measure for measure

Plenty of pitches
The note A tuned to 440 Hz only became the norm for musical performance in 1939 after decades of international
and interdisciplinary disputes. Fanny Gribenski retraces this rocky path.

T
hough music is often referred to as musical practice: C 528. Following the advice
“the universal language of mankind,” of Giuseppe Verdi, the Italian association
in the words of Henry Wadsworth of musicians similarly adopted A 432 as a
Longfellow, for the longest time, the practice standard in 1881, reconciling the demands
of this art was founded on local standards. of science and musical practice. Such a low
Now regarded as ‘natural,’ the note A tuned pitch, it was argued, was more friendly to
to 440 Hz only became the norm for musical voices. The following year, however, this
performance following an international measure was defeated by the French pitch A
conference held in 1939. For most of music 435 at the conference held in Vienna because
history, pitches were fluctuating concepts: of the commercial strength of the diapason
countries, cities and individual musical normal, which had already been adopted
institutions performed music according to by several acclaimed instrument makers.
their own tones. But with the development Eventually, the French pitch was superseded
of railroads and the resulting integration of by the higher pitch A 440. This standard
musical spaces, many voices called for the had been introduced in the United States in
adoption of a unified musical measure. 1917, and enforced by means of a radio signal
France was the first country to create emitted by the Bureau of Standards in 1935.
such a standard. In 1859, a state-appointed Concert pitch still remains a controversial
commission gathering representatives of standard. For several years, numerous
the worlds of music and science fixed a blogs have been denouncing the use of A
diapason normal at A 435. In the same way 440 and calling for its replacement by what
as a standard metre had been agreed upon they regard as the pitch of the “origins”: A
after the revolutionary standardization of 432. Following in the footsteps of activist
the metric system, a model of the musical Lyndon LaRouche who, at the end of the
standard — a tuning fork — was stored 1980s, claimed that one should “revive
at the Paris Conservatory (pictured). The Credit: Diapason, Jules-Antoine Lissajous, France, Verdi’s tuning [A 432] to bring back great
‘French pitch’ was subsequently chosen as 1859, E.378 Collections Musée de la musique / music,”3 the Dutch political party Vrijzinnige
a first international standard in Vienna in Cliché Anglès Partij argues for A 432 as a standard on the
1885 by several European countries and unverified grounds that Joseph Goebbels
Russia. But in the interwar period, the physics of sound, but also conflicting notions was responsible for the adoption of A 440,
United States adopted A 440 as standard, of what sounded aesthetically pleasing, what and that it causes “disarray” in music and
which was agreed on by certain European was physiologically sustainable, and what society4. The history of our musical measure
nations in 1939, and became the first was historically consistent with the works of is actually one of many pitches, attesting to
acoustic norm issued by the International celebrated composers. the great variety of sonic ideas and practices
Standards Organization in 1955 as ISO 16. Whereas in France the diapason normal throughout the modern era. ❐
Although resembling that of other was fixed in reference to a historical canon
technical and scientific standards, the history of operas with the commission claiming Fanny Gribenski
of concert pitch is more complex. Crucially, that the choice of A 435 “would render Max Planck Institute for the History of Science,
whereas the metre was principally the the performance of old masterpieces Berlin, Germany.
product of industrial factories and physics easier,”1 these aesthetic considerations were e-mail: [email protected]
laboratories, pitch was also the concern of challenged in other countries. In Britain, for
opera houses, radio studios and instrument instance, in the wake of the French decision, Published online: 6 February 2020
workshops. For other scientific and technical the Society of Arts started investigating “how https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-019-0707-1
standards, it was physicists, mathematicians, far it would be practicable to do anything References
engineers and natural philosophers who in this country in reference to it,”2 but with 1. Auber, D. F. E. et al. Rapport et Arrêtés pour l’établissement en
determined at what measure these were set. the aim of putting a greater emphasis on France d’un diapason musical uniforme (Imprimerie impériale,
1859).
In the case of pitch, such authorities were science. Drawing from the recommendations 2. Royal Society of Arts Minutes of the Council AD/
challenged by a diverse body of interested made by natural philosophers such as John MA/100/12/02/11, 122 (25 May 1859).
parties all with different ideas of what a Herschel the body created a competing 3. LaRouche, L. Executive Intell. Rev. 15, 24–34 (1988).
4. Korteweg, A. Vrijzinnige Partij: verlaag de grondtoon, deze wekt
standard pitch should be. Shaping these standard, presented as a compromise between verdeeldheid en agressie op. de Volkskrant https://go.nature.
ideas were not only considerations about the mathematical knowledge and contemporary com/2B5ATVm (3 March 2017).

232 NATURE PHYSICS | VOL 16 | FEBRUARY 2020 | 232 | www.nature.com/naturephysics