1 Earthing : Electrical Safety

1 INTRODUCTION

God has given us earth soil in abundance, available throughout the world.
This is a natural gift used in plenty of ways, i.e. planting, excavation for a building foundation, houses and
roads, etc.
Earthing soil has an unique electrical property in the form of conductivity that is put to practical use in
everyday life in power plants and electrical utilities.

Earthing is of foremost importance for the safety of human beings, animals, consumer property and
utilities’ equipment.
In this unit, we will learn the importance of earthing/requirement of good earthing.

Broadly speaking, earth resistance is the resistance of the soil to the passage of current, which may not
be as low as that of a conductor like copper.
But, since the cross-section area of the path for the current is very large, the actual resistance is normally,
quite low and, hence, earth can be used as a reasonably efficient conductor.

Earthing is generally to be carried out in accordance with the requirements of Indian Electricity Rules,
1956 and IS : 3043-1987, at generating stations, transmission/distribution substations and consumers premises.

Indeed, any equipment or device drawing or feeding power to the public power network, makes use of
earth connectivity.

Objectives

 importance of earthing,

 various types of requirement of earthing,

 different types of earthing,

 different methods of earthing, and

 purpose of earthing in different points of equipment.

2 IMPORTANCE OF EARTHING

Prime objective of earthing is to provide a zero potential surface in and around and under the area where
the electrical equipment is installed or erected.
In the case of shielded (enclosed) conductors, earthing of the shield isolates the conductor from external
interference, and prevents the interference due to the current in the conductor from spreading outside the
shield.
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 2 Earthing : Electrical Safety

To achieve this objective, the normally non-current carrying (but conducting) part of the electrical
equipment is connected to the general mass of the earth, which prevents the appearance of
dangerous voltage on the enclosures and helps to provide safety to working staff and public who may
come in contact with the equipment.

The basis of the use of earthing, as described here, is the fact that all the generating plants in a grid
are connected through earthing.
Under this system, earthing may be put to use as the return path for electric current, under abnormal
conditions.

 Check Your Progress 1

What is the use of earthing?

EARTHING REQUIREMENTS

 Good earthing should have low resistance.

 It should stabilize circuit potential with respect to ground and limit

overall potential rise. It should prevent, or at least minimize, the
damage to the equipment due to flow of eventual heavy fault
currents.

 It should protect men and material from injury or damage due to

over-voltage.

 It should improve the reliability of power supply.

 It should provide low impedance path to fault currents to ensure

prompt and consistent operation of protective relays, surge arrester,
etc.

It should keep the maximum potential gradient along the surface of the sub-station within safe limits
during ground fault.

3 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING

Earthing can be classified into the following categories based on the purpose for which the part of
the equipment is connected to the general mass of earth.

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 3 Earthing : Electrical Safety

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING
Equipment Earthing
Discharge Earthing
System Earthing

3.1 Equipment Earthing

Earthing associated with non-current carrying parts of electrical equipment is called equipment earthing.

Safety of the operator, the user and the safety of their property are the main reason for equipment
earthing, e.g. outer metallic body of a transformer, metallic body of an electric motor.

As stated, for equipment earthing to be effective, it must first be done at the generating plant.
Here the neutral of the star-connected three phases is grounded or earthed.

METHODS OF CONNECTING NEUTRAL OF THE ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT TO GROUND

Four main methods are as follows :

 Solid Earthing
 Resistance Earthing

 Reactance Earthing

 Arc-suppression Coil (or) Peterson Coil Earthing

These methods of earthing system are shown in Figure 1, and are described below.
These make use of the 3-phase, 4-wire system.
In this system, three wires are provided for the phases and a fourth wire is provided for the neutral.
Generator Transformer
N N

Solid Grounded Neutral Resistance

Resistance Grounded

N N

Reactor
Peterson Coil Arc
Reactance Grounding Suppression Coil or
Earth Fault Neutralizer

Resonant Grounding
Figure 1 : Neutral Connection Methods
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 4 Earthing : Electrical Safety

 Solid Earthing

When the fault current is expected to be low and not likely to cause damage to plant, cables, and loss
of stability of system, then earthing may be done directly through metallic conductor from system
neutral to the main earthing ring without any impedance in the circuit.
It should be ensured that the impedance between the ‘N’ & ‘E’ is so low, so that if an earth fault occurs
in one phase of the system sufficient current will flow to operate the protective devices.

 Resistance Earthing
Resistance earthing is generally used when the fault current is likely to be so high as to cause damage to
the equipment, mainly transformers.
If a resistance is inserted between the Neutral and Earth, quick acting protective devices are also used.

The resistors shall comprise metallic resistance units, supported on insulators in a metal frame or shall be
a liquid resistor of a weak aqueous solution, either of zinc chloride or sodium carbonate.

Metallic resistors have a constant resistance, which does not change with time, while liquid resistors have
to be treated frequently specially after the clearance of a fault.

Metallic resistors are slightly inductive and this is a disadvantage with overhead lines, since traveling
waves and impulses are subject to positive reflection and this is likely to unduly stress the insulation of the
equipment and may cause breakdown.

Use of liquid resistors is recommended only at voltages above 6.6kV. All neutral earthing resistances are
designed to carry their rated current for a short period, usually 30 seconds.

The earth resistance is of such a value that, should a fault occurs outside the equipment, the fault current
will be restricted to the rated full load current of the equipment.

If the earth resistance is too low, for any occurrence of the earth fault the equipment will be subjected to
an electrical shock, due to the load resulting from the power loss in the resistor.

 Reactance Earthing

When the zero sequence (a measure of the unbalanced current in a three-phase system) reactance of
generators or transformers is so low as to cause excessive fault current, usually reactance earthing is
used.

A single-phase reactor is inserted between the neutral and the earth to limit fault current to the maximum
of 3-phase short circuit current.
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 5 Earthing : Electrical Safety

Here the current due to earth fault on one phase is limited to minimize damage to the equipment.

Care should be taken to see that during system fault or switching operations, dangerously high
transient voltages do not occur, due to the high value of reactance of the earthing reactor.

 Arc-suppression Coil Earthing

In high voltage systems with isolated neutrals, overvoltages, caused by switching surges, or by
lighting, may cause a line to flashover to earth.
Considerable current will be drawn through the arc to charge the system capacitance to earth.
The arc is quenched at zero voltage but may re-strike at a higher voltage.
This successive re-striking of the arc often causes very high voltages to be built-up on the
transmission lines, and is known as “arcing grounds”.

To avoid isolation of system under earth fault conditions, arc-suppression coils are sometimes
used, as shown in Figure 1.
An arc-suppression coil, also known as the Peterson coil, is a tuned earthing reactor.
It is tuned to the system capacitance in such a way as to make the reactance of the zero sequence
network practically infinite, so that no fault current flows to the earth and there is no tendency for
arcing grounds to occur.
With the use of Peterson coil, arc current is reduced to such a small value that it is usually self-
extinguishing, which increases continuity in service.

3.2 Discharge Earthing

When the charged electrical equipment or system is isolated from the electrical power supply, the
electrostatic charge still remains in the system.
Before carrying out any work on this isolated electrical equipment, these electrostatic charges are
discharged to earth through earth switches or earth rod.
This method of earthing is called Discharge Earthing.

3.3 System Earthing

Earthing associated with current carrying parts of the equipment is called system earthing.
The system security, reliability, performance, voltage stabilisation, all rely only on the system earthing,
e.g. neutral of transformer and surge arrester earthing.

 Check Your Progress 2

In the case of a 3-phase circuit or equipment, what part of the circuit is
earthed?

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 6 Earthing : Electrical Safety

4 LINE AND POLE EARTHING

Here the reference is to a Pole-based aerial LT Distribution network. It is recommended that –

 Every fifth metallic pole of LT line should be earthed.

 Cross arms, top clip, insulator pins of P.S.C. pole should be earthed along
with the pole.

 Guarding at railway crossing, telephone crossing, road crossing should be

earthed along with pole on both sides.
If earth electrode is not available, an 8 S.W.G.G.I. wire coil of 25 mm diameter
and of 120 to 150 cm length may be buried, to provide earthing.
It is very necessary to earth the guarding.
All the metal fittings of LT pole and stay should be earthed.

 A separate earth electrode, to be used for earthing, and the earth wire
should be routed through an Alkathine pipe without touching the pole.

MS Rod CI Cover Hinged

to CI Frame
Ground
Level CI Frame

Copper
Or
GI Wire
Bolt, Nut, Check Nut and
d Washer to be of Copper
for Copper Plate and GI for
GI Plate

GI Pipe
GI Plate or Copper Plate

Charcoal Enlarged Detail

Figure 2 : Earth Connection using a Metal Plate

The basic requirement to create earthing is to bury a conducting surface

sufficiently deep in the ground, with connectivity being made available outside.

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 7 Earthing : Electrical Safety

The buried conductor provides a conducting path to route the electrical current to earth and to provide a
zero potential surface for connection.

The buried conductor is either a metal plate or a metallic pipe. Both these types are described below.

 Plate Earthing

In major power stations and major sub-stations, 12 mm thick, 1200 mm long, 1200 mm wide cast
iron plates are used.

For minor sub-stations, 18 mm broad, 50 x 50 cm G.I. plates are used.

These plates are buried vertically in the pit. Coal, sand and salt are filled in the pit, each of 150 mm
layer.
The plate should be buried deep so that soil will be wet from all sides.
In the case of multiple plate, the plates should be placed at a distance of 1200 cm from each other.

 Pipe Earthing
For power stations and major sub-stations, 12 mm thick, 150 mm diameter, 300 cm, long G.I. pipes
are used.

minimum distance of 1200 cm should be kept between earth electrodes in major sub-stations and
180 cm in case of minor sub-stations.

Lightning
Arrester

A. B.
SWITCH
L. A. Earthing Lead
Pole

H.C. FUSE

Embedded
Embedded
Pole Earth
Pole Earth

Transformer

N Pole

L. T. Circuit
Breaker Box
A. B. Switch
Handle G L

Earthing
Electrode

Figure 3 : Earthing Arrangement for Distribution Sub-station

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8 Earthing : Electrical Safety

At least one electrode should be used at every corner in the sub-stations.

Each electrical equipment structure and the entire metal fitting should be earthed.
Three earth electrodes are used for pole-mounted transformers.

The transformer neutral and body should be double earthed. A minimum 8 S.W.G.G.I. wire
should be used for earthing.
Separate earthing should be done for a distribution box. 7/10 S.W.G.G.I. wire should be used for
tower earthing, and for S/s. gantries 3 mm thick, 50 mm x 50 mm M.S. plate is used. G.I. pipe of
25 mm thick, 1910 mm long is used for H.T. line, and
20 mm thick, 1720 mm long for L.T. lines.

The purpose of coal and salt is to keep the soil wet, permanently.
The salt percolates and coal absorbs water keeping the soil wet.

Care should always be taken by watering the earth pits in summer so that the pit soil will be wet.
Coal is made of carbon which is good conductor minimizing the earth resistant.
For sub-station earthing the provisions in IS : 3043 (1966) Section 1, 2 and 3 should be utilized.

 Joints

Rivets are used for joining the earth system, nut bolts or welding may also be used, depending
on the expected temperature rise of the system.

GI Bolts and Nuts

Equipment/Strip
Tinned
Copper Lug
Cable

Cable

Arrangement of Double Earth Connection to Equipment

(Strip to Conductor Connection)
Brazing for copper and welding
for aluminum

Riveting

Aluminum
Copper
Over lap min 50 mm

Straight Joints (Strips)

‘T’ Joint (Strips)
Figure 4 : Joints in Earth Connection
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 9 Earthing : Electrical Safety

The joint to earth conductor in switchgear unit or cable sheaths is required to be separated
frequently, hence nut bolts are used at joints. In the case of steel system, they should be
joined together, by welding.
Only the places where earth testing is carried should be nut-bolted.

All joints should be properly painted.

Channel, supporting control boards and panels are used as earth electrodes.
(This is possible only when they are connected to earth system at both ends.)

 Check Your Progress 3

When should an earthing joint be secured with nut and bolt?

5 POINTS OF EQUIPMENT TO BE EARTHED AND PURPOSE

Different points of equipment to be earthed and the purpose are given below :

SL. NO. POINTS EARTHED PURPOSE OF EARTHING

1. Transformer neutral For holding neutral at zero potential
2. Generator neutral To prevent arching to ground on
overhead lines
3. Star point of a load To discharge voltage surges
4. Neutral of a circuit To provide path for out of balance
current
5. Start point of CT/PT Simpler earth fault protection secondary
6. Equipment earthing To hold non-current carrying metallic
parts at zero potential (Body earthing).
To hold the current carrying parts at
zero potential for safety, even on earth
fault
7. Reference earthing To provide a reference zero potential in
the conductor circuit
8. Discharge earthing To discharge capacitive current charge
through earth switch to earth

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 10 Earthing : Electrical Safety

9. Surge arrester To discharge the surge voltages

6 GUIDELINES FOR PROVIDING EARTHING ARRANGEMENTS

Some general guidelines for providing earthing are given below :

 All medium voltage equipment shall be earthed by two separate and distinct connections with
earth through an earth electrode.
In the case of high and extra high voltages, the neutral points shall be earthed by not less than
two separate and distinct connections with earth each having its own electrode at the
generating station or sub-station and may be earthed at any other point, provided no
interference is caused by such earthing.
If necessary, the neutral may be earthed through suitable impedance.

 In cases where direct earthing may prove harmful rather than provide safety (for example, high
frequency and mains frequency coreless induction furnaces), relaxation may be obtained from
the Competent Authority.

Earth electrode shall be provided at generating stations, sub-stations and consumer premises in
 accordance with the requirements.

 As far as possible all earth connections shall be visible for inspection.

 All connections shall be carefully made; if they are poorly made or inadequate for the purpose
for which they are intended, loss of life or serious personal injury may result.

Each earth system shall be so devised that the testing of individual earth electrode is

possible.
It is recommended that the value of any earth system resistance shall not be more than 5
ohms, unless otherwise specified.

 It is recommended that a drawing showing the main earth connection and earth electrodes be
prepared for each installation.
 No addition to the current-carrying system, either temporary or permanent, shall be made,
which will increase the maximum available earth fault current or its duration, until it has been
ascertained that the existing arrangement of earth electrodes, earth bus-bar, etc. are capable
of carrying the new value of earth fault current which may be obtained by this addition.
 No cut-out or link, other than a linked switch arranged to operate simultaneously on the earthed
or earthed neutral conductor and the live conductors, shall be inserted on any supply system.
This, however, does not include the case of a switch for use in controlling a generator or a
transformer or a link for test purposes.

All materials, fittings, etc. used in earthing shall conform to Indian Standard specifications
wherever these exist.
In the case of materials for which Indian Standard specifications do not exist, the material
shall be approved by the Competent Authority.
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 11 Earthing : Electrical Safety

7 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

Since earthing is an important aspect of safety and operation of an electrical system, it is necessary to
ensure that the earth connection is effective and sufficient.
The most important parameter in the case of earthing is the earth resistance.
A poor value of earth resistance at the site could render the earth connectivity ineffective.
The condition of the equipment could be from dangerous to life-threatening.

For monitoring the healthiness of earth, the condition monitoring equipment used is “EARTH
MEGGER”.
The measurement of earth resistance is done using three-terminal earth megger or four-terminal earth
megger.

 Methods of Earth Resistance Measurements

Three-terminal

In this method, earth tester terminals C1 and P1 are shorted to each other and connected to the
earth electrode (pipe) under test.
Terminals P2 & C2 are connected to the two separate spikes driven in earth. These two spikes
are kept in same line at the distance of 25 meters and 50 meters due to which there will not be
mutual interference in the field of individual spikes.
If we rotate generator handle with specific speed we get directly earth resistance on scale.

C1, C2

P1, P2

Electrode
Under Test
G.L.

25 M 25 M

Auxiliary Spike

Figure 5 : Measuring Earth Resistance, 3-Terminal Method

Note : Spike length in the earth should not be 11
more than 1/20th distance between two spikes.
12 Earthing : Electrical Safety

Four-terminal

Four electrodes are driven in earth along a straight line, at equal intervals, ‘a’ (= 20 x depth
‘c’, approximately).
The depth of electrode in the ground (c) shall be of the order of 10 to 15 cm.
The megger is placed on a steady and approximately level base.
The two outer electrodes are connected to current terminals C1, C2 of earth meggar and the
two inner electrodes to potential terminals P1, P2 of the megger.

Requirements : 1. Earth Megger

2. Earth Spikes
l

P1 P2
C1 C2

a a a

Figure 6 : Measuring Earth Resistance, 4-Terminal method

Test Procedure

After proper connections are made and range appropriately selected, by cranking the megger
at the prescribed speed (135 rev/min), a value ‘R’, in ohm, is obtained on the meter.
Resistivity is calculated by substituting the value of ‘R’ thus obtained, in Eq. (1.1).

where  = Resistivity of soil in Ohm-centimeter,

a = Distance between two successive electrodes in centimeters,

R = Ratio of voltage to current or electrode resistance in Ohm (meter reading on the megger),

c = Depth of burial of electrode in the ground (in cm), shouldbe negligible compared to the
spacing between the electrodes, then,

 = 2 a R . . . (1)

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 13 Earthing : Electrical Safety

 Check Your Progress 4

What is the use of Megger?

8 STANDARD EARTH RESISTANCE VALUE

Given here are the acceptable values of earth resistance at the named installation.
Lower values are acceptable, but higher values would be point of concern.

ACCEPTABLE VALUES OF EARTH

RESISTANCE (IN OHM)
Major power station 0.5 Ω
Major sub-stations 1.0 Ω
Minor sub-station 2.0 Ω
Neutral Bushing 2.0 Ω
Service Connection 4.0 Ω
L.T. Lightning Arrestor 4.0 Ω
L.T. Pole 5.0 Ω
H.T. Pole 10.0 Ω
Tower 20.30 Ω

4.9 TREATMNT FOR MINIMISING EARTH RESISTANCE VALUES

If earth resistance is more than the acceptable value, the following treatment may be used for
minimizing resistance :

 Oxidation on all intermediate joints should be removed and joints should be tightened.

 Sufficient water should be poured in the earth electrode pit.

 Earth electrode of bigger size, as far as possible, may be used.

 Multiple electrodes may be connected in parallel.

 Earth pit of more depth and width-breadth may be prepared.

 Soil treatment may be undertaken.

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14 Earthing : Electrical Safety

10 MAINTENANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM

 Checking and Testing

The earthing systems are to be inspected regularly. Regular checking of

joints and/or broken connections, if any, and rectification of the same will
prove to be of immense help in maintenance of earth grid and equipment.
The condition of the electrodes and the joints is also to be checked. If the
electrodes are corroded, immediate steps for replacement are to be taken.
The earth resistance is to be measured periodically. The megger, or
testers are to be used for this purpose.

As stated earlier, a low earth resistance path is a must for clearing the fault
current instantaneously. For achieving low earth values, the following ways
are adhered to :

A number of electrodes are connected in parallel thereby providing a low

resistance.

The ground surrounding the electrodes is treated with common salt, which
reduces the resistance by upto 80%. Calcium chloride and magnesium
sulphate may also be used. But now-a-days Bentonite clay (absorbent
aluminum phyllosilicate) is being used.

The following maintenance schedule is mandatory at each of the

sub-stations :

SL. NO. ITEM PERIODICITY

1. Watering of earth pits Daily

@
2. Measurement of earth resistance of Half yearly
individual earth pits

3. Measurement of combined earth Half yearly*

resistance at all the pits

4. Checking of interconnections between Quarterly

earth pits and tightness of bolts and nuts

@ Earth resistance of individual earth pits can be measured by disconnecting the earth
connections to the electrode. This is possible if the connections are made to a
common clamp which is in turn is fixed round the pipe.

* Combined earth resistance shall be the same at every earth pit unless it gets
disconnected from the earth mat.

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 15 Earthing : Electrical Safety

 Check Your Progress 5

What is the aim of earthing maintenance?

11 DEFINITIONS OF GENERAL EARTHING TERMS

 Soil Resistivity

This is the resistivity of a typical sample of soil at the location.

 Earth Surface Voltage

It is the voltage between a specified point on the ground around the rod and the reference earth.

 Earth Electrode

These are conductors, which are in direct contact with the soil and provide the conductive part in
electrical contact with earth.
They can include plates, rods, tape, steel reinforcing bars.

 Neutral Point

The common point of a star connected poly-phase (3-phase, in our case) system, or the earthed
mid-point of a single-phase system.

 Independent Earth Electrode

An earth electrode located at such a distance from the other electrodes that, its electrical potential
is not significantly affected by the electric currents between earth and the other electrodes.

 Exposed Conductive Part

Conductive part of equipment and which is not normally live, but which can become live when
basic insulation fails, or a physical contact/short-circuit to a live part occurs.

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 16 Earthing : Electrical Safety

 Step Potential

It is the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a

distance of 1 m with his feet.
It becomes important in the case of build-up of a significant potential
gradient along the ground due to an earth fault in the equipment.

 Touch Potential
Touch voltage is the potential difference between the GPR (Ground
Potential Rise) and the earth surface potential at the point where a person
is standing while his hands are in contact with a grounded structure like a
transformer body.
This becomes important in the case of a high fault current flowing into the
earth, leading to a potential gradient away from the point of injection.

Figure 4.7 : Step and Touch Voltages

12 SUMMARY
Earthing is necessary not just to provide a stable electrical network, from generation till distribution,
but also, as an essential safety measure to protect the humans/animals and the electrical equipment.

In fact, without proper earthing, the whole electrical system would be rendered unusable, or even, a
hazard.
We learnt the requirements imposed on good and useful earthing.
We also learnt how earthing is classified into equipment/discharge/system earthing.
We noted that equipment earthing is the closest to us as users of electricity, for safety and proper
functioning.
The actual implementation, i.e. direct, resistive, reactance or Peterson Coil based, is dependent on
the expected fault currents.

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 17 Earthing : Electrical Safety

In contrast, discharge earthing is needed to remove the residual charge on the conductors.
Finally, the system earthing is mandatory for all the equipment, which forms the electrical network.

As next, we learnt about how the poles and the lines of the distribution system are earthed.
This includes the line-transformers and the distribution boxes.

We learnt both the plate- and the pipe- earthing.

We have also learnt the guidelines for providing earthing to various equipment.

Having understood the need for and the method of providing earthing, the next and the obvious learning
is about how to ensure the proper functioning of the earthing connection.
This includes the measurement of the earth resistivity, measures to reduce the resistivity and to maintain
the earthing connection.

In this unit, we have understood and learnt the various dimensions of earthing as a very useful and
necessary concept of electrical technology.

4.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

(a) Why do we need to measure the earth resistivity?

(b) What is the need for removing corrosion from the joints
along the electrical path to earthing?

4.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 

Check Your Progress 1

Earthing provides a zero potential surface around any electrical equipment.

In case of a fault, the unwanted current is diverted to earth, removing or
reducing the danger to the users and the equipment.

Check Your Progress 2

In a 3-phase system, the neutral or the center of the star is earthed. This
way, the unbalanced part of the current flows to ground.

Check Your Progress 3

Normally, any joint in an earthing path is to be avoided to keep the total

resistance low. However, if the situation demands that the connectivity may
need to be interrupted temporarily, for example, to introduce a test device,
only in such cases should the joint be secured with nut and bolt.

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18 Earthing : Electrical Safety

Check Your Progress 4

The megger is used to measure the soil resistivity.

Check Your Progress 5

It is to ensure that the circuit resistance to ground is the lowest possible.

This ensures, not only the safety of the people/equipment, but also quick
reaction of the protection system.

15 ANSWERS TO TERMINAL QUESTIONS 

(a) To be effective, the fault current must flow into earth with least
possible hinderence. Any resistance along the path would lead to
build up of voltage and hence could endanger anyone who may
come in contact. Increased resistivity could also lead to high step
and touch potential. Regular measurement will warn us of changing
earth resistivity. This knowledge should help us take preventive
steps.

(b) As stated already, the total path to earth connectivity must be of least
possible resistance. Any and every joint along the path is a node or
possible resistance, since the contact resistance between the two
metal surfaces depends entirely on the cleanliness of the surfaces.
With time, any surface corrodes. This could be due to the
atmospheric conditions, the corrosive gases present in the area, or
even the humidity. This could get worse due to the flow of current
through the joint, which may cause heating. The corrosion, so
produced, worsens the resistance across the joint. Hence, one
should clean the joint regularly, to prevent a build up of corrosion.

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