire) and add it to your fire pit,
blow and fan the fire as appropriate to spread the flames
and grow the fire.
Once the fire is burning, add wood logs as appropriate in
the shape of a teepee to keep your flame going.

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Log Cabin Formation.
The log cabin formation can be achieved by creating a small teepee
first consisting only of tinder and kindling, then stacking your wood
logs around the teepee in an alternating pattern.
Line the first layer of logs parallel around the teepee, then
stack the next row perpendicular, continuing to stack up in
an alternating pattern in the shape of a square. The gaps
between each layer will enable the air to circulate from the
bottom up to the top of your shelter.
Every 3 layers, make a thin tinder roof with 4 or 5 tinder
twigs.
Once the bed is built, light the kindling in the middle and
blow and fan the flame as needed to boost the fire. You
can also dig tiny air holes into the ground underneath the
first set of legs to increase airflow.

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Lean-to Formation.
The lean-to formation is especially handy when you find yourself on
windy terrain. It's also a fairly easy fire structure to create.
Position a large, thick log of wood on the ground next to
your tinder, ensuring the log is on the side shielded from
the wind (downwind).
Lean your kindling against the log, angled over the tinder.
Light the tinder with your flame and add tinder or sticks as
necessary to build up your fire.
Once the fire is roaring, you can add larger logs

#
Chapter Summary
Knowing how to start a fire can be the difference between life and
death in the wilderness. Fire not only provides a crucial source of
heat for your body, but it also provides a fuel source to warm liquids
to keep your core body temperature warm. If you are stranded for a
longer time, you may need a fire to cook food in order to fuel
yourself. Being aware of the methods to start a fire is simply a good
life skill to have. You're now equipped with a variety of choices to
serve your fire-making and building needs.
In this chapter, you learned:
Various techniques for starting a fire in the wilderness.
How to prepare to build your fire.
Different formations of fire beds that you can build in the
wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn the essentials of finding and
purifying water in the wilderness.
 CHAPTER 6: WATER
Water is one of the most important natural resources you'll need to
survive in the wilderness. Being able to stay hydrated will be crucial
to your survival. As previously mentioned in the introduction with the
survival Rule of 3s, you can only survive without water for three
days. Therefore, next to oxygen and shelter, water will be the most
important resource you will find in the wilderness. The human body
is around two-thirds water, which is used for internal processes like
processing food and circulating blood. Dehydration occurs when
your body expels more water than it consumes, which can occur
after about six hours without water. Therefore, being able to locate
water is an important survival skill.
In normal settings, it is recommended to drink eight 8oz glasses of
water per day (known as the 8x8 rule). Being stranded in the
wilderness often results in more exertion to survive, so you'll need
more than the minimum of two quarts of water in these
circumstances. This is not only true for warm or hot environments in
which you'll be perspiring more and needing water to replenish your
hydration, but also for cold environments. The dry air in cold
environments causes your body to lose water through your skin even
though you're not perspiring. So, no matter the weather conditions
you're facing, you'll need plenty of water to survive the terrain.
Luckily, there are plenty of resources available to you in the
wilderness that can provide it.

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Locating Water Sources
As previously discussed, your shelter should be built near (but not
too close) to a water source whenever possible (200 feet away).
However, few sources of water are safe for immediate consumption
in the wilderness—you may hike up to a clear lake or river and think
you've struck gold, but this water can contain millions of organisms
(i.e. pathogens, viruses, bacteria, etc.). Depending on the
circumstances, drinking water with possible pathogens may be OK if
you think a rescue will occur soon. In that case, a hospital will be
able to cure any parasites or bacterial infections.
Water flows downhill. Be on the lookout for dips, valleys, and low-
lying terrain where water may be flowing. However, avoid any lower
elevations you come across (i.e. subalpine areas) because the risk
of absorbing harmful pathogens is higher here.
Take note of the vegetation in the area. Any areas with lavish
green vegetation are areas where you should be able to find water
nearby.
Plants are a water resource. Plants consume water, so they can
provide you with a source of water. Strategies for pulling water from
plants include consuming the plant itself or extracting the water or
sap.
Fruit—For edible sources of water, you can look for fruits such as
blackberries or strawberries to readily consume.
Grass—The heavy dew found on grass can also provide readily
consumable water:
Tie any absorbent cloth you have available around the shins of your
legs, then go for a stroll through the grass before the sun rises to
soak up water that can be wrung out for consumption.
Avoid Cacti—While sourcing your water from a cactus may seem
like a good option, the pulp is extremely acidic and will lead to
diarrhea and/or vomiting if consumed on an empty stomach. This will
further dehydrate you and be counterproductive to your survival.
Thus, this should not be consumed when depending on water to
keep you alive.
Don't forget to use your senses:
Rest stops along your trail are great opportunities to
observe your surroundings.
Listen for any signs of water flow/streaming. In the wild, it
should not be too difficult to hear, especially in an isolated
area.

Snow and ice can also be great sources for water in cold weather.
Ice has more water supply than snow, so if you have the option, go
for ice. However, neither should be consumed in its iced or snow
form because ice will cool your core body temperature and increase
your risk for dehydration:
Melt the snow or ice to increase its temperature.
You'll also want to purify it before consumption whenever
possible to reduce the risk of ingesting harmful
contaminants.

Most sources will need to be purified before drinking to minimize

your risk of illness due to hazardous bacteria or viruses. You should
attempt to locate readily-drinkable water first as it will save you time
and energy. Your surroundings and the life around the water can
indicate where to begin your search for drinkable water.
Animals need water for survival and know where to go to get
safe drinking water:
Observe wildlife and animal activity to see where they go to
get their water.
Take note of any animal tracks/footprints as they may lead
you to sources for available drinking water.
Birds are also a great guide for finding water:
Their flight paths can direct you toward a water supply.
Observe their flight paths, both in the morning and evening,
to guide you toward drinkable water in the area.
Don't forget about the bugs:
The presence of certain insects can indicate drinkable
water sources.
Take note of any swarming insects as they typically linger
near readily-drinkable water.

Collect Rainwater:
Rainwater is a safe, bacteria-free water source.
Capture the water in containers.
Direct water into a container with a tarp. Tie the edges of
the tarp to high points of a tree or bush and use a rock
above the container to create the low point where water will
naturally flow.

Collect Dew
Dew is a bacteria-free water source.
Soak up the water with a cloth and then squeeze the water
out into a container.

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Condensation
Another method for extracting water is through condensation.
Condensation is a great technique to employ in all environments—
including the desert. With condensation, you can convert liquid,
moisture, and water vapor in the air into drinkable water by using
heat (i.e. fire, the sun) and a glass, plastic, or metal object.
Solar Still Condensation Method:

Locate a moist area that is exposed to sunlight for the

majority of the day.
Dig about 2 inches deep and 3 feet wide in a bowl-shape,
as well as a flat sump suitable for your container (i.e. leaf,
plastic bag, aluminum can, etc.) in the middle of the bowl.
Then, place your container in the middle at the lowest
point.
Cover the hole with plastic, then cover the sides of the
holes with soil and rock.
Put a rock in the middle of the plastic/tarp/canvas above
the container that catches the condensation, allowing the
plastic/tarp/canvas to sag around 12-inches to shape it into
an inverted cone, then pack the edges with soil to further
secure it.
The sun will heat the ground, releasing moisture that then
condenses on the plastic cover. The condensation will flow
to the lowest point where the rock is and then drip into the
container for your water supply.
Bag Around Tree Limb Condensation Method (Transpiration):

Get a plastic bag and cut a dime-sized hole in the bottom

corner of it for water to seep out.
Locate an easily accessible tree branch that's full of leaves.
Secure the plastic bag over the branch of leaves with the
hole at the bottom, then zip tie it in place.
Place a container directly under the hole in the bag and
allow the water to drip for a day to stock your supply.
Purifying Water
To drink water that is unsafe for immediate consumption, you'll need
to purify it. Your options for purification will depend on the resources
and environment available to you, but the following options may be
applied broadly:

1. Boiling water is both the easiest and best method of water

purification when stuck in the wilderness. Boil your water for at least
10 minutes to kill all the organisms to make it safe to drink.

2. Chlorine or iodine purification tablets are a good way to purify

water for those who aren't allergic to iodine, so only use them if
you're certain you don't have an iodine allergy. If you're dealing with
murky water, use more than one tablet to purify the water.
Allow the tablet to sit in the water for at least half an hour.
Pour the water in and out of two containers for extra
oxidation and improved taste.

3. Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) is a good option if you have a

small (3 liters or less) plastic or glass bottle that is clear and free of
scratches:
If the water you're filtering is murky, filter it through a thin
cloth (i.e. bandana) first.
Place your plastic or glass bottle of water in an area that
gets direct sunlight for six to twelve hours.
Shade decreases the effectiveness, so if it's an area full of
cloudy skies, increase the time to two days.
Once the waiting period is over, the water is ready to drink.

4. UV Purifications. Ultraviolet light concentrated at the correct

intensity can generate enough radiation to purify water. There are a
plethora of devices available for creating artificial ultraviolet light for
purification, but you need to filter the water first to eliminate any
larger debris or particles.

5. Filters:
Survival filter straws allow you to consume water through a
bacteria-eliminating straw. They can be quite costly, but they are a
great resource to have handy to filter water in the wilderness.
Do it yourself (DIY) pinewood filter is another option, but it should
be your last resort:
Wrap a small piece of pinewood tightly with plastic tubing.
Place a container below one side of the stick of pinewood.
Pour water onto the other end of the pinewood and the
purified water will filter through the pine cork and drip out
the other end into your container.

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Chapter Summary
Finding a water supply will increase your chances of surviving in the
wilderness. Not only do you need to know how to locate a viable
source of water, but you also need to be able to distinguish between
water sources that may be readily consumed versus sources that will
require filtering and purification before drinking. The guidance
outlined in this chapter should have enabled you to source out the
most optimal methods for obtaining drinkable water while in the
wilderness.
In this chapter, you learned:
How to locate sources for water supply while in the
wilderness.
Different methods for extracting and collecting water in the
wilderness.
How to filter and purify water in the wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn about the essential tools needed to
survive in the wilderness.
 CHAPTER 7: TOOLS
Now it is time to make the tools necessary to survive. Knowing how
to craft tools, such as knives, spears, and saws using natural
resources will help you to perform all the other tasks needed for your
survival. Tools can help cut wood for shelter, slice and notch wood
for building your fire bed, and puncture trunks and stems for your
water supply. Your ability to identify the proper natural resources to
craft your tools can help make every other aspect of surviving in the
wilderness easier for you.
Tool Building Blocks
For starters, be on the lookout for animal bones, stones, rocks, and
hearty wood. These natural resources will go a long way in creating
tools for your survival needs. While we spent a lot of time using
wood for shelters, fire, and water when creating tools for your
survival, animal bones, stones, and rocks are the best resources.
They can be shaped into sharp knives, spears, and saws to serve as
tools or weapons to fend off unanticipated predators.
Animal bones can be used to make sharp-edged tools while
maintaining flexibility, which makes them a great resource for pointy
projectiles, sewing needles, and hook barbs.
Stones and rocks can be hammered with natural resources,
chipping off sharp flakes to use for tools. Opt for fine-grained stones
for your tool needs; they can be identified by their lack of natural
separation lines/planes (pre-defined lines that will cause the stones
to split along if hammered, which is not optimal). Your best options
will include:
Obsidian—Hard volcanic glass (most commonly located inside lava)
that's brittle and can be formed into sharp edges.
Chert—Typically white or black fine-grained rock that sometimes
contains small fossils. They come in multiple varieties, including:
Jasper—Glossy rock (similar to obsidian but without the
translucence) that is commonly brown, red, green, or yellow.
Flint—Hard, sedimentary rock that sparks when struck against steel.
As it will be layered with a cortex (chalk-like coating) when found in
the wilderness, you'll need to remove the cortex first so the flint can
be exposed for use.
Chalcedony—Silica with extremely fine twines of moganite and
quartz, and a waxy luster (found in a variety of colors).
Rhyolite—Volcanic rock that looks similar to granite.
Quartzite—Hard rock, typically found on hilltops and bare ridges.
Felsite/Felstone—Volcanic rock composed of volcanic ash, typically
light gray or white, tan, or red.
The first rule to crafting any tool from natural resources in the
wilderness is safety. You don't want to expose yourself to danger
while locating your resources to create your tools or when
hammering and shaping your tools into the proper form. While
searching for rocks and stones, you may find yourself on unsteady
terrain that can shift with your movements. You will also be dealing
with hard and sharp material that can cut and injure you in the actual
crafting stage.

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Knives
The first tool you'll want to prepare is a knife because you'll likely
need this handy tool to help craft all your other weapons and
essentials. Two great options for crafting your knife include animal
bones and rocks/stone.

1. Animal Bone Knives. If you have access to animal bones, you

can hammerstone it into knife-form:
If you're able to use the bone's natural shape, it will make
your job easier. Try to locate flat bones (i.e. leg bones)
because they provide great edges when smashed,
hammered, and/or sawed into shape.

Select a hard stone that fits comfortably in your hand to use

as a hammerstone, as well as another hard stone to rest
the rounded edge of the bone against.

Begin striking the bone with your hammerstone while

moving the bone back and forth as needed, ensuring not to
strike against the flat side of the bone because you don't
want to break any potential edges needed for your knife.
The mission is to crack and break the bone until you break
off a sharp edge adequate for your knife's blade.

Use a sandstone to sand the bone into your desired edge

for the blade slowly and carefully. Don't apply too much
pressure that will cause the bone to break.

You can add a handle to the bone by using plant fiber (dry
plant fiber from dead plants is optimal):
To get the fiber off a plant, break the plant stem in half, then
pull the fibers off by sliding your thumb and index down the
shaft.

Cord the fiber by gathering the strands of fiber together,

twisting from the middle in opposite directions until it folds
over on itself, pinching the fold, then twist-braiding the ends
around until your cord is completed.

Align a wooden stick at the other end of the blade for your
handle.

Double over one end of your cord around the stick to create
a loop between the stick and the blade, leaving extra cord
(long cord end) past the other end of your stick.

Wrap the short cord end around the stick up toward the loop
and tuck it through the loop.

Pull both the looped short end and long end of the cord to
tighten it around the stick to secure it in place for the
handle, and scrape the uncorded parts of the stick off with a
sharp rock to remove the excess.
1. Rock Knives. You can make rock knives when you can find
quality rocks to shape them with, which is usually in abundance near
creeks and hillsides.
Find a large rock or stone (from the options previously
mentioned) that can be used to make your blade.
Find a hard, medium-sized rock with a rounded surface to
use as your hammerstone.
With the large rock positioned on your thigh, strike the
edge of it with the hammerstone in a continuous motion to
chip off the edges and yield blades you can use as a knife.
Use extreme caution when using the rock knife. Cut away
from yourself in a slicing motion.

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Spears & Saws
A spear is another tool that can be made from natural resources, and
you can make it either with or without a blade.
1. Bladed Spear. A bladed spear can be made by using the same
techniques used to craft your knife blades. The spearhead may be
made with either bone or rock as advised above, then connected to
the shaft as follows:
Find a stick around 4-5 feet long and light enough to
handle with ease.
Split the handle of your spear and grove the blade snuggly
into the split. Pack any space between the blade and
handle with wood and soil.
Fasten the bladed spearhead to the shaft by wrapping it
with plant-fiber cording, in the same fashion described for
making a knife handle.

2. Wooden Spear. A wooden spear lacks a blade but is still

effective.
Select a 4-5 foot straight, sturdy wooden stick that you're
able to handle with relative ease.
Place one end of the stick into a flame of fire until a flame
appears on the tip to fire-harden it.
Sharpen the flamed tip with a rough rock until it is sharp
enough for use.

Saws
Saws also come in handy in the wilderness. They can be made
using hard rocks and pressure flaking. Pressure flaking is the
process of applying pressure (instead of striking) to remove narrow
flakes along a stone's edge. Pressure flaking a blade of rock will
create serrated edges in the rock that can be used as a saw.

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Other Tools
There are various other tools you may create in the wilderness
besides knives, spears, and saws. As previously mentioned, you can
create a cord with plant fiber. That cord won't just be useful for
creating your knife handle, but also creating rope. In addition to the
natural resources available to make your tools like plant fiber, there
are other common objects you may find in the area that you can use
as tools:

Flashlights—The flat bottom/surface of a flashlight can be used as

a hammer.
Pot—You can create a pot for cooking using wood:
Locate a healthy piece of wood (i.e. pine, oak, hickory, fir
hemlock) suitable in size for the pot size you're aiming for
(i.e. big enough to contain 1-2 quarts of liquid after the
center has been tunneled out).
Chip away at one side of the bark until a flat surface is
formed.
Place glowing hot embers from your fire in the center of the
flattened surface and blow on them to help them burn
through the bark until a bowl shape is formed.
Scrape out the residue with a sharp stone, then smooth it
out with a sanding stone.

Water Bottles—Water bottles aren't only resourceful as fire starters

(as previously discussed); you can also use them for fish traps:
Cut off the neck of the water bottle.
Invert the neck back inside the water bottle to form a trap
for catching small fish.
Inuit Sunglasses—You can create sunglasses to shield your eyes
from the sun and/or reflected glare of sunlight from ice/snow/water
using plastic, cloth, and/or wood:
Cut two slits about 5 inches long and ⅛ inch wide into
plastic or cloth and tie it around your eyes.
Cut two slits into wood or bark and use plant fiber to create
a cord to secure it on your face.

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Chapter Summary
Using natural resources to create tools dates back to the beginning
of time. In most cases, this requires creating common tools in their
primitive forms. Being able to find the proper materials to make your
tools is key. With the options presented in this chapter, you should
have little to no problems crafting the tools you'll need to survive in
the wilderness.
In this chapter, you learned:
What natural resources to look for to create tools in the
wilderness.
How to create knives, spears, and saws using natural
resources.
About other tools that can be crafted with materials
available in the wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn more about creating and using
rope in the wilderness.
 CHAPTER 8: ROPE
As briefly discussed in the previous chapter, dead plant fiber is a
great resource for cording or making rope. Cording and ropes are
not only useful for creating knife handles and fastening your
spearheads to their shaft, but they can also be used to help you build
shelter, for certain fire-making techniques and for snare lines to
catch food, just to name a few functions. The key to creating rope in
the wilderness is being able to locate high-quality dead plant fiber.

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Fibers for Making Natural Cords
Many fibers can be used to make natural cords in the wilderness.
Dogbane is a great option for cording, however, it's poisonous if
ingested and may cause adverse reactions due to their latex sap.
Thus, if you're allergy-prone or easily-irritable, consider the following
options instead:
Milkweed—Less allergenic option than dogbane with soft fiber that
can produce cording reminiscent of synthetic string.
Bark—Fallen trees and branches with hanging bark are a great
source for strong, coarse fiber. Tulip trees, cedar trees, and white
basswood trees offer great sources for tree-based fiber. If using the
bark from a cedar tree, choose the fiber inside the bark instead of
the strands on the outside of the bark.
Hemp—A very versatile plant that contains highly durable fiber and
has a natural resistance to heat from the sun.
Willow Bark—Arguably one of the best options of plant fiber
available, they are a great option for strong, durable cordage.
Cattail Leaves—May be used whole and braided into rope or
shredded like dead plant fiber and twisted for stronger cordage.
Grass—Stems of grass can be used as-is (without requiring
shredding like dead plant fiber). Dunegrass, sweetgrass, and reeds
are the best.
Nettle—The stems contain high-quality fiber for cording.
Vines—Vines may be used for light-weight tasks since their fiber
isn't as strong as plant fiber.

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Creating Your Rope
The type of rope you create may depend on the source of fiber used
for cording, but the process of extracting the fiber and cording it into
a rope is relatively simple with any source of fiber. The quality of the
fiber you use will affect the durability of your rope. When choosing
the fiber to extract, aim for brown, tall stalks that are about a year old
with high branches.
As outlined in the previous chapter, for dead plant fiber:
1. To get the fiber off a plant, break the plant stem in half, then
pull the fibers off by sliding your thumb and index down the
shaft.

2. Cord the fiber by gathering the strands of fiber together,

twisting from the middle in opposite directions until it folds
over on itself, pinching the fold, and then twist-braiding the
ends around until your cord is completed. Then, braid your
cords together as appropriate to form a rope specific to your
needs.

3. For extracting fiber from bark:

4. Break your selected stalks from the lower end where it's
brittle enough for easy-breakage by snapping the stalk from
side-to-side.

5. Carefully remove any branches from the stalk and the top of
the stalk, being mindful to minimize how much fiber you
remove in the process.

6. Flatten the stalk against a hard surface to puncture its core,

then separate it into halves.

7. Break off about an inch of wood from the thick end of each
stalk and remove the wood to produce two ribbons of fiber
covered in outer flaky bark.
8. Grind the fiber with your fingers to remove the excess bark.

9. Braid the fibers together to form cords, then braid your cords
together as appropriate to form a rope specific to your
needs.

#
Rope Weaving and Braiding Techniques
There are many rope weaving and braiding techniques available
depending on the type of rope you're aiming to create for your
survival needs:

Solid Braid - A tubular rope formed by intertwining cords of fiber in a

circular pattern.
Plaited Ropes:
Create eight separate cords of fiber and separate them into
three piles:
1. 1 pile of four cords.
2. 2 separate piles of two cords.

Intertwine the four-cord pile with the two sections of two-

cord piles, with one pair going clockwise and the other
going counter-clockwise, alternating until the plaited rope is
complete.

Double-Braided Ropes - This type of rope combines two ropes into

one by braiding one fully constructed rope over another braid of fully
constructed rope (i.e. plaited rope over plaited rope).
Twelve-Strand Braid - For those desiring a hollow, tubular rope,
create twelve separate cords from your fiber, then braid each cord
over and under each other to complete it.
Hollow and Diamond Braid - A tubular rope that's hollow, formed in
a plain-braided pattern.

#
Knots
After locating cord fiber and learning braiding techniques to construct
ropes, you'll also need to learn some common knots. Only the basic
knotting techniques are shown below but many people love learning
about new knots. Some knots are used for attaching things together
while other knots are used to extend the length of a rope. Each
technique has its benefits, so be sure to employ the technique that
best suits your survival needs.

1. Figure 8. The Figure 8 is one of the strongest knot formations

available, maintaining up to 85% of your rope's strength. This
capability makes it an excellent source for hiking and rock-climbing
because it allows you to create multiple knots along the entire length
of your rope, as well as secure a knot at the end. Although it may be
difficult to form for some, it comes in three main variations that
provide extra flexibility in its creation:

Basic Figure 8 Knot:

Create a loop with your rope by crossing one end of your
rope over the top of the remaining bit, forming a Q-shape.
 Pinch the top of the loop, then twist it once in the opposite
direction of the Q.
Pull the tail of the Q through the upper loop from behind.
Pull both ends of the rope to tighten it, forming the classic
Figure 8 knot.

Figure 8 Follow-Through Knot allows you to attach your Figure 8

knot to an object securely:
Create your Q-shape with the rope.
Pinch the top of the loop, then twist it once in the opposite
direction of the Q.
Pull the tail of the Q through the upper loop from behind,
then wrap the end around the object you want to attach.
Pass the same end of the rope back through each loop,
forming a big loop, then around the big loop you've formed.
Pass the same end of the rope along the upper rope and
pull it through the right loop, resulting in both ends being on
the opposite side of your attached object.
Pull both ends of the rope to tighten it and complete the
follow-through.

Figure 8 on a Bight Knot allows you to attach your rope to a

climbing harness or carabiner:
Fold your rope in half, then create your Q-shape.
Pull the ends of the Q through the loop.
Pull both ends of the rope to tighten it and secure your loop
to be attached to your harness or carabiner.

2. Bowline. The bowline knot is an alternative to the Figure 8 and is

typically used in rescue scenarios. It's a self-tightening rope that
allows you to secure the rope around a person, and it's also a great
option for hanging food:
Create your desired size loop with your rope with the loose
end stretching from right to left across the standing portion
of the rope.
 Use your right hand to grip the standing end of the rope,
then twist it clockwise downwards for half a turn to force
the other end to poke through the small loop.
Pass the standing ends through the loop again and tighten
the rope as needed.

3. Clove Hitch. This is another method for connecting a rope to the

desired object that allows you to adjust the length of the rope without
untying the knot. The clove hitch is a great technique that can also
be applied for anchoring. It offers you the flexibility of adjusting your
knots in an easier way than other techniques, but it tends to loosen
after constant movement:
Loop your rope around the object you want to connect it to,
crossing the looped end over the remaining rope.
Make a counter-clockwise loop around your object, passing
the end of the rope through the newly formed loop.
Pull both ends of the rope to tighten the knot around your
object.

3. Double Sheet Bend. A sheet bend knot connects two pieces of

rope together. Since a single sheet bend knot isn't the most secure
knot you can form, the double sheet bend makes it more secure,
giving extra durability to your combined ropes. It's great for
combining ropes with various dimensions together more securely:
Create a half-loop with the thicker of the two ropes.
Slide one end of the thinner rope underneath the loop and
around, then around the thick rope.
Repeat the above step to double the knot.
Grip the thick rope with one hand while pulling the two
ends of the thinner rope with your other hand to tighten it.

4. Taut Line Hitch. This is a knotting technique that allows you to

attach your rope to an object and glide it up and down the object to
the desired position for tightening and/or loosening:
 Loop your rope around your desired object for attachment.
Wrap the loose end of the rope around the loop twice along
the inside of the loop.
Lay the loose end of the rope over the double-loop, then
wrap it around the straight rope, pulling the loose end
through the newly formed loop to create an adjustable knot.

5. Halter Hitch. A resourceful knotting technique, which is another

option for anchoring as it allows you to connect your rope to an
object while also being able to swiftly release its grip by pulling one
end of the rope:
Loop your rope around your desired object for hitching.
Pull the working end of the rope under and through the
loop.
Cross the working end to create another loop, then tuck
that loop under your first loop.
Fold the working end of the rope through the small loop to
lock it into place.
Pull on the loose end of the rope to tighten it around your
object as necessary.
Adjust your hold around the object by pulling the knot to
your desired position and pulling the ends to tighten it.

6. Square Lash. A great knotting technique to employ for cross

braces when you need to secure two objects into place until you're
able to tie or bolt them down:
Cross your two objects together at a right angle.
Connect a rope to the vertically-lying object with a clove
hitch (as instructed above).
Pull the loose end of your rope under the horizontally lying
object on the left side.
Wrap the loose end of the rope in front of the vertical
object, then over the horizontal object.
Repeat the step above twice.
Next, repeat the fastening process by wrapping the rope
around the front and back of the vertical object.
Once completed, your rope should be lashed into a square-
shape that can be tied off with a half hitch.

#
Chapter Summary
Having a rope in the wilderness can be essential to your survival.
They can be used to help you with building your shelter and crafting
vital tools to help you survive while in the wilderness. Knowing how
to locate the proper fibers in the wilderness to construct your rope is
the first step you need to take. Not all knots are created equally and
should not be used universally, therefore, be sure to apply the
appropriate roping and knotting techniques given in this chapter to
alleviate your survival abilities and ensure maximum safety.
In this chapter, you learned:
How to find viable, natural resources to create a rope in the
wilderness.
Multiple braiding techniques to create ropes specific to your
survival.
Various knotting techniques to serve your survival needs in
the wilderness.

In the next chapter, you will learn how to signal for help in the
wilderness.
 CHAPTER 9: SIGNALING FOR HELP
It's time to get you out of the wilderness by signaling for help. While
distress signaling seems to be underrated in comparison to some of
the other wilderness survival essentials, it's just as vital. As with all
other survival essentials, your signaling options will be dependent on
what is available to you. Distress signals come in various forms, and
while modern technology has made many of us reliant on using our
cell phones to contact emergency responders, if you're stranded in
the wilderness, the likely presumption is that you don't have cell
phone access. Even if you happen to have a cell phone handy, you
may be in an area with no reception. If you can, hike as high as you
can to increase the chances of getting reception. However, this
section assumes you don't have that as an option and therefore
focuses on ways to signal for help.

#
Mirror
A mirror can save your life when you're stranded in the wilderness.
Out of all of the distress signals available, a signal mirror is one of
the best ways to get the attention of searchers. When searchers are
looking for you, a momentary glint of light can catch their attention
and lead them to investigate further. Mirrors with sighting lenses
work best, but if your mirror doesn't have a sighting lens, it can still
be effective when used properly. And, if you don't have a signal
mirror at all, you can make one by using any of the following:
A standard mirror (i.e. makeup mirror or hand mirror).
Flat objects with aluminum foil wrapping (i.e. Hershey's
Chocolate Bar wrapping paper).
Objects that have reflective surfaces (i.e. glasses).
A survival blanket folded.

To send a distress signal with your mirror:

Hold your mirror under your eye with one hand.
Extend your other hand with your palm up, facing a target
in the distance (i.e. hilltop, helicopter, person, etc.).
Use your thumb and index finger to form a V-shape with
your target centered in the "V".
Angle the mirror to direct the beam of sunlight at the base
of your "V", then angle it up to your target.
Pan the mirror extremely slow from left to right and up and
down to send your distress signal. The flashes of light will
attract attention.

#
Smoke and Fire
Fire isn't only essential for keeping you warm and heating your water
and food, it can also be used to signal for help. Fire not only
produces heat, but it also produces smoke that rises and/or causes
light in dark areas. Thus, fire and smoke serve as one of the most
identifiable distress signals available when stuck in the wilderness.
They're not only effective at night but during the day too, since
certain emergency responders (i.e. rescue helicopters, planes, and
crew, etc.) have undergone specialized training to identify fire and
smoke signals while attempting rescue operations.
When building a fire for a distress signal, one fire won't be enough—
you'll need to make three separate fires about 100 feet apart in a
triangular fashion. The three-fire triangle is an international signal
for rescue, meaning that it is one of the most recognizable distress
signals you can send, no matter where you are around the world.
You can also form the three fires in a straight line about 100 feet
apart as an alternative, but the triangle formation is your best option
if you have the space to create it. The key is to make all three fires if
possible, especially if you're sending your signal during daylight
because the thickness of the combined smoke will be more visible
than the smoke a single fire would create.
To send your distress signal with fire:
Go to an open area where your smoke and fire will be
visible.

Make sure the area is contained enough so the fire doesn't

spread, such as in the middle of dry grasslands during high
winds.

To build your fire for maximum effect during the day and
produce a lot of smoke, the flame has to be big and strong
enough to burn items that aren't typically easy to burn. For
signal fires during the day, you want to fuel your fire with
plastic, rubber, green logs and sticks, and damp, rotten
wood. You'll also want to avoid building your fire under
trees or a forest canopy because the smoke will dissipate
as it travels through the vegetation and won't be as thick—
which defeats the purpose.

To build your fire for maximum effect at night, you'll want to

make it as bright as possible. Therefore, you'll want to fuel
it with items that burn easily, like the items you'd normally
use to build your campfire (i.e. dry wood).

#
Whistles and Audible Signals
Sound is another great tool to use as a distress signal. Searchers
are trained to recognize the universal audible distress signal of three
whistles. Blasting three whistles can alert anyone within earshot that
you need help. A humble whistle is a whistle designed for distress
signals, but any whistle will do. If you have the option, select whistles
in bright colors for easier spotting and whistle using an attachment
(i.e. ring, clip, lanyard, etc.) to minimize the risk of it getting lost.
For cold terrains, you'll want a pealess whistle with no moving parts.
Any saliva passed through the whistle can freeze the cork balls
found in pea whistles, preventing its movement and disabling the
whistle. When using whistles to send distress signals, be sure to
remain in your location until help arrives, so your rescuer(s) can
follow the sound back to you.
If you don't have a whistle with you, you can use your mouth and/or
fingers. Using your mouth alone to whistle may produce a lower pitch
than optimal. For a high-pitched whistle, whistle loudly with your
fingers in your mouth.
To whistle with your fingers:
Curl your fingers into your palms except for the index
fingers which should be extended and touching together.
Your index fingers are making a triangle.
Open your mouth and tighten your lips against your teeth.
Place your fingers in your mouth and push your tongue to
the back of your mouth. Your incisors should rest on the
inside of your first knuckle.
Your lips should be tight around your fingers and the only
way for the air to escape is through the small gap between
your fingers and your lips.
Blow air forcefully through the gap between your fingers
and your lips.
You can also make a whistle using the natural resources available to
you:
Locate a hollow object, such as a bamboo stick, hollow
bone, knotweed, reed, or branch of pithy wood.
Reduce your selected object to between 6-10 inches long
and under 1 inch in diameter. The skinnier the better, as
you'll be able to blast higher and sharper whistles with a
slimmer whistle. For optimal effectiveness, close off one
end.
Cut a slit about ¼ inch deep around an inch from the top of
the open end.
Go to the center of the body and cut from the center back
to the first slit near the opening, which should form a shape
similar to a "U" but with a sharp bottom.

For your mouthpiece:

Locate a piece of soft wood (such as willow) on a stick that
can fit snugly into the body of your whistle and cut off about
1 inch.
Cut off about ⅛ of an inch from the end of the stick you will
use to blow into when whistling, narrowing it down to
around 1/16 removed from the end that will be inserted into
the body of your whistle.
Slide your stick into the body of the whistle and attempt to blow:
If there is sound, your whistle is ready to use.
If there's no sound, adjust the stick until you're able to hear
a sound or shave off a little more of the stick until it
produces sound.

There are also other ways you can send audible signals outside of
whistles. For instance, you can create a makeshift drum with hollow
hardwood, sticks, and rocks. If you can locate a hollow log of
hardwood, prop it up on some rocks and beat it with some hardwood
sticks (aim for the sticks that make the loudest noise against the
drum). The rocks under the log will also help reflect the vibrations for
optimal signaling.

#
Ground-to-Air Signals
Rocks and sticks aren't only great for audible signaling as in a drum,
but they can also be used to send a visual distress signal to
searchers overhead with ground-to-air signals. Ground-to-air signals
are a great option for sending distress signals on islands or in areas
with thick woods since emergency responders will likely be airborne.
With a ground-to-air signal, you can use rocks, sticks, logs, and even
the sand or dirt of the terrain to form messages for help.
Start by locating a large open area. Gather any large rocks,
boulders, logs, tree branches, and extra clothing around that contain
colors contrasting with the surrounding area. The fact that these
colors are different helps it stand out to searchers. For example, if
the terrain is bright green, use dark logs and rocks to contrast; if the
terrain is white or dark, use bright colors like green leaves and pines.
The starker the contrast, the better the chance of your message
being seen.
Form the letters for your message using the items you've gathered,
and make sure your message spans about a yard wide and a few
yards tall. You want your message to be big enough to be read
clearly from the air. Some common choices to send as air distress
signal messages include:
"HELP" is a universally known ground-to-air distress signal
known to emergency responders worldwide for signaling
for help when stuck in the wilderness.
"SOS" is also a universally known distress signal for
wilderness emergency responders.
"X" is a commonly recognizable signal for conveying the
need for medical assistance.
"V" is a less known signal that conveys you're requesting
help.

You'll also need to be aware of possible responses you may receive

from airborne emergency responders in planes:
If the responders circle around your message, it is likely
they don't understand what it means. You need to make it
more visible to them, so they better understand your
request. They may be trying to check your status as well.
Also, raise and lower both arms to catch their attention so
they don't mistake it for an old signal.
If the responders reply by tilting the wings of the plane back
and forth, your message has been received and help is on
the way.
No matter which response you receive, once your ground-
to-air message has been seen by emergency responders,
light a fire to further confirm your location.

#
Flashlights
Flashlights are another resourceful tool to signal for help at night and
in heavily shaded areas. This is true for both standard and cell
phone flashlights if you have either one with you. When using your
flashlight for distress signaling, it's important to preserve the battery
for as long as possible, so you'll need to quit using it for any other
purpose other than flashing distress signals.
Sending distress signals with flashlights requires utilizing a
consistent pattern, such as three consecutive flashes at a time
between prescribed intervals. To send a more commonly known
distress signal using your flashlight, you can transmit SOS signals in
Morse code as follows:
Three fast flashes of light. (• • •) is Morse code for S
Three long flashes of light. (— — —) is Morse code for O
Three fast flashes of light. (• • •)
Pause, then repeat as necessary until help arrives.

#
Flags
Using flags is another primitive option for sending a distress signal
that's been used for thousands of years. They can easily be created
using both natural and non-natural resources available to you:
You can use any bright clothing and/or gear that can
contrast against the surrounding terrain to create a flag by
tying the garment to a stick.
If you have a poncho or tarp that isn't being used, you can
create a large flag by tying it to a large stick or tent pole.
Large, reflective materials like space blankets also make
great flags.

Once you've created your flag, you have the option of waving it back
and forth to send your distress signal, tying it as high up as possible
to a tree or other standing structure, or laying it out on the ground of
an open and visible area for ground-to-air signaling.

#
Flare Signals
Flare signals are also universal beacons used to send distress
signals. Flares discharge a bright light to signal for help. They can be
handheld or come in the form of flare guns.
1. Handheld Flares. Handheld flares are used as visual distress
signals that you would wave in the air to signal for help. If needed,
you can attach the flare to a long stick or pole with duct tape or
cording to make it taller. However, you'll want to refrain from waving
the flare directly overhead in the event it unexpectedly comes loose
and falls on you. You'll also want to be mindful of making sure the
flare doesn't burn down to your stick or pole or start an unintended
fire.
2. Flare Guns. Flare guns are great options when handy. They shoot
flares into the air to send distress signals to emergency responders.
When using a flare gun, be aware of the possible danger that may
be caused to the area when the flare makes contact with the
surrounding terrain. To avoid possible wildfires, refrain from using
flare guns in dry areas like barren grasslands or bushy areas and
pine forests. For safety precautions, it's highly recommended that
you limit your use of flare guns to areas with open water like
wetlands.

#
Survey Tape and Sharpies
Survey tape and sharpie markers can also help you send distress
signals in the wilderness. Vibrant survey tape (i.e. electric pink or
blue) can be used as flags or to mark your trail for emergency
responders to follow you, pinpoint existing trails, and leave
messages. Add a sharpie marker to the mix and you can add clear
messages on the survey tape for responders to read.
Sharpie markers can also be used if you don't have survey tape. You
can use them to mark practically any dry surface in the area with
messaging for emergency responders, and you can also use them to
place markers on your trail as breadcrumbs to find your way back
when exploring.

#
What to Do When Airborne Help Arrives
You also need to know what to do when help arrives to ensure they
can reach you as fast as possible, especially if your emergency
responders are airborne. As previously advised, airborne emergency
responders will likely acknowledge being able to see your signal by
responding via circling the message if they don't understand, or
tilting the wings back and forth if they read you loud and clear. They
may also signify acknowledgment of your messaging by flying low,
flashing their lights your way, or dropping down a message of their
own to you.
For a swift rescue, assist your airborne emergency responder(s) by
preparing the area for landing. Remove all loose materials that may
get sucked into the aircraft's rotors or propellers. If you're in an area
where the aircraft can't touch down directly near you, navigate
towards the landing and signal with noise and any safe visual signals
(i.e. flags, mirrors, flashlights, etc.) so they can identify where you
are. No matter the circumstances, be sure to adhere to any
instructions given by your emergency responders carefully and
swiftly.
Chapter Summary
Being able to signal for help can be the difference between being
stranded in the wilderness indefinitely and getting the help you
desperately need in the nick of time. Considering the extreme
conditions, you must know the best distress signaling options
available to you based on the resources at your disposal, should you
find yourself needing them.
In this chapter, you learned:
Why knowing how to signal for help is vital to your survival
in the wilderness.
Various methods of sending distress signals.
What to do when emergency responders arrive.

In the next chapter, you will learn about finding food in the
wilderness.
 CHAPTER 10: FOOD
As the survival Rule of 3s indicates, you're capable of surviving up to
three weeks in the wilderness without food. That's why, despite how
much your stomach may crave food while stranded in the
wilderness, it's the last of the essentials you need to be concerned
with.
Being able to build shelter, locate readily drinkable water, purify other
sources for water, and build a fire to keep you warm will all help you
survive the wilderness while you wait for help to arrive. Sending
distress signals will help you get the attention of emergency
responders as fast as possible, so you can be rescued. Your ability
to find food is less pressing because it doesn't reach fatal levels
unless you've been unable to find food after being stranded for three
weeks. However, once all other essentials have been sufficiently
addressed, you can start foraging for food.
Not every seemingly edible source of food you may come across is
safe for consumption. There are many poisonous and hazardous
items out there, so the last thing you want to do is ingest anything
that may be harmful to you. As a general rule of thumb when
sourcing food for survival in the wilderness, if you are unsure of what
something is, don't eat it, especially when it comes to vegetation.
Another rule of thumb is to stay away from all things bright in the
wilderness. In the wilderness, bugs, plants, marine life, and
amphibians with bright colors are more likely to kill you, so avoid
them at all costs. Luckily, there are many other food options
available to you in the wilderness.
Insects and Bugs
Another general rule of thumb for sourcing food is that, despite how
unappetizing they may seem, most insects are not only usually safe
to eat but are also a great source of protein. The key is knowing how
to distinguish between what is safe versus what you should avoid.
Insects are a great source of fuel when out in the wild. In comparison
to a usual protein source like beef, which contains about 20%
protein, insects provide anywhere between 65-80% protein. Keep in
mind that, although most insects are safe to eat, other bugs are not.
So, when dealing with creepy crawlers, remember:
Insects can generally be defined as six-legged bugs with a three-part
body, an exoskeleton, a pair of antennae, and sometimes wings.
Some insects that you may usually be able to consume safely
include:

Grasshoppers and crickets—High in protein and found in many

areas; just make sure to avoid any bright-colored hoppers because
they may be poisonous.
Grasshoppers are best to catch in the early morning hours
because they move slower.
Crickets are more typically found in damp, dark places like
under logs, rocks, and other large objects.
Check for them in shrubs, trees, and tall grasses. You can
also shake tree branches.
You can catch grasshoppers and crickets by hand; placing
a wool blanket or flannel shirt in an area they're known to
be (they will get caught on the fibers of the fabric, allowing
you to pluck them off); or burying the cut-off top of a plastic
water bottle into the ground and shining light over it to
attract them into the trap.

Ants—Ants are just about everywhere, extremely simple to catch,

and are actually quite tasty.
 You can eat ants raw—just ensure they're dead so they
don't bite you in the process.
You can also catch an entire army of them by locating their
home/anthill, hitting their habitat with a stick a few times,
and inserting the stick into the opening to collect ants on it.
To neutralize their acidity, dunk the stick into a container of
water to boil for about six minutes before eating them.

Termites—This is another great source of protein that spends the

majority of its existence buried in wood and away from harmful
parasites. To locate them, simply split open a cold log of wood,
shake them out into a frying dish, and put them over a fire.

Worms—These bugs can be found in abundance and are safe to

eat in the wilderness. You can locate them crawling around on the
ground after a rain shower or dig them up from under damp soil.
Before consuming them, clean them in a water bath for a few
minutes to allow them to be cleansed naturally before eating.
Avoid all insects with bright colors, adult insects that bite or
sting, hairy insects like spiders, caterpillars, flies, mosquitoes,
ticks, and insects with pungent odors.

#
Plants
As previously advised, you should avoid eating any plants you
cannot positively identify because it may be deadly. However,
considering the variety of vegetation you may encounter in the
wilderness and the possibility of mistaking deadly plants as safe, the
following guidelines may be applied:
Refrain from consuming mushrooms. Despite some
varieties of mushrooms being safe, many are extremely
toxic and deadly. When trying to survive in the wilderness,
mushrooms are not worth the risk when there are plenty of
other viable options available.
Steer clear of plants with thorns or white or yellow
berries.
Avoid any vegetation with shiny leaves, leaves with
groups of threes, or plans that contain umbrella-shaped
flowers.
Any plants or beans that contain seeds inside a pod
should not be eaten.
Plants that emanate an almond smell should not be
consumed.
Any vegetation with milky or discolored sap should be
avoided at all costs.
If you do happen to bite into any plant that has a soapy or
bitter taste to it, spit it out immediately.
Outside of the above plants to avoid, you can use a
universally known edibility test on any other plant you
encounter to gauge whether or not it's safe to eat:
Take a strong sniff of the plant to see if it smells rotten or
otherwise repugnant. If so, don't eat it.
Rub the plant against your skin and/or lips for about three
minutes.
If you don't have a physical reaction to the plant (i.e.
burning, itching, tingling, etc.), you can begin to assume it's
safe to consume and give it a small bite.
 Hold the plant in your mouth to see if you have a reaction
and gauge its taste. If there's no soapy or bitter taste and
you don't have a physical reaction to the plant, you can eat
a little more of it and wait a few hours to ensure you don't
have any adverse reactions. If you are still completely fine,
you can assume it's safe to eat in larger commodities.

Now that you're aware of plants to avoid and how to subject

unknown plants to an edibility test before ingesting, here are some
plants you can safely consume while in the wilderness:
Grass—Most grasses are non-toxic and can be consumed raw.
Dandelions—Not only good for making a wish, but dandelions can
also be eaten raw or boiled in water, as well as drunk as a tea with
boiled water.
Clovers—Easy to chew and can be consumed raw or after boiling in
water.
Cattail—Plants typically found in wetlands with a rootstock that can
be consumed raw or after boiling in water.
Burdock—Mostly prominent in the eastern hemisphere, they can be
large and do contain many edible parts from the leaves to the stalk
(after being peeled).
Chicory—Another plant that may be eaten raw or boiled in water.
Pennycress—A commonly found plant worldwide that can be
consumed if needed, but should be consumed with caution after
assuring the area it's growing in isn't contaminated with hazardous
minerals. And any patches growing on the side of a road should
never be eaten.
Tree nuts—A fattier and calorie-dense option that's also packed with
protein and offers a multitude of edible varieties:
Hickory nuts
Be sure not to confuse them for buckeye because it is
poisonous.
Acorns from oak trees:
Requires preparation
Crack the shell with a rock to extract the nuts.
Soak in water to remove tannic acid and bitter taste.
Pine nuts from pine cones.

#
Animals and Game
When considering animals as a wilderness food source, you need to
know the distinction between regular animals and large game. Game
is considered any animal that is typically hunted either for its meat or
sport. Although all game are animals, not all animals are considered
game. For your wilderness survival purposes, try to catch smaller
animals first because they will be more abundant than larger game,
are easier for you to catch, and easier for you to prepare. The key to
catching them is knowing their habits and behavioral patterns. You
can use the following habits and patterns for targeting animals as
your food source:
Animals with seemingly fixed feeding areas.
Animals with trails spanning from one area into another.
Animals that live collectively in a certain area in dens or
nests.
Most animals that walk, crawl, swim, or fly.

1.Animals.
Turtles - Great source for fatty meat, which is preferred over
consuming solely lean meat (i.e. rabbit) because having too much of
the latter may lead to diarrhea.
Avoid the claws and jaws, even after killing.
Boil the entire turtle so that the back shell is softened.
Remove the back shell.
Cut the undershell into quarters and simmer all of the cut
quarters.
Remove the undershell before eating the meat.

Porcupines - Packed with nourishment and fatty meat.

Use a rock or stick and give it a swift blow to the head to
kill.
Be sure to avoid any contact with the quills.
Remove the quills by skinning the porcupine from the
underbelly.
Snakes and scorpions - Although they may be intimidating, they're
great food sources in the wilderness once they've been safeguarded:
Cut off the snake's head and/or the scorpion's stingers to remove the
venomous portion, then either bury or burn the head and/or stingers
to keep them from being consumed by other food foragers.
Snakes - Remove the skin and the entrails, then cook. You can also
use the bladder of a snake to hold any liquids (i.e. water), so it can
serve a dual purpose as both a container and food.
Scorpions - May either be eaten raw or cooked. Avoid the extremely
small ones because their poison tends to be deadlier than the larger
ones.

2. Game animals. When pursuing game, it's important to note that

different areas have different prohibitions on what game you can and
cannot hunt, so avoid any illegal game. An animal that has been
running will result in meat with a bitter taste because of the lactic
acid produced by the activity.
Rabbits - Should be eaten sparingly as they will only provide lean
meat.
They rely more on camouflage than flight for defense.
Don't show signs that you are eyeing it when approaching
it.

Squirrels - Excellent food source that is commonly found in several

areas. Throw a rock or stick at it to disable it or use a snare to catch
it.
Small Birds/Quail - They don't travel far, so they can be easily
pursued with a trench and corral that will prevent them from taking
flight.
Eggs - Bird eggs are a good option, but beware of being dive-
bombed by a nest protector. Also, be sure to leave some eggs
behind so you won't eliminate future generations.
When hunting animals and game in the wilderness, it's important to
be aware of the energy you are exerting to catch and prepare it. If
there are easier options available that will conserve your energy
such as snares and traps, or if you expect emergency responders to
arrive soon, hunting animals and game may not be worth the energy.
If you do pursue this food source, it's recommended to cook it before
eating it to kill off any parasites that may be inside the animals.
Cooking your food also allows it to be digested with less energy.
To cook your animal/game (the following cooking instructions may
also apply to fish):
1. Skin the animal.
2. Clean out any guts.
3. Clean your hands thoroughly before proceeding.
4. Roasting your meat (or fish):
Use a green stick as a skewer and line it with the meat
you want to roast.
Seal the juices first by holding the skewer of meat
directly into the fire briefly.
Roast the skewer above the flames of the fire to cook.
You can also wrap your meat around a stick or even
sandwich your meat between a split stick. Split the
stick open and insert some meat to roast it. Prop the
stick up on branches that allow it to sit over the fire for
roasting.

5. Grilling your meat (or fish):

Form a cooking slab using green hardwood or a flat
rock (never use rocks that were found in water because
the heat may cause the water inside to expand and
explode).
For animals with backbones, they may be removed first
to enable it to lay flatter on the slab.
Peg your animal or fish to it and put the slab directly
over the coals to grill it.
6. Boiling your meat (or fish):
Find a rock with a cavity big enough to fit your water
and meat.
Build your fire around the rock cavity to preheat it and
add water to boil your meat (or fish).

7. Barbeque your meat (or fish):

Allow your campfire to burn all the way down to hot
coals.
Lay rows of green sticks across the coals to form your
grill.
Put your meat on a stick (i.e. skewer) and allow it to
slow cook over the coals.

#
Fish and Seafood
Fish is an excellent food source that may provide balanced nutrition
while in the wilderness, making it one of the best options available to
you. Low tides near the ocean or large lakes allow you to catch
edible food (i.e. marine snails clinging to rocks) that you can scoop
up with your hands and eat without cooking. There are even more
options available to you if you can use your available resources to
create fish hooks, fishing poles, and/or nets.
1. Crustaceans. These are your freshwater options that usually form
colonies, including some common shellfish like shrimp,
crayfish/crawfish, and crabs.
Shrimp - Look for them in highlighted spots at night,
anywhere between the shore's edge to about ten meters
deep into the water. Scoop them up with a net.
Crabs - You can also look for these in highlighted spots at
night anywhere between the shore's edge to about ten
meters deep into the water. Use bait to attract them and
catch them with a net or trap.
Crayfish - More active at night but may also be found
during the day under and around stones set in streams.
They can even be located in the soft mud of their nests,
identifiable by chimney-like holes for breathing.

2. Mollusks. These include some other common freshwater options

like mussels, clams, and snails that may be caught using a trap or
net. It is best to cook these.
Look for mollusks in shallow areas with muddy or sandy
bottoms, in freshwater or on rocks, and in tidal pools along
the shore.
Snails - Often found closer to water, clinging to rocks and
seaweed.
Mussels - Usually found in dense colonies located at the
base of boulders, inside pools of rocks, and on logs.
3. Fish. Great source of fat and protein.
To catch them, you'll need to monitor their habits.
They are attracted to light at night.
Typically rest near rocks or eddy areas instead of in heavy
currents.
May also be found in and around logs and submerged
foliage, under areas with overhanging bushes, and in deep
pooled areas.
Should always be cooked to kill parasites.

To catch fish in the wild, you'll likely need to prepare fishing tools and
collect bait to attract the fish:

Pot trap—Great for catching small fish:

Locate a plastic bottle.
Cut the top of the bottle off.
Poke a few holes in the bottom of the bottle.
Put a few small rocks in the bottle.
Take the cut-off top and invert it inside of the open bottle,
sliding it all the way down to the bottom as snugly as
possible.
Tie a fishing line (i.e. dry plant fiber) to the bottom of the
bottle for a handle.
 Tie the other end of the string to a sturdy base, such as a
tree branch.
Insert some sort of bait. This can be a worm that you dig up
or a grasshopper, etc.
Place your trap in the water and let it catch your fish.

Bait—Berries, worms, grasshoppers, and insects can serve as bait,

so use whichever options you have available to you that you're not
currently relying on for sustenance.
Fishing line—Dead plant fiber may be used for your fishing line.
Fishing pole/rod:
Find a long stick or light log and remove any branches or
leaves.
Test the strength of your rod by bending it to see if it snaps
(any portion that does snap off will strengthen your pole
after being removed).
Use cordage to tie a knot at the end of the stick to serve as
a handle for grip.
Tie your fish line (i.e. dead plant fiber) around the center of
the stick, then wrap it around a few times.
Tie the end of your fishing line around the tip of your pole
and add your hook (if not already attached).

Fish hook options—You can make a fish “gorge” hook using thorns,
animal bones, or wood:
Simple hooks - Less effective, but easily made:
Locate a small stick and remove the bark.
Sharpen each side of the stick into points.
Tie your fish line (i.e. dead plant fiber) to the middle of the
stick, then your hook will be complete.

Thorn hooks - Only use for small fish.

Collect sharp thorns from tree branches or sticks.
Prepare a long, thin piece of cordage.
Stick the thorn through the eye at the end of your cordage.
Wrap the remaining cordage around the stem of the hook,
then pass the end of your cordage underneath the last
wraps of cordage and pull it tight to finish off your hook.

Wishbone hooks:
Snap off half of one of the wishbone legs from an animal
(i.e. bird, chicken, etc.).
Using the short end of the leg bone, sharpen an edge of
the bone to create a sharp point. Be careful not to break it.
Just under the point you created, carve a barb to complete
your hook.
At the other end of your newly-made hook, poke a hole
through it to attach your fishing line to.
Wood hooks:
Find a stick about the size of your index finger.
Break off a third of the stick and strip the bark off it.
Sharpen the broken third of the stick into a point.
Tie the sharpened point the remaining ⅔ of the stick with
your fishing line (i.e. dead plant fiber) to create a V-shape.

#
Chapter Summary
As you can see, many food sources are available to you when stuck
in the wilderness. Knowing which sources are safe to eat and how to
obtain them is key. Knowing which sources can be readily eaten
versus sources requiring preparation and cooking is also vital to your
survival. You never want any survival essential to work against you,
so ingesting harmful parasites, bacteria, or viruses should be
avoided. With the variety of food sources available and your
newfound knowledge on which foods to avoid, your ability to locate a
range of food sources in the wilderness should be less daunting and
relieve some worries about what you should or should not eat while
stuck in the wild.
In this chapter, you learned:
Foods to avoid when stuck in the wilderness.
Various vegetation, insects, animal, game, and fish that
may be used as food sources in the wilderness.
How to trap, catch, prepare, and cook plants, animal,
game, and fish with the natural resources you can find.
 CONCLUSION
Being able to survive in the wilderness isn't something we naturally
learn from our parents, in school, or on the job. It's not something
that many people even consider unless they are preparing for an
outdoor adventure or expecting to be in wilderness areas where they
know they'll need to deploy skills specific to their survival. Sadly,
outside of survivalists, a lot of people who find themselves stranded
in the wilderness don't have functional cell phones handy to call for
help, let alone prepackaged items like BOBs, sleeping bags, tents, or
tarps to help them survive the elements. Therefore, knowing
primitive survival methods in the wilderness becomes crucial. The
wilderness survival essentials outlined in this book can be an
amazing aid for equipping yourself to survive any extreme condition
using the natural resources available to you. It can now serve as
your guide to surviving the wilderness until help arrives.
Navigating the unknown is stressful enough, so preparing yourself by
becoming more informed about what to expect and how to survive
will allow you to remain as calm as possible in the wilderness, which
is not only essential for preserving the energy you need to survive
but also crucial to minimizing your risk of encountering dangerous
elements such as predators that can sense your fear or angst. The
Survival Rule of 3s is a great place to start when prioritizing your
needs essential to your survival. So, unless you have a photographic
memory or an innate ability to retain every essential addressed in
this book, recall that on average a human can live:
Knowing how long you have to obtain your essentials allows you to
address each essential appropriately, and understanding how to use
the resources available to you to facilitate your survival needs is
paramount to being able to properly gather, prepare, and/or build
your essentials within the timeframe necessary. When out in the
wilderness, being aware of the survival essentials provided to you in
this book will enable you to more readily prioritize your needs and
know how best to serve them while waiting for help to arrive.
As a final tool to aid you in your wilderness survival, the following are
a few more tips to assist you with navigating the wilderness, so you
can avoid getting lost and wasting valuable time and energy while
trying to survive the elements

Compass—You can make a compass if you don't have one handy:

Get a container of water (i.e. large leaf that can cup water).
Locate a needle (i.e. paperclip, razor blade, sewing needle,
etc.) that can be magnetized (may be done by rubbing the
needle against a magnet about thirty times).
You can also magnetize a needle by rubbing it from eye to
point about 100 times on animal hair, wool or your hair. The
trick is to always move in the same direction (not back and
forth).
Float the magnetized needle on your leaf while it's in water,
then wait for it to orient from North to South.

Sun/Shadow Orienting—If you don't have a compass, you can use

the sun and shadows to help you navigate:
Locate a straight stick, plant it into the ground to stand up
straight, and use the tip of its shadow to represent West.
Let about twenty minutes pass, then mark the tip of the
shadow again.
Connect your second mark to the West mark to denote
East to West.
Stand with the West mark to your left and the East mark to
your right. The direction you are facing is North. The
 opposite direction is South.
Moss can also indicate which direction is North when the
skies are cloudy since they typically grow more prolifically
on the North end of trees and slopes.
Spiders can also indicate which direction is South in warm
weather, as they generally tend to spin their webs on the
south side of trees.

Walking Downstream—Water flows downstream, and populations

tend to be at lower elevations. If you follow the stream downwards,
you should be heading toward civilization.
Now that you have all of the essentials necessary for you to survive
in the wilderness, you can better prepare yourself for the unknown.
Practice the tools and guidance provided to you in this book before
your next outdoor adventure so you will be more familiar with
executing them. As with most—if not all—skills, practice makes
perfect.
Being able to test out any tool you may need before you actually
have to use it in a survival situation will make it smoother when you
really do need it. Besides, where's the fun in learning how to survive
if you never get to use the skills you've obtained? In any case, if you
do find yourself needing to depend on these wilderness survival
essentials, remain calm, refer to the Survival Rule of 3s, and deploy
everything you've learned in this book to survive until help arrives.
What Did You Think of Wilderness Survival
Essentials: Handbook for Finding Shelter, Water
and Food?
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