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5. University Physics I - Mechanics, Sound, Oscillations, and Waves (OpenStax)

6. 14: Fluid Mechanics

7. 14.5: Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics

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14.5: Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics

1.

2.
o 14.4: Measuring Pressure

o 14.6: Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

3.


 OpenStax
 OpenStax
Learning Objectives
 State Pascal’s principle
 Describe applications of Pascal’s principle
 Derive relationships between forces in a hydraulic system

In 1653, the French philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal published his Treatise on the
Equilibrium of Liquids, in which he discussed principles of static fluids. A static fluid is a fluid
that is not in motion. When a fluid is not flowing, we say that the fluid is in static equilibrium. If
the fluid is water, we say it is in hydrostatic equilibrium. For a fluid in static equilibrium, the
net force on any part of the fluid must be zero; otherwise the fluid will start to flow.

Pascal’s observations—since proven experimentally—provide the foundation for hydraulics, one

of the most important developments in modern mechanical technology. Pascal observed that a
change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid
and to the walls of its container. Because of this, we often know more about pressure than other
physical quantities in fluids. Moreover, Pascal’s principle implies that the total pressure in a fluid
is the sum of the pressures from different sources. A good example is the fluid at a depth
depends on the depth of the fluid and the pressure of the atmosphere.

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s principle (also known as Pascal’s law) states that when a change in pressure is applied
to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of
its container. In an enclosed fluid, since atoms of the fluid are free to move about, they transmit
pressure to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the container. Any change in pressure is
transmitted undiminished.

Note that this principle does not say that the pressure is the same at all points of a fluid—which
is not true, since the pressure in a fluid near Earth varies with height. Rather, this principle
applies to the change in pressure. Suppose you place some water in a cylindrical container of
height H and cross-sectional area A that has a movable piston of mass m
(Figure 14.5.114.5.1). Adding weight Mg at the top of the piston increases the pressure at the
top by MgAMgA, since the additional weight also acts over area A of the lid:

Δptop=MgA.(14.5.1)(14.5.1)Δptop=MgA.
 Figure 14.5.114.5.1: Pressure in a
fluid changes when the fluid is compressed. (a) The pressure at the top layer of the fluid is
different from pressure at the bottom layer. (b) The increase in pressure by adding weight to the
piston is the same everywhere, for example, ptop new − ptop = pbottom new − pbottom.

According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure at all points in the water changes by the same
amount, MgAMgA. Thus, the pressure at the bottom also increases by MgAMgA. The pressure at
the bottom of the container is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure, the pressure due the
fluid, and the pressure supplied by the mass. The change in pressure at the bottom of the
container due to the mass is

Δpbottom=MgA.(14.5.2)(14.5.2)Δpbottom=MgA.

Since the pressure changes are the same everywhere in the fluid, we no longer need subscripts to
designate the pressure change for top or bottom:

Δp=Δptop=Δpbottom=Δpeverywhere.(14.5.3)
(14.5.3)Δp=Δptop=Δpbottom=Δpeverywhere.
Simulation

Pascal’s Barrel is a great demonstration of Pascal’s principle. Watch a simulation of Pascal’s

1646 experiment, in which he demonstrated the effects of changing pressure in a fluid.

Applications of Pascal’s Principle and

Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are used to operate automotive brakes, hydraulic jacks, and numerous other
mechanical systems (Figure 14.5.214.5.2).
 Figure 14.5.214.5.2: A typical
hydraulic system with two fluid-filled cylinders, capped with pistons and connected by a tube
called a hydraulic line. A downward force F⃗ 1F→1 on the left piston creates a change in pressure
that is transmitted undiminished to all parts of the enclosed fluid. This results in an upward
force F⃗ 2F→2 on the right piston that is larger than F⃗ 1F→1 because the right piston has a larger
surface area.

We can derive a relationship between the forces in this simple hydraulic system by applying
Pascal’s principle. Note first that the two pistons in the system are at the same height, so there is
no difference in pressure due to a difference in depth. The pressure due to F1 acting on area A1 is
simply

p1=F1A1p1=F1A1, as defined by p=FAp=FA.

According to Pascal’s principle, this pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid
and to all walls of the container. Thus, a pressure p2 is felt at the other piston that is equal to p1.
That is, p1 = p2. However, since p2 = F2A2F2A2, we see that

F1A1=F2A2.(14.5.4)(14.5.4)F1A1=F2A2.

This equation relates the ratios of force to area in any hydraulic system, provided that the pistons
are at the same vertical height and that friction in the system is negligible.

Hydraulic systems can increase or decrease the force applied to them. To make the force larger,
the pressure is applied to a larger area. For example, if a 100-N force is applied to the left
cylinder in Figure 14.16 and the right cylinder has an area five times greater, then the output
force is 500 N. Hydraulic systems are analogous to simple levers, but they have the advantage
that pressure can be sent through tortuously curved lines to several places at once.
The hydraulic jack is such a hydraulic system. A hydraulic jack is used to lift heavy loads, such
as the ones used by auto mechanics to raise an automobile. It consists of an incompressible fluid
in a U-tube fitted with a movable piston on each side. One side of the U-tube is narrower than the
other. A small force applied over a small area can balance a much larger force on the other side
over a larger area (Figure 14.5.314.5.3).

Figure 14.5.314.5.3: (a) A hydraulic jack operates by applying forces (F1, F2) to an
incompressible fluid in a U-tube, using a movable piston (A1, A2) on each side of the tube. (b)
Hydraulic jacks are commonly used by car mechanics to lift vehicles so that repairs and
maintenance can be performed.

From Pascal’s principle, it can be shown that the force needed to lift the car is less than the
weight of the car:

F1=A1A2F2,(14.5.5)(14.5.5)F1=A1A2F2,

where F1 is the force applied to lift the car, A1 is the cross-sectional area of the smaller piston,
A2 is the cross sectional area of the larger piston, and F2 is the weight of the car.

Example 14.5.114.5.1: Calculating Force on Wheel Cylinders: Pascal Puts on

the Brakes

Consider the automobile hydraulic system shown in Figure 14.5.414.5.4. Suppose a force of
100 N is applied to the brake pedal, which acts on the pedal cylinder (acting as a “master”
cylinder) through a lever. A force of 500 N is exerted on the pedal cylinder. Pressure created in
the pedal cylinder is transmitted to the four wheel cylinders. The pedal cylinder has a diameter of
0.500 cm and each wheel cylinder has a diameter of 2.50 cm. Calculate the magnitude of the
force F2 created at each of the wheel cylinders.
 Figure 14.5
.414.5.4: Hydraulic brakes use Pascal’s principle. The driver pushes the brake pedal, exerting a
force that is increased by the simple lever and again by the hydraulic system. Each of the
identical wheel cylinders receives the same pressure and, therefore, creates the same force output
F2. The circular cross-sectional areas of the pedal and wheel cylinders are represented by A 1 and
A2, respectively

Strategy

We are given the force F1 applied to the pedal cylinder. The cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 can
be calculated from their given diameters. Then we can use the following relationship to find the
force F2:

F1A1=F2A2.(14.5.6)(14.5.6)F1A1=F2A2.

Manipulate this algebraically to get F2 on one side and substitute known values.
Solution

Pascal’s principle applied to hydraulic systems is given by F1A1=F2A2F1A1=F2A2:

F2=A2A1F1=πr22πr21F1=(1.25cm)2(0.250cm)2×500N=1.25×104N.F
2=A2A1F1=πr22πr12F1=(1.25cm)2(0.250cm)2×500N=1.25×104N.
 Significance

This value is the force exerted by each of the four wheel cylinders. Note that we can add as many
wheel cylinders as we wish. If each has a 2.50-cm diameter, each will exert 1.25 x 104 N. A
simple hydraulic system, as an example of a simple machine, can increase force but cannot do
more work than is done on it. Work is force times distance moved, and the wheel cylinder moves
through a smaller distance than the pedal cylinder. Furthermore, the more wheels added, the
smaller the distance each one moves. Many hydraulic systems—such as power brakes and those
in bulldozers—have a motorized pump that actually does most of the work in the system.

Exercise 14.5.114.5.1
Would a hydraulic press still operate properly if a gas is used instead of a liquid?

This page titled 14.5: Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and
was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the
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o 14.4: Measuring Pressure

o 14.6: Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

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