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SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

Spatial Intelligence examines public and professional conceptions of the relationships

between thinking about spatial attributes and active engagement in spatially
related constructions and designs. Even though children’s and adolescents’ spatial
propensities in constructive activities parallel the skills needed by professionals in
both established and emerging fields, spatial education is often missing from K-​12
curricula and is easily impeded by teachers, parents, or other individuals who do
not provide contexts in formalized settings, such as schools, to nurture its potential.
This book bridges the gap by linking the natural spatial inclinations, interests, and
proclivities of individuals from a variety of cultures with professional training and
expertise in engineering, architecture, science, and mathematics. Educators will be
better able to achieve the skills and awareness necessary to provide children and
young adults with the vital opportunities inherent in spatial education.

Daniel Ness is Associate Professor of STEM Education in the Department of

Curriculum and Instruction, St. John’s University, Queens, New York, USA.

Stephen J. Farenga is Professor of Science Education, Queens College, City

University of New York, USA.

Salvatore G. Garofalo is Adjunct Lecturer of Science Education, Queens

College, City University of New York, USA.
SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
Why It Matters from Birth through
the Lifespan

Daniel Ness, Stephen J. Farenga,

and Salvatore G. Garofalo
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Daniel Ness, Stephen J. Farenga, and Salvatore G. Garofalo to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Ness, Daniel, 1966- author. | Farenga, Stephen J., 1958- author. |
Garofalo, Salvatore (Salvatore G.), author.
Title: Spatial intelligence : why it matters from birth through the lifespan /
Daniel Ness, Stephen J. Farenga, and Salvatore Garofalo.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016044342| ISBN 9781138850842 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781138850859 (pbk) | ISBN 9781315724515 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Spatial ability. | Spatial behavior. | Educational psychology.
Classification: LCC BF469 .N47 2017 | DDC 153.7/52–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016044342
ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​85084-​2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​85085-​9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​315-​72451-​5 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Out of House Publishing
We dedicate this book to Professors Herbert P. Ginsburg and James H. Borland
at Teachers College, Columbia University. Their constant encouragement,
mentorship, and support in our research endeavors provided us with the
inspiration that contributed to this book’s development.
CONTENTS

Prologue viii

1 The Spatial Definition: A Time-​honored Enigma 1

2 Developing a Sense of Space 23

3 Alternative Spatial Thinking Models 47

4 From g to ∞: Spatial Ability—​The Primal Intelligence 67

5 “You Are Here”: Mapping Space 88

6 Redefining Affordance to Maximize Spatial Intelligence 127

7 Making Space: Bows, Brushes, and Plaster 149

8 Free Space: Spatial Thinking in the Curriculum 172

9 Technospace: From Atoms to Bits 204

10 Humane Space 222

References 238
Index 265
PROLOGUE

Spatial thinking is ubiquitous; it occurs in both our subconscious and conscious

lives. At times, we operate spatially when we use our subconscious to navigate
from one place to another. It is not uncommon, for instance, to hear people
report arriving at a destination without being aware of how they got there. Every
day, people leave work, get in their cars, and drive home without a remembrance
of a single landmark. A good deal of time, we are involved in completing activi-
ties without even being aware that they rely heavily on spatial thinking skills.
Examples include the spatial orientation of notes on a musical score, mathemati-
cal symbolism (e.g., fraction notation), and the process of interior decorating
a home.
At other times, however, we are consciously aware that we are required to use
cognitive skills that rely heavily on spatial ability. Examples in this case include
graphic design, interpreting an architect’s blueprint, and working with geometric
figures. Seven shapes that are commonly known as tangrams are shown in Figure
0.1. While looking at these shapes, notice that there is no specific order in their
arrangement. The shapes are placed on the page, each with its own individual
properties and attributes. We ask readers to examine these shapes and then men-
tally arrange them on the page to create one unified shape in the form of a square.
When completing this task, see Figure 0.2 for one possible solution.
This challenge provides an example of the difficulty in tapping critical, multi-​
layered spatial thinking skills, and how diverse humans are in their abilities to
use spatial thinking skills when solving problems. In attempting to complete this
puzzle, which represents a visuo-​spatial task, some people may be able to rotate
and manipulate the shapes mentally, while others would find it more conducive
to re-​represent the situation at hand through drawing or cutting the pieces out
and having a physical model for manipulation. Still, others might find it easier to
 Prologue ix

FIGURE 0.1 Random Placement of Tangrams

solve a problem like this one through verbal discourse and logic. Each of these
methods provides some insight into the various modes of cognitive functioning
that humans display.
In this book, we take a global view of spatial intelligence through its intrinsic
connections to practical, theoretical, and empirical domains of inquiry.That said,
care must be taken when one attempts to classify complex behaviors because
there is often overlap and integration of content represented by the subskills
that comprise these behaviors. Such is the case when considering how to discuss
and examine a psychological construct like spatial intelligence. Psychological
perspectives on spatial thinking and cognition research have focused primar-
ily on empirical and theoretical approaches to inquiry. Less emphasis has been
placed in the spatial literature on the practical aspects of how spatial thinking
can be used in our everyday lives. However, in recent years, researchers have
devoted more attention to the study of the use of spatial skills in terms of its
applicability in careers, education, and everyday activities. Accordingly, each of
the chapters in this book challenges the idea that spatial thinking is detached
from our daily lives; instead, we consider the manner in which spatiality plays
an intrinsic part of our everyday existence. In fact, spatial cognition is not only
an area of inquiry in and of itself, but also a skill set that provides a foundation
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x Prologue

FIGURE 0.2 Solution to the Tangram Problem at the Beginning of this Prologue

that is necessary to both understand and conduct many life activities. This can
be seen from children’s block building, as discussed in Chapter 8, to an engi-
neer’s working of an architect’s blueprint of a planned structure discussed in
Chapter 7. Each of these activities demonstrates the human ability to start with
contemplative, abstract concepts that eventually lead to real-​life structures that
may engender functional characteristics.
From a theoretical standpoint, spatial intelligence can inform the reader
how to generalize about spatial constructs within the human experience. In
Chapter 6, we connect the theoretical perspective of affordance with the use of
visuo-​spatial constructive play objects (VCPOs)—​examples of which include
blocks, bricks (such as Lego), and planks. Our definition of affordance with
regard to spatial intelligence differs from the typical psychological view, which
contends that affordance enables the individual to advance through prompts
and sensations that are attributed to the object or place. In contrast, we argue
that the greater the affordance of an object, the less it will allow the individual
the opportunity to think creatively and to fully understand the essence of the
object’s properties in relationship to form and function. In Chapters 2 and 3,
we highlight the development of spatial thinking models through an examina-
tion of five theoretical positions: Piaget and Inhelder’s theory of the child’s
 Prologue xi

concept of space; the Vygotskyan socio-​cultural perspective on spatial cognition;

the nativist perspective on spatial thinking; the interactionist approach; and a-​
posteriori universalism.
From an empirical perspective, spatial intelligence research can be quite
informative in explaining differences in spatial ability, development of spatial cog-
nition, and the effect of spatial thinking on inquiry-​related behaviors. In Chapter
4, we devote our attention to the influence of biological factors such as genes and
hormones and their influence, combined with environmental conditions, on the
development of spatial intelligence. Our notion of g to infinity reflects our posi-
tion that the conception of intelligence has expanded from a unitary construct
into a vast set of factors that include spatial ability as one of the prime compo-
nents of intelligence. Therefore, we consider spatial intelligence to be the “hidden
intelligence” that supports the successful completion of many everyday activities
that we engage in. Spatial intelligence encompasses a skill set that some recognize
as practical intelligence, where outcomes from an activity are tangible. As a hidden
intelligence often overlooked in formal educational settings, spatial intelligence
is firmly engrained in the work of mechanics, kitchen designers, cartographers,
and many other professions. To account for the importance of thinking about
space in practical terms, we explore the relationships among navigation, map-
ping, and spatial awareness in Chapter 5. Through the examination of Seymour
Papert’s theoretical framework for learning called constructionism, which grew
out of the basic principles of Piagetian constructivism in which cognitive devel-
opment precedes and influences what can be learned, we have sought out con-
nections between technological advances and the development of spatial thinking.
Accordingly, explorations in the use of technology and its intrinsic connections
with spatial intelligence are discussed in Chapter 9. In Chapter 10, we broaden
the scope of spatial intelligence by viewing it through the ecological lens, and
examine how the natural landscape influences spatial development. In this chap-
ter, we discuss spatial dominance, which refers to the human desire to manipulate
and organize space. Spatial dominance is an attempt to control the environment
in which we come into contact, and arrange it in a manner that is suitable to our
needs.
In Chapter 1, we begin our discussion of spatial intelligence by considering the
importance of spatial thinking as a means of understanding and interacting with
the physical world. We then consider the views of a diverse group of specialists in
space and spatial thinking. This group comprises physicists, mathematicians, psy-
chologists, architects, engineers, geographers, philosophers, and educators.
From the combined content of all ten chapters in this volume, we posit that
spatial intelligence is truly a basic intelligence, or as we are concerned, a primal
intelligence that serves as a keystone to all considerations of spatial ability upon
which many other activities depend. In this volume, we explore how spatial intel-
ligence is developed, displayed, and acted upon throughout our lives. Now we
return to the initial challenge at the beginning of this prologue. Were you able
xii Prologue

to find a correct pattern and complete the tangram puzzle successfully to meet
the challenge? Whether successful or not is unimportant. What is important is
that one begins to realize the ubiquitous nature of spatial thinking and its close
relationship to everyday activity in a theoretical, empirical, and practical manner.
Because the risk of leaving out a key individual when considering the devel-
opment of an “Acknowledgments” section is considerably high, we, the authors,
are culpable for any oversight that may be apparent between this book’s covers.
Indeed, any work such as this one is only possible by the sifting, winnowing,
and labor of others who have come before us to share their insight and findings
through publications and presentations to advance knowledge and scientific think-
ing.Thus, we atone for any omission that we have made in our acknowledgments.
That said, we are grateful to several individuals who have influenced us in
shaping this work into its present form. Lynn Liben, at The Pennsylvania State
University in University Park, was instrumental in leading us on a successful
path of inquiry. As a pioneer in the field of spatial cognition and its multidiscip-
linary connections, Lynn has graciously taken the time to read our manuscript
and make suggestions to advance the usefulness and completeness of the text.
We thank Kathy Hirsh-​Pasek and Nora Newcombe, both at Temple University,
for their correspondence and the work that they have added to the corpus of
literature in spatial cognition. Thanks goes to Eleanor Duckworth, at Harvard
University, who was influential in having us reconsider the role of affordance in
creative thinking as it applies to spatial intelligence. We also wish to acknowledge
the work of the following individuals whose research and publications helped
to inform our conceptions of spatial cognition and intelligence: Ken Cheng, at
Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, for his research in modularity theory;
Peter Kahn, University of Washington, who influenced our views about the inter-
action among nature, technology, and space; Rik Pinxten, at Ghent University
in Ghent, Belgium, for his work on a ​posteriori universalism as it applies to
non-​Western conceptions of space, time, and spatial–​temporal constructs; Barbara
Tversky, at Columbia University, for her insights on spatial language and cogni-
tion; and David Uttal, Northwestern University, for his approaches to the con-
sideration of spatial thinking as it applies to diverse disciplines. We thank Alex
Masulis, Editor, and Lauren Schuhmacher, Editorial Assistant, at Routledge as
well as Emma Harder, Project Manager of Out of House Publishing. Without
their assistance, this book would not have been written. We are grateful for the
Summer Research Grant from St. John’s University, which enabled the reconsid-
eration of the SPAGAR coding system (discussed in Chapter 8). We are indebted
to Judith Mangione and the faculty and staff of the Department of Curriculum
and Instruction at St. John’s University and to Eleanor Armour-​Thomas and the
faculty and staff of the Department of Secondary Education and Youth Services
at the City University of New York, Queens College for their ardent support.
Their passion for planks as a tool for spatial thinking and development, cogni-
tive advancement, and social, emotional, and intellectual enrichment warmed our
 Prologue xiii

hearts. Finally, we are grateful to Chia-​ling Lin, at Nassau Community College,

for lengthy philosophical debates that lasted through the early morning hours
about spatial thinking and naturalistic observation methodology, and to Mark
Diercks at the CERTA Learning and Research Center for the use of facilities,
equipment, and an endless supply of coffee.
Daniel Ness, Stephen J. Farenga, & Salvatore G. Garofalo
New York, New York
1
THE SPATIAL DEFINITION
A Time-​honored Enigma

There’s the added element of adrenaline if you’re performing.You’re aware of spatial

relationships and the music.
Kim Gordon

We begin our journey on spatial intelligence by introducing four figures that are
shown in pairs.While examining these pairs, special attention should be placed on
how they compare and contrast with each other. Moreover, consider the follow-
ing questions: first, what is the significance between each pair of figures? And sec-
ond, what relationship exists, if any, among all diagrams in each of the four pairs?
Before answering these two questions, consider each photograph or diagram in
each of the four figures (Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4).
As for the first question, what is the significance of Figure 1.1? We begin by
emphasizing the need to represent objects, in this case, water molecules, as spatial
representations. In Figure 1.1 a sixth grader, who did not yet learn specifically
about water molecules in the science curriculum, was asked to represent her ver-
sion of the behavior of water molecules in a one-​liter flask containing approxi-
mately a half liter of liquid water just reaching the boiling point (100°C or 212°F).
Her depiction of this account is astonishingly accurate—​namely, her visual rep-
resentation of the liquid water molecules show greater density and packedness in
terms of proximity of location than that of the water vapor above the liquid water
line. The water vapor shows more separation between molecules. It is also worthy
of note to analyze our interpretation of the sixth grader’s spatial representation. In
our own interpretation, we use terms like “proximity,” “above,” and “separation”
to explain her visual representation. At the same time, from a cognitive perspec-
tive, if asked to represent a situation or phenomenon using a diagram, the sixth
2 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma

FIGURE 1.1 A sixth-​grade student draws a pictorial representation (a) of the density
of water molecules in a one-​liter flask containing approximately a half liter of liquid
water at boiling point (100°C or 212°F). A tenth-​g rade student (b) learns how to
represent the elemental composition of a water molecule in a chemistry class

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.2 A fourth-​grade student (a) constructed two squares—​one 16 square

units and the other 5 square units—​using a Geoboard with elastic rubber bands. An
eleventh-​grade student (b) is preparing for a college entrance examination with a
question that asks for an area of a given square with included side lengths

grader clearly cannot escape representing the task without employing constructs
of spatial relations. The same case can be made with regard to Figure 1.1 on the
right, namely, the tenth grader who is learning about the atomic composition
through a visual account of the water molecule. What is fascinating here is that
even at the atomic or microscopic level of physical reality, it is still possible to rep-
resent something spatially. Further, spatial considerations are given to the angular
positioning of the two hydrogen atoms in relation to their bonds to the single
oxygen atom—​a measure that approximates 104.45 degrees. In most chemistry
FIGURE 1.3 Dr. John Snow, a nineteenth-​century physician from London, tracks the
number of cases of cholera by constructing a map (shown) and traces the illness to
a water pump in the London community of Soho in 1854 (a). Using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), epidemiologists on the border of the West African
countries of Sierra Leone and Guinea identify settlements surrounded by dense
tropical forests that are likely to increase human interaction with fruit bats, one of the
main vectors of the Ebola virus (b)
FIGURE 1.4 The Suzhou Star Map rubbing (a) is a stellar constellation map that
influenced calendar reform in late twelfth-​century China.The Swan (Omega) Nebula
is a Hubble Image that captured a vast ocean of gleaming hydrogen gas with smaller
quantities of oxygen, sulfur, and other elements as well. This Hubble photograph
(b) shows a small section within the Omega Nebula, also known as Messier 17 in the
constellation Sagittarius—​a breeding ground for star formation
Photo courtesy of NASA.
 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma 5

curricula, it is imperative for chemistry teachers to cover the angular position-

ing of atomic bonds within any given molecule. Through the lens of the water
molecule, angular positioning of hydrogen atoms is important to learn because
these figurations indicate how a single water molecule interacts with other water
molecules. The topic of angular positioning of atoms in intra-​molecular bonding
clearly exemplifies the need for students to think spatially, both in terms of their
understanding and in terms of eventual expertise in chemistry-​related fields. Not
only are these depictions spatial—​i.e., spatial representations—​but their referents,
in other words, the water molecules themselves, are spatial, too.
What about the significance of parts (a) and (b) of Figure 1.2? Figure 1.2a is a
photographic representation of a Geoboard—​a mathematical manipulative that
is used to help students improve their conceptual formations of mathematical
concepts, particularly those in geometry. In this specific Geoboard spatial repre-
sentation, we can say that the rubber band that depicts the larger square consists
of 16 small squares. Notice how the pegs, depicted by the dots are represented
in terms of organization; they are neatly organized in rows and columns, and the
distance between each peg can be considered equal to one unit. That is, a 1 unit
× 1 unit square is equal to one square unit. The outer rubber band thus creates
an inner square whose area is 16 square units. Moreover, if we stipulate that sides
representing diagonals divide a rectangle into two congruent right triangles, it is
then possible to determine the area of the interior square—​five square units (we
leave the explanation for the area of this square to the reader). The main idea
here is that we are thinking and considering all the parameters involved in this
example from a spatial perspective. Now, in terms of Figure 1.2a, b determin-
ing the area of a given square as a question on a college entrance examination,
notice the similarity between this depiction of a square and the inner square
represented in Figure 1.2a; without question, they are strikingly similar. In fact,
the answer to the question in Figure 1.2b is the same answer that we find
when determining the area of the inner square in Figure 1.2a. Again, these two
visuals demonstrate spatial considerations; there is essentially no way around
it. Students and other individuals who are introduced to the Geoboard or the
question posed in Figure 1.2b are in essence required to think spatially. Again,
notice our language when analyzing Figure 1.2a: “formation,” “geometry,”
“square,” “organization,” “rows,” “columns,” “distance,” “square unit,” “inner,”
“area,” “sides,” “diagonals,” “rectangle,” “congruent,” “outer,” “right triangles,”
“constructed,” “Geoboard”—​these are all spatial terminology. Regardless, from
a cognitive perspective, anyone who comes into contact with a Geoboard or a
question such as the one asked in Figure 1.2b will be required to exhibit and
use spatial thinking skills.
Next, what is the significance of parts (a) and (b) of Figure 1.3? To begin
with, both diagrams demonstrate how spatial thinking plays a dynamic role in the
field of epidemiology. Dr. John Snow, who developed methods that many would
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6 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma

argue catapulted the field of epidemiology—​the study of diseases and the spread
of diseases by various contagions—​into the limelight of medical and academic
research, generated a map of Soho that listed all, or most, of the cholera cases in
the Soho vicinity by indicating individual cases of cholera using hash marks. Snow
produced this map in 1854—​a time when contemporary technology included
the nascent stages of the daguerreotype, steam engine, and processing mills. In
other words, GIS, as we know it in the twenty-​first century, did not exist, and all
cases had to be documented by hand or etched onto paper. Early epidemiology
was a dangerous way to earn a living in 1854 because the extent to which one
could come into contact with tainted drinking water (in the case of cholera) or
infectious disease (such as tuberculosis) was exponentially higher than it is today;
the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain was more than 60 years in the making,
and this resulted in part, with large numbers of families moving into urban areas,
thus making the opportunity for spreading contagious disease all the more pos-
sible. Further, Snow’s proto-​epidemiological search and investigation during the
late summer of 1854 occurred nearly a century before antibiotics were developed
and used to treat infection and deadly maladies. To be sure, Snow demonstrated
something very important with respect to his map of Soho: spatial thinking skills
can enable us to grapple with adverse, and oftentimes life-​threatening situations
of utmost criticality. By identifying cases with hash marks on a map of Soho,
Snow was able to identify the cause of the upsurge of cholera cases in the Soho
vicinity—​a well with a water pump serving the community tainted water with
potentially deadly cholera bacteria.
In comparison to Snow’s diagram, Figure 1.3b is a GIS image of the border
between Sierra Leone and Guinea near the west coast of Africa. This image is a
magnificent example of a twenty-​first-​century version of Snow’s epidemiologi-
cal map of 1854. Given that fruit bats were determined to be one of the main
lines of transmission of the Ebola virus, and that this species of bat depends
primarily on dense tropical forest and wetlands environments for survival, it was
critical for physicians and Red Cross personnel to hone in on specific locations
where fruit bats congregate. While dense rain forests are key for fruit bat sur-
vival, fruit bats carrying the Ebola virus were found primarily where they can
get sources of nourishment—​namely, oil palm trees. The GIS snapshot in Figure
1.3b shows buildings and other human dwellings outlined on the right and oil
palm cultivations outlined on the left. The need for spatial thinking with respect
to this image is unequivocal—​the groves where the fruit bats congregate are
within yards from communities with homes and other buildings where people
do business and other forms of transactions in everyday life. Clearly, distance and
proximity—​both spatially charged concepts—​impact the extent to which Ebola
infection may occur.
What about the answer to the first question with respect to Figures 1.4a? As
we indicated previously (p. 4), the Suzhou Star Map rubbing is a representation of
 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma 7

constellations that led to changes in the Chinese calendar system during the late
twelfth century. Astronomers during the twelfth century completed the star map
that connects concepts of space with time. Through the innovations of this star
map, the Chinese calendrical system influenced later astronomical representations,
such as that of the Tenmon Bunya no Zu that was conceived and worked out by
Harumi Shibukawa on the orders of the Japanese shogunate with the intention of
revising the lunisolar calendar in the late seventeenth century. Figure 1.4a differs
from all previous examples in that the Suzhou Star Map rubbing is a representa-
tion of space on a macro level—​as it represents galaxies and related features of the
universe. So, too, does the picture in Figure 1.4b. Consisting of hydrogen gas and
other elements, Swan (Omega) Nebula, a Hubble image, shows a swath of space
that is approximately 5000 to 6000 light years from earth and some 15 light years
in diameter. As we have indicated earlier, Messier 17 is only a section of the entire
Swan Nebula—​a star formation hotbed (no pun intended). Both Figures 1.4a
and 1.4b demonstrate space on a massive scale. Space on the macro level—​“outer
space”—​is often the way in which many individuals refer to space. At the very
least, it is the way in which most people use the term in the everyday context.
We move on to the second question posed: what relationship exists, if any,
among all diagrams in each of the four pairs? In answering this question, we refer
to the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner and his contributions to ecology as it relates
to human development as we consider the notion of ecological space (2009). Just
as understanding the earth from an ecological perspective—​such as the categories
of species, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere—​can shed light on
the nature of environmental change, so, too, is it possible to reflect on human
development and cognition in general and space or spatial thinking in specific
through the lens of an ecological framework. Thus, the relationship of each of the
eight depictions in Figures 1.1 through 1.4 is evident when considering spatial
cognition from an ecological perspective. From an ecological standpoint, then,
Figures 1.1a and 1.1b clearly exemplify what specialists in spatial cognition would
refer to in ecological contexts as a micro system in spatial thought. Next come
Figures 1.2a and 1.2b—​what we believe falls into the category of the meso-​sys-
tem of spatiality. This is because our encounters with Geoboards and (spatial) test
questions are physically experienced in our everyday lives; they are things we
can describe clearly in that they are in proportion within our visual field, and,
therefore, can be utilized and discussed through sight and touch. Figures 1.3a
and 1.3b, we argue, fall into the category of the exo-​system of spatial thought.
This has to do with the fact that these depictions—​the physical map of Soho in
London and the bird’s-​eye view of an Ebola-​affected region—​cannot be touched
or viewed in the same manner as a book or a Geoboard because their referents
are relatively larger spaces than items in our local environments that can be com-
pared to our personal contexts; at the same time, they are not large to the extent
that we are unable to fathom where something is located within a map or in a
GIS. In contrast, Figures 1.4a and 1.4b are difficult to conceptualize within our
8 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma

local contexts. Again, this has to do with our contexts in comparison with those of
stellar environments—​those that are almost entirely bereft of personal perspective.
To explain this phenomenon, we refer to books, periodicals, or the Internet as
examples. Go to nearly any news website on the Internet. You will undoubtedly
encounter a story about a newly found exoplanet, a Goldilocks exoplanet (one
that may be suitable for life), up-​to-​date research on the oldest galaxy to date, a
sighting of a black hole. The list goes on. To be sure, newly discovered events, not
only in our solar system, but just about anywhere in the universe, are posted as
news stories at a near-​exponential rate. The point is that we’re so far away from
these events that it is next to impossible to identify an actual and real representa-
tion of objects in space at this level, what, in ecological terms, would be referred
to as the macro system, or astronomical space.The depictions of newly discovered
phenomena that are parsecs from Earth are virtually always depicted in a way
that is described by astrophysicists. We often see new exoplanets, for example,
with captions that read: “An artist’s depiction of Planet X” and the like. So, in
reconceptualizing the meaning of spatial thinking, it is important to consider the
ecological model as a starting point in research and analysis of space and spatial
thinking. All systems within the ecological framework are important in a variety
of ways that affect our lives—​from the spatial relations at the atomic level to those
of the Goldilocks exoplanet that may be many parsecs from Earth.
So, based on the answers to the two initial questions that begin this chapter, we
can safely argue that spatial thinking is universal—​literally. However, our analysis
of these diagrams and photographs leads us to a time-​honored enigma: what is
spatial thinking? Restated, what is space?

The Importance of Spatial Thinking

In the second edition of Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, the
National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) revised its standards to
emphasize the need to include spatial thinking as an essential topic in the geogra-
phy curriculum (NCGE, 2012). In fact, Sinton, Bednarz, Gersmehl, Kolvoord, and
Uttal (2013) addressed the need for spatial thinking in geography by organizing
this area of inquiry around four domains: life spaces, physical spaces, social spaces,
and intellectual space. Examples of life spaces include those having to do with
the fundamental concepts of location, scale, and movement and the idea that we
live and make plans in space. The notion of physical spaces involves the idea that
humans modify their physical environments while that of social spaces involves
the idea that space can be construed in terms of culturally relevant norms, such
as playgrounds, school zones, and neighborhoods. The idea of intellectual space
has to do with how humans construe space in terms of how everyday things or
ideas can be designed, planned, or organized. As a school subject, geography was
a staple of the school curriculum during most of the twentieth century. However,
with the onset of content standards during the 1980s, geography seemed to have
 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma 9

been downplayed in school curricula, and since that time, geography content was
integrated in the subjects of social studies and physical science.This has resulted in
a meager treatment of spatial thinking in the K-​12 curriculum, and in cases where
the subject of social studies lacks discussion of geography, spatial thinking has been
absent altogether (Holcomb & Tiefenbacher, 1989; Unwin, 2013; Winter, 2009).
While NCGE has made important inroads in addressing the importance of
spatial thinking skills in geography, organizations representative of mathematics
and science have either done so tangentially or have not clearly articulated the
topic. Given its emphasis on English language arts/​literacy and mathematics, the
Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) has attempted to present a
comprehensive overview of these important subjects. Yet within the mathemat-
ics component of the CCSSI, it is difficult to pin down any indication of spatial
thinking as a significant component of mathematical knowledge (CCSSI, 2010).
The closest implication of spatial thinking in the CCSSI Mathematics Standards
can be found in Standard 4.G.A.3, which emphasizes symmetry, or Standards
8.G.A.1, 8.G.A.2, 8.G.A.3, and 8.G.A.4, which address geometric transforma-
tions, namely, reflections, rotations, translations, and dilations. Likewise, the Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS) is sorely wanting with regard to spatial
thinking skills (NGSS, 2013). Although NGSS has alluded to spatial constructs
in two standards (MS-​ESS2-​2 and HS-​ESS2-​1, middle-​school and high-​school
earth science, respectively), nowhere prior to these seemingly demanding experi-
ences do students have familiarity with specific content skills involving spatial
thinking. Thus, based on the literature in the fields of cognition and education, it
is unrealistic to expect students to think spatially in a deliberate and routine man-
ner when engaging in these complex activities because doing so makes the learn-
ing experience difficult and frustrating (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).
It is important to articulate the relationship between the K-​12 school curricula
with spatial skills because the ability to think spatially has become an indispen-
sable part of numerous professions and practical applications (Kell & Lubinski,
2013). It would seem quite necessary, then, to render the teaching of spatial abil-
ity a recognized and required educational objective. To do so would be natural
because the conceptual narrative emphasized in the NCGE, Common Core, and
NGSS standards (Reys, 2014) parallels the conceptual constructs inherent in spa-
tial thinking.
From a developmental perspective, the study of young children’s spatial think-
ing can enhance our understanding of spontaneous geometric propensities that
are closely related to the study of science, technology, engineering, and medicine
(STEM). Spatial thinking ability is a cross-​cutting skill that overlaps several content
areas (STEM, language, social sciences, and arts and humanities, to name a few).
Even after accounting for verbal and mathematical ability, it has been shown that
higher spatial ability predicts interest and success in STEM disciplines (Newcombe,
2010; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009; Verdine et al., 2014). Key findings from
NASA’s systems engineering studies support our assertion that students must be
10 The Spatial Definition: A Time-honored Enigma

exposed to physical construction materials prior to moving to the digital represen-

tations. Several reasons account for the cognitive transition from physical models to
more abstract understandings of space. Despite excellent marks in college and supe-
rior research backgrounds, younger engineers had more difficulty when working
in ambiguous situations than did older engineers (Brown, 2009). Further, younger
engineers were found to engage in less creative reasoning when compared to older
engineers (Casey, Jarvis, & Amatucci, 2008; Williams, & Derro, 2008). Archer and
Lloyd (1982) state “in older children that there is a clear relationship between high
spatial performance and experience with three-​dimensional forms—​for example
wood working, model making, or toys such as Lego and Meccano” (p. 236). Siann
(1977) suggests that certain activities that are linked to spatial ability are also con-
sidered traditionally masculine or feminine and may only be encountered if appro-
priate to one’s gender. As noted by Johnson (1984), if the science curriculum is
built around interest, attitudes, and experiences that are present for one sex and not
the other, identical treatment of the sexes will only accentuate the inequity. The
same holds true for the mathematics curriculum as well.
While the ability to think spatially is an essential skill for school as well as suc-
cess in the professional world, it may often seem hard to define. There has been
general agreement in the literature, particularly in the areas of cognitive psychol-
ogy and geography, about what spatial thinking is. Among the community of
geography scholars, spatial thinking has been defined as “an ability to visualize
and interpret location, position, distance, direction, relationships, movement, and
change over space” (Sinton et al., 2013, p. 44). Clearly, this ability taps requisite
skills necessary to become an architect, engineer, physician, scientist, and even
artist. The NRC’s Committee on Support for Thinking Spatially claimed that
“the key to spatial thinking as a constructive amalgam of three elements: con-
cepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning” (NRC, 2006,
p. 12). In light of these definitions, we have defined spatial thinking as one’s
ability to perceive, recognize, or conceptualize physical or intellectual constructs
in terms of their position or location in both static and dynamic systems. What
these three definitions have in common is the idea that spatial thinking involves
one’s interpretation and representation about space and constructs within it.
Examples of spatial thinking skill sets include, but are not limited to, conceptual-
izing space, using tools of representation, reasoning and proving, problem finding,
problem solving, visualizing relationships, analyzing static and dynamic systems
of objects, observing how objects behave in their environment, recognizing the
relationship between two-​and three-​dimensional constructs, and differentiat-
ing between Euclidean space and other geometric models. It should be pointed
out that the spatial skill sets mentioned are vital in learning about relationships
between tension and compression, columns and beams, trusses, and arches—​
concepts inherent in engineering principles. Equally important to note is that
the act of spatial thinking can be, on the one hand, a deliberate activity involving
intent and purpose and, on the other, one that is spontaneous and unplanned. As
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