GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

GNS 204: Introduction to Eentrepreneurship Skills

OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY,

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE,

AGO - IWOYE.

GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurial Skills

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM:

Prof. Mohammed A. Oladoja

Dr. Taiwo P. Olusanya

Mr. Abayomi A. Bada

 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Introduction

Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills is a 2 Unit course for students studying towards acquiring
a Bachelor’s Degree of Olabisi Onabanjo University. The course is divided into 7 study sessions.
It will first introduce the general overview of Entrepreneurship and Skills acquisition. Thereafter
the course will focus on crops production and farm practices including fruits ant tree crops,
horticulture and land scape skills.

Also, Animal production skills and practices on poultry piggery, sheep and Goats husbandry
techniques as well as Fish farming, Aquaculture and Tie and Dye production techniques will be
introduced to the student during the course.

The course guide therefore gives an overview of what GNS 204 is all about, the textbooks and
other materials to be referenced, what you expect to know in each Unit and how to work through
the course materials.

Recommended Study Time

This course is a 2 Unit course divided into 7 study sessions. You are advised to spend at least 2
hours in studying the content of each study Unit.

What you are about to learn in this course?

The objective of this course to introduce you to Entrepreneurship Skills and to help you understand
Entrepreneurship Skills and techniques in crops production, Animal husbandry, Leather works in
Sandal and Shoe production including Tie and Dye production techniques.

Course Aim

This course aims to introduce students to the basic concepts of Entrepreneurship Skills
development. It is expected that the knowledge will enable the reader to effectively understand
Entrepreneurship Skills development.

Course Objectives

Each session has specific objectives. Students are advised to understand the objectives of each
session before proceeding to subsequent sessions. You should always revise the objectives of each

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

session to ensure that you have done what is required of you by the end of the session. However,
below are overall objectives of this course. On completing this course, you should be able to:

However, below are the overall objectives of this course. On completing this course, you should
be able to:

1. Understand Crop Production Practices.

2. Define What Crops Are
3. Outline Principles of Crops Production
4. Understand Pre-planting Operation
5. Understand Tillage/Tilling
6. Identify Planting Materials
7. Determine Viability Test
8. Understand Planting Pattern
9. Appreciate Seed Rate.
10. Understand Spacing and Plant Population
11. Understand Supplying
12. Understand Thinning
13. Understand Weeds and Weeding Operations
14. Understand Mulching
15. Understand Fertilizer/Fertilizer(s) Application Techniques
16. Ascertain Insecticide/Insecticides Application Techniques
17. Understand Harvesting/Weighing and Storage
18. Understand what is a Nursery
19. Define Yield of Crops
20. Understand Handling of Harvested Products and Drying
21. Understand Arable Crops Production Techniques
22. Classify Crops According to Duration of Growth
23. Classify According to use of Crops
24. Understand Basic Data on some commonly growth Arable Crops in Nigeria
25. Define Fruit Crops Production
26. Define Tree/Permanent Crops Production

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

27. Understand Propagation of Permanent Crops

28. Understand Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown Crops in Nigeria
29. Understand Horticulture and Ornamentals Production Techniques
30. Classify Horticultural Crops/Plants
31. Understand Vegetable Production (Fadama farming) Techniques
32. Understand Farm Animals and Poultry Production Enterprises
33. Understand Qualities of Small Ruminants
34. Identify Breeds of Sheep and Goats
35. Understand Housing in sheep and goats
36. Understand Feeding
37. Understand Mating
38. Understand Mating methods
39. Understand Routine Management Practices
40. Understand Terminologies Used in Sheep and Goats
41. Understand Marketing
42. Understand Essential of Pig Production Enterprise
43. Understand Pig Production
44. Understand Advantages of Pig Production
45. Understand Terminologies used in Pig Production
46. Understand Factors to consider for Pig Enterprise Imitative
47. Identify Types of Operation in Pig Production Enterprise
48. Identify Breeds of Pigs in Nigeria
49. Understand Management Systems in Pig Production
50. Understand Space Requirement for Pig
51. Understand Feed and Feeding
52. Identify Types of feed used in Pig Production
53. Determine Qualities of a Good pig Feed
54. Identify Quantities of Feed Required/Day/Per Animal
55. Understand Breeding in Pigs
56. Understand Mating Methods
57. Understand Selection of Breeding pigs

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

58. Identify Undesirable Traits to be Selected Against

59. Ascertain Signs of Heat in Pigs
60. Understand Farrowing
61. Understand Care of Piglets
62. Understand Piglet Fostering
63. Define Artificial Colostrum and Milk Substitute
64. Understand Weaning
65. Understand Identification
66. Understand Handling and Restraining
67. Understand Marketing
68. Identify Diseases/Pests of Pigs
69. Understand Record and Record Keeping
70. Understand Rabbit production Enterprise
71. Understand Importance of Keeping Rabbit
72. Identify Breeds of rabbit
73. Identify Foundation stock
74. Understand Terminologies Used in Rabbit Production
75. Understand Mating in rabbit Production
76. Understand Care of Kittens
77. Understand Weaning
78. Understand Identification in Rabbit Production
79. Identify Signs of Healthy Rabbit
80. Understand Useful production marketable from rabbits
81. Understand Broiler and Layer Production Enterprise
82. Understand Poultry Production
83. Identify Breeds of Chicken
84. Identify Modern Breeds/Strains of Broiler in Nigeria
85. Identify Common Breeds/Strains of Layers in Nigeria
86. Ascertain Height of the poultry Pen
87. Understand Brooding
88. Understand Objectives of Brooding

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

89. Ascertain Temperature of Brooding

90. Understand Brooding Temperature and Chicks Behaviour
91. Identify Litter Materials and it Management
92. Identify Qualities of good Letter Material
93. Understand Floor Space Requirement
94. Understand Heat Sources for Brooding
95. Identify Diseases of Poultry
96. Understand Vaccination Programme
97. Understand what Shoemaking is
98. Define Sandal/Shoemaking
99. Understand Lasting Process
100. Understand Finishing operation in Sandal and Shoemaking
101. Identify Famous Shoemakers and their Origin
102. Define Footwear
103. Identify Sandal/Shoe parts
104. Understand Standard Measure for Heel Heights
105. Understand Major Types of Shoe Heels
106. Understand Shoe Making Process
107. Identify Units of footwear Manufacturing
108. Understand Clicking or Cutting Unit
109. Understand Closing or Machining Unit
110. Understand Lasting & Making Unit
111. Understand Finishing Unit and the Shoe Room
112. Understand How Shoe Styles Are Made
113. Understand Concept of Pattern Making
114. Understand Shoe Last
115. Understand Pattern Making
116. Understand Computer Aided Pattern Making
117. Understand Leather and Shoemaking Terms
118. Understand Tie & Dye
119. Identify Types of Textiles Suitable For Dyeing

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

120. Identify Natural Dyestuffs

121. Understand Testing Dyes
122. Understand The Process of Dyeing: Application of the Dye
123. Understand Methods of Dyeing
124. Understand Vat Dyeing
125. Understand Batik
126. Understand Tie-Dyeing
127. Understand Obtaining Unusual Colours

Working through this course

In order to have a thorough understanding of the course units, you will need to read, understand
the contents and practise what is discussed in this module.
This course is designed to cover approximately Fifteen weeks and it will require your devoted
attention. You should do the exercises in the Tutor-Marked Assignments and submit to your tutors
via the LMS.
Course Materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Printed Lecture materials
3. Text Books
4. Interactive DVD
5. Electronic Lecture materials via LMS
6. Tutor Marked Assignments
7. Printed Lecture Materials
The printed lecture material consists of 7 study sessions broken down into sub-sessions;
Study Session 1: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills
Study Session 2: Farm animals and poultry production enterprise
Study Session 3: Essentials of pig production enterprise
Study Session 4: Rabbit production enterprise
Study Session 5: Broiler and layer production enterprise
Study Session 6: Manual on Shoe and Sandal production enterprise
Study Session 7: Tie & Dye production enterprise

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Recommended Texts

Assessment

There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are tutor-marked assignments
and second, the written examination. Therefore, you are expected to take note of the facts,
information and problem solving gathered during the course. The tutor-marked assignments must
be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in according to the deadline given.
The assignment submitted will account for 60% of your total score.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination. This examination
will account for 60% of your total score. You will be required to submit some assignments on
group basis and the scores will be uploaded to GNS204 page on the LMS.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

There are TMAs in this course. For GNS204 it is practical based and it will be marked. You need
to submit all the TMAs. The TMA will therefore be counted. When you have completed each
assignment, send them to your tutor as soon as possible and make sure that it gets to your tutor on
or before the stipulated deadline. If for any reason you cannot complete your assignment on time,
contact your tutor before the assignment is due for submission for the possibility of extension.
Extension will not be granted after the deadline, unless on extraordinary cases.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for GNS204 will last for a period not more than one Hours and has a value
of 40% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the Self-
Assessment Questions (SAQs), In-text Questions (ITQs) and tutor marked assignments that you
have previously encountered. Furthermore, all areas of the course will be examined. It would be
better to use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination to revise the
entire course. You might find it useful to review your TMAs and comment on them before the
examination. The final examination covers information from all parts of the course. Most
examinations will be conducted via Pen-On-Paper (POP) and Computer Based Testing (CBT)
mode.

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Tutors and Tutorials

There are few hours of face-to-face tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be notified
of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as
you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your practical
assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must submit your tutor marked assignment to
your tutor well before the due date. At least two working days are required for this purpose. They
will be marked by your tutor and returned as soon as possible via the same means of submission.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if you need help.
Contact your tutor if:

 You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise.
 You have questions or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity to have face-to-face
contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem
encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the course tutorials,
have some questions handy before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating actively
in discussions.

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Table of Contents
Table of Contents .....................................................................................................................10

Study Session 1: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills Crop Production ............................30

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................30

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 ...............................................................................30

1.1 Entrepreneurship Skills Crop Production ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2 What are Crops? .........................................................................................................31

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2 ............................................................................................31

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2 ..............................................................................................31

1.3 Principle of Crops Production: Techniques and Cultural Practices ..............................31

1.3.1 Pre-planting (Before) Operations.............................................................................32

1.3.2 Tillage/Tilling ..........................................................................................................32

1.3.3 Planting Materials ...................................................................................................33

1.3.4 Viability Test (Seed Testing) ...................................................................................33

1.3.5 Planting Pattern .......................................................................................................33

1.3.6 Seed Rate ................................................................................................................34

1.3.7 Spacing and Plant Population ..................................................................................34

1.3.8 Supplying ................................................................................................................34

1.3.9 Thinning .................................................................................................................35

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1.3.10 Weeds ....................................................................................................................35

1.3.11 Mulching ...............................................................................................................35

1.3.12 Fertilizer/Fertilizer(s) Application .........................................................................36

1.3.13 Insecticides/Insecticide Application .......................................................................36

1.3.14 Harvesting, weighing and Storage .........................................................................37

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.4 Nursery ......................................................................................................................38

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.4 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.4 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.5 Yield ..........................................................................................................................39

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.5 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.5 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.6 Handling of Harvested Products and Drying ...............................................................40

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.6 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.6 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.7 Arable Crops Production ............................................................................................40

1.7.1 Classification According To Duration of Growth .....................................................40

1.7.2............................................................................................ Classification According To Uses

.........................................................................................................................................41

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.7 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.7 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.8 Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown Arable Crops in Nigeria ...............................42

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.8 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.8 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.9 Fruit Crops Production ...............................................................................................44

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.9 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.9 ..............................................................................................44

1.10 Tree/Permanent Crops Production...........................................................................45

1.10.1 Classification of Tree Crops ..................................................................................45

1.10.2 Propagation of Permanent Crops............................................................................46

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.10 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.10 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.11 Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown Crops in Nigeria .......................................47

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.11 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.11 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.12 Horticulture and Ornamentals Production ...............................................................48

1.12.1 Classification of Horticulture Crops/Plants ............................................................48

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.12 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.12 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.13 Vegetable Production (Fadama Farming) ................................................................50

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.13 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.13 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Summary of Study Session 1 .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 .......................................................52

SAQ 1.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.1) ............................................................................52

SAQ 1.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.2) ............................................................................52

SAQ 1.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.3) ............................................................................52

SAQ 1.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.4) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.5) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.6) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.10) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.11 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.11) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.12 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.12) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 1.13 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.13) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Study Session 2: Farm Animals and Poultry Production Enterprises.......................................53

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................53

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 ...............................................................................53

2.1 Sheep and Goats Production Enterprise ......................................................................53

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2.1.1................................................................................................ Qualities and Small Ruminants

.........................................................................................................................................53

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1 ............................................................................................54

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1 ..............................................................................................54

2.2 Breeds ........................................................................................................................54

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.2 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.2 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3 Management...............................................................................................................56

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.3 ............................................................................................57

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.3 ..............................................................................................57

2.4 Mating Methods .........................................................................................................57

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.4 ............................................................................................57

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.4 ..............................................................................................57

2.5 Routine Management Practices...................................................................................58

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5 ............................................................................................59

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5 ..............................................................................................59

2.6 Terminologies Used in Sheep and Goats.....................................................................59

Routine Management Practices ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.6 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.6 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.7 Marketing...................................................................................................................60

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.7 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.7 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Summary of Study Session 2 .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2 .......................................................61

SAQ 2.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.1) ............................................................................61

SAQ 2.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.2) ............................................................................61

SAQ 2.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.3) ............................................................................61

SAQ 2.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.4) ............................................................................61

SAQ 2.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.5) ............................................................................61

SAQ 2.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.6) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 2.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Study Session 3: Essentials of Pig Production Enterprise .......................................................61

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................61

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3 ...............................................................................61

3.1 Pig Production ............................................................................................................61

3.1.1 Advantages of Pig enterprises...................................................................................62

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.1 ............................................................................................63

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.1 ..............................................................................................63

3.2 Factors to Consider For Pig Enterprise Initiative.........................................................63

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.2 ............................................................................................64

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.2 ..............................................................................................64

3.3 Types of Operation .....................................................................................................64

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.3 ............................................................................................64

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.3 ..............................................................................................64

3.4 Breeds of Pigs in Nigeria ............................................................................................65

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.4 ............................................................................................65

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.4 ..............................................................................................65

3.5 Management Systems .................................................................................................66

3.5.1Housing ....................................................................................................................66

3.5.2 Feed and Feeding .....................................................................................................67

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.5 ............................................................................................67

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.5 ..............................................................................................67

3.6 Types of Feed Used in Pig Production ........................................................................68

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.6 ............................................................................................68

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.6 ..............................................................................................68

3.7 Qualities of a Good Pig Feed ......................................................................................68

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.7 ............................................................................................69

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.7 ..............................................................................................69

3.8 Quantities of Feed Required/Day/Animal ...................................................................69

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.8 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.8 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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3.9 Breeding.....................................................................................................................70

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.9 ............................................................................................70

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.9 ..............................................................................................70

3.10 Mating Methods......................................................................................................71

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.10 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.10 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.11 Selection of Breeding Pigs ......................................................................................71

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.11 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.11 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.12 Undesirable traits to be selected against ..................................................................71

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.12 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.12 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.13 Signs of Heat ..........................................................................................................72

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.13 ..........................................................................................72

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.13 ............................................................................................72

3.14 Farrowing ...............................................................................................................73

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.14 ..........................................................................................73

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.14 ............................................................................................73

3.15 Care of Piglets ........................................................................................................73

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.15 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.15 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

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3.16 Piglet Fostering .......................................................................................................74

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.16 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.16 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.17 Artificial Colostrum and Milk Substitute.................................................................74

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.17 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.17 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.18 Weaning .................................................................................................................74

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.18 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.18 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.19 Identification ..........................................................................................................75

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.19 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.19 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.20 Handing and Restraining .........................................................................................75

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.20 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.20 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.21 Marketing ...............................................................................................................75

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.21 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.21 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.22 Diseases/Pests of Pigs .............................................................................................76

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.22 ..........................................................................................77

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.22 ............................................................................................77

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3.23 Record Keeping ......................................................................................................77

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.23 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.23 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Summary of Study Session 3 .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3 .......................................................79

SAQ 3.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.1) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.2) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.3) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.4) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.5) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.6) ............................................................................79

SAQ 3.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.8) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.10) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.11 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.11) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.12 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.12) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.13 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.13) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.14 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.14) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.15 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.15) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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SAQ 3.16 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.16) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.17 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.17) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.18 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.18) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.19 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.19) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.20 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.20) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.21 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.21) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.22 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.22) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 3.23 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.23) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Study Session 4: Rabbit Production Enterprise .......................................................................80

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................80

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4 ...............................................................................80

4.1 Rabbit Production.......................................................................................................80

4.1.1 Importance of Keeping Rabbits ...............................................................................80

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.1 ............................................................................................81

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.1 ..............................................................................................81

4.2 Breeds of Rabbit.........................................................................................................81

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.2 ............................................................................................82

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.2 ..............................................................................................82

4.3 Foundation Stock .......................................................................................................82

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.3 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.3 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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4.4 Terminologies used in Rabbit Production ...................................................................82

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.4 ............................................................................................83

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.4 ..............................................................................................83

4.5 Feeding ......................................................................................................................83

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.5 ............................................................................................83

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.5 ..............................................................................................83

4.6 Mating........................................................................................................................84

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.6 ............................................................................................84

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.6 ..............................................................................................84

4.7 Care of Kittens ...........................................................................................................84

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.7 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.7 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.8 Weaning .....................................................................................................................85

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.8 ............................................................................................85

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.8 ..............................................................................................85

4.9 Sexing ........................................................................................................................85

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.9 ............................................................................................85

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.9 ..............................................................................................85

4.10 Identification ..........................................................................................................85

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.10 ..........................................................................................86

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.10 ............................................................................................86

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4.11 Signs of Healthy Rabbit ..........................................................................................86

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.11 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.11 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.12 Useful Products Marketable From Rabbits ..............................................................87

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.12 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.12 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Summary of Study Session 4 ................................................................................................87

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4 .......................................................87

SAQ 4.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.1) ............................................................................87

SAQ 4.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.2) ............................................................................87

SAQ 4.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.3) ............................................................................87

SAQ 4.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.4) ............................................................................87

SAQ 4.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.5) ............................................................................87

SAQ 4.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.6) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.8) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.10) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.11 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.11) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 4.12 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.12) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Study Session 5: Broiler and Layer Production Enterprise ......................................................88

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................88

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5 ...............................................................................88

5.1 Poultry Production .....................................................................................................88

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.1 ............................................................................................89

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.1 ..............................................................................................89

5.2 Breeds of Chicken ......................................................................................................89

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.2 ............................................................................................90

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.2 ..............................................................................................90

5.3 Modern Breeds/Strains of Broiler in Nigeria...............................................................90

5.3.1 Common Breeds/Strains of Layers in Nigeria ..........................................................90

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.3 ............................................................................................91

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.3 ..............................................................................................91

5.4 Poultry Housing .........................................................................................................91

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.4 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.4 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.5 Height of the pen ........................................................................................................92

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.5 ............................................................................................92

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.5 ..............................................................................................92

5.6 Brooding ....................................................................................................................92

5.6.1 Objectives of brooding ............................................................................................93

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5.6.2 Temperature of Brooding ........................................................................................95

5.6.3 Brooding temperature and chicks behaviour ............................................................95

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.6 ............................................................................................96

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.6 ..............................................................................................96

5.7 Litter Material and its Management ............................................................................96

5.7.1 Functions of Litter...................................................................................................96

5.7.2 Qualities of Good Litter Material ............................................................................97

5.7.3 Floor Space Requirements.......................................................................................97

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.7 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.7 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.8 Heat Sources for Brooding .........................................................................................97

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.8 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.8 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.9 Feed ...........................................................................................................................98

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.9 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.9 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.10 Diseases ..................................................................................................................98

5.11 Vaccination Programme ..........................................................................................99

5.11.1 Rules of Vaccination ........................................................................................... 100

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.10 ........................................................................................ 100

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.10 .......................................................................................... 100

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Summary of Study Session 5 .............................................................................................. 102

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5 .....................................................102

SAQ 5.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.1) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.2) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.3) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.4) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.5) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.6) ..........................................................................102

SAQ 5.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 5.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.8) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 5.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 5.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.10) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 5.11 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.11) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Study Session 6: Manual on Shoe and Sandal Production Enterprise .................................... 103

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 103

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6 ............................................................................. 103

6.1 Shoemaking ............................................................................................................. 103

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.1 .......................................................................................... 105

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.1 ............................................................................................ 105

6.2 Famous Shoemakers ................................................................................................. 105

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.2 .......................................................................................... 108

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.2 ............................................................................................ 108

6.3 Shoe Making Process ............................................................................................... 108

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.3 .......................................................................................... 109

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.3 ............................................................................................ 109

6.4 Clicking or Cutting Unit ........................................................................................... 109

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.4 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.4 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.5 Closing or Machining Unit ....................................................................................... 110

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.5 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.5 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.6 Lasting & Making Unit ............................................................................................ 110

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.6 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.6 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.7 Finishing Unit and the Shoe Room ........................................................................... 110

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.7 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.7 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.8 How Shoe Styles Are Made ...................................................................................... 111

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.8 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.8 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.9 Concept of Pattern Making ....................................................................................... 114

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.9 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.9 ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.10 Leather and Shoemaking Terms ............................................................................ 117

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.10 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.10 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.11 Manual on Tie & Dye ........................................................................................... 123

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.11 ........................................................................................ 125

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.11 .......................................................................................... 125

6.12 Types of Textiles Suitable For Dying .................................................................... 125

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.12 ........................................................................................ 128

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.12 .......................................................................................... 128

6.13 Natural Dyestuffs.................................................................................................. 129

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.13 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.13 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.14 Testing dyes.......................................................................................................... 130

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.14 ........................................................................................ 131

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.14 .......................................................................................... 131

6.15 The Process of Dyeing: Application of the Dye.....................................................132

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.15 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.15 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.16 Methods of Dyeing ............................................................................................... 132

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6.16.1 Vat Dyeing .......................................................................................................... 132

6.16.2Batik ..................................................................................................................... 134

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.16 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.16 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

6.17 Obtaining Unusual Colours ................................................................................... 135

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.17 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.17 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Summary of Study Session 6 .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Glossary of Terms .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 6 .....................................................136

SAQ 6.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.1) ..........................................................................136

SAQ 6.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.2) ..........................................................................136

SAQ 6.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.3) ..........................................................................136

SAQ 6.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.4) ..........................................................................136

SAQ 6.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.5) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.6) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.7 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.7) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.8) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.9) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.10) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.11 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.11) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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SAQ 6.12 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.12) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.13 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.13) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.14 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.14) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.15 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.15) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.16 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.16) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SAQ 6.17 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.17) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

References .......................................................................................................................... 136

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Study Session 1: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills Crop

Production
Introduction
This session outlines the various steps to be taken in acquiring entrepreneurship skills in
Agriculture, especially on principles of crop production on techniques, deification of crops, uses
and time of production as with as maturity, harvesting and marketing of crops.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1
The focus of this session is to introduce entrepreneurship skills on crop production. At the end of
this session you should be able to:

1.1 Define Crop Production

1.2 Itemize Principles of Crops Production
1.3 Distinguish Between Arable Crops and Fruit Tree Crops
1.4 Understand Horticulture Ornamentals Production
1.5 Understand Vegetable Production (Fadama Farming)
1.6 Understand Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown crops in Nigeria

1.1 Crop Production Practices

There is undoubtedly a growing need for entrepreneurship education as a basic skill in the Nigerian
educational system. Integration of Entrepreneurship studies into University education will prepare
the youths to be responsible enterprising individuals who will become entrepreneurs and
contribute to economic development and sustainable economic development. Entrepreneurship is
a veritable tool for solving the ever-growing unemployment challenge of the Nigerian
government.

The main goal of entrepreneurship is to empower graduates, irrespective of their area of

specialization, with skills that will enable them engage in income-yielding ventures whether they
are gratefully employed or unable to secure paid jobs. It is a re-orientation from the take-a-job
mentality to the make-a-job mentality. It is an approach of becoming your own boss.

Entrepreneurship is very crucial in the development of economies globally. It initiates and

constitutes positive economic change in the structure of business and society. Entrepreneurship

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

increases the growth and per capital output income and stimulate innovation. Investment is
enhanced through entrepreneurship thereby creating new capital for capacity building. Where
entrepreneurship is promoted, unemployment is drastically reduced.

Entrepreneurs must possess various skills and know-how to be able to succeed. One area of our
focus is on the agricultural aspect of the economy (especially crop and animal production) and
how people can be empowered through self-help without losing out in the economy of the country.

Agriculture is expected to play five main roles for sustainable development of every agrarian
economy. The first and perhaps the most crucial is the supply of food, which is expected to be
available to people in adequate quantity and quality at affordable price, others include supply of
raw materials for domestic, agro-industrial manufacturing, generation of incomes to farming
households and generation of foreign exchange through export of agricultural commodities. In
view of the aforementioned on entrepreneurship studies/skill, the paper is on crop production skills
in Agriculture.
1.2 What are Crops?
Crops are plants which have been identified, domesticated and cultivated by man for various uses,
including food. Crops range from those which require elaborate and expensive production and
processing methods to the basic crops which are widely grown by small scale farmers.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2

i. What are Crops are plants?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2

Answer: Crops are plants which have been identified, domesticated and cultivated by man
for various uses, including food.

1.3 Principle of Crops Production: Techniques and Cultural Practices

These are the practical cultivation procedure, techniques and cultural practices involved in crop
production ventures.

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The techniques and cultural practices generally cut across arable crops, tree/fruit crops, and
horticulture/ornamentals production. However, there are specific techniques and cultural
practices involved in certain crops production. The principles of crops production are all the
activities carried on the farm, before, during and after planting of crops seed or seedling.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3

i. Explain principles of crops production?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3

Answer: The principles of crops production are all the activities carried on the farm, before,
during and after planting of crops seed or seedling.

1.3.1 Pre-planting (Before) Operations

Choice of Site: This is guided by the nature of land, soil type, availability of input etc.

Land clearing and preparation: The nature of the vegetation determines the equipment or tools to
be used. The farm site can be cleared by means of hand tools such as cutlass, axe etc, or
mechanical equipment such as bulldozer but limited clearing is need in the Savannah. Activities
involved in land clearing and preparation are:

 Land clearing
 Stumping (removal of stumps of trees/shrubs).
 Burning and packing of thrash (if necessary).

1.3.2 Tillage/Tilling

It involves opening up of the soil for seed planting. This can be done with the simple farm tools
like hoe or Indian hoe on a small scale farm; or mechanically by using a tractor driven disc plough;
disc harrow on a commercial/large scale farms. In mechanized tillage, the field is ploughed to
break up the soil and harrowed to break up large clods of soil resulting from ploughing before
ridge or beds can be made if necessary. This is also termed pulverisation.

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1.3.3 Planting Materials

The particular seed variety or type to be planted. It may be seed or seedling for transplanting to
the field from the nursery. Good stocks of planting material are basic to profitable crop
production. The seed or planting materials largely determines the quantity and quality of the
harvested produce. The advantages of using good stocks of planting materials includes:

 Reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections;

 Uniform germination thus eliminating replanting or supplying missing stands
 Vigorous seeding growth which reduces weed and disease damages
 Uniform growth rates, maturity and products.

1.3.4 Viability Test (Seed Testing)

This is a test carried out to test for the germination ability of seeds of a crop. It is done to determine
how viable the seeds are for germination

 Method of seed method testing include:

 floating
 seed exposure method
 laboratory method: indoor and outdoor

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.4

i. What do you understand by Viability Test?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.4

Answer: This is a test carried out to test for the germination ability of seeds of a crop.

1.3.5 Planting Pattern

This is the arrangement of a crop on a piece of land. There is broadcasting, planting at stake and
drilling pattern which is a method for planting small seeded crops in now. In practice, shallow
farrows are made.

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1.3.6 Seed Rate

Seed rate is the amount or quantity of materials to be planted in a specific area of land. It is usually
calculated per acre or hectare.

1 acre = 4000m² (100m x 40)

2½ acres = 1 hectare or 10,000m² (100m x 100m)

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.5

i. What is Seed rate?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.5

Answer: Seed rate is the amount or quantity of materials to be planted in a specific area of
land

1.3.7 Spacing and Plant Population

This is spatial allowance allotted to each stand of a crop to exploit for all its needs. Adequate
spacing of crops is important for good yield. Spacing the crops optimally reduces plants,
competition for sunlight, moisture, air and nutrients. The ultimate yield from a unit land area is
contributed to by all the plants growing on it.

Excessively wide or narrow spacing leads to reduction in yield. In maize, narrow spacing leads
to low yields, because of barren stands. The exact spacing for any crop, however, depends on soil
productivity, location and time of planting.

 Interspacing – space between one ridge/line and another ridge/line

 Intraspacing – space between one spot and the next spot on the same ridge or line.
 Intraspacing x interspacing, i.e. (30cm x 90cm).

1.3.8 Supplying
This is the act of replacing ungerminated seed or dead germinated seeds by replanting the
particular spot or area.

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1.3.9 Thinning
This is the act of reducing the number of plants per stand. It may be due to overcrowding or much
seed planted together in a particular given spot or area. The less vigorous and excess plants above
the required plant density per stand should be removed very early. (Not later than 4 weeks after
germinating).

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.6

i. What is Thinning?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.6

Answer: This is the act of reducing the number of plants per stand. It may be done to reduce
overcrowding or much seed planted together in a particular given spot or area.

1.3.10 Weeds
A weed is a plant growing out of place, that is, a plant growing where it is not intended. Weeds
are best controlled before they produce seeds. Therefore, weeding is the act of removing unwanted
plants where they are not required. Removal of weeds is either by hand or by mechanical means
through the use of herbicides which are weed killers. They are generally applied as suspension in
water through spraying. Weeds reduce the yield of crops, it harbours plant diseases and pests,
competes with plants for sunlight, water, nutrients and feeding space and reduce the income of
farmers.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.7

i. _________ is a plant growing out of place, that is, a plant growing where it is not
intended.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.7

Answer: Weed.

1.3.11 Mulching

It is the act of covering the soil with dead organic matters which may be of plants and animal
origin. It is used to conserve moisture in the soil. It inhibits the growth of weeds and add to soil
fertility.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.8

What is Mulching?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.8

Answer: It is the act of covering the soil with dead organic matters which may be of plants and
animal origin. It is used to conserve moisture in the soil.

1.3.12 Fertilizer/Fertilizer(s) Application

Fertilizer is any substance that contains one or more recognized plant nutrient(s) needed for plant
growth. These are inorganic or organic materials. These are applied to replenish nutrients
removed from the soil by crops, or are lost through leaching or are fixed/immobilized by
microorganisms to increase crop yields and improve crop quality.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.9

What are Fertilizers?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.9

Answer: Fertilizers are any substance that contains one or more recognized plant nutrient(s)
needed for plant growth in adequate quantity.

Method of fertilizer application are:

 Broadcasting
 Ring method
 Side Dressing (Drilling Method)
 Pocket method (Band Placement)
 Spraying method (Liquid fertilizer)

1.3.13 Insecticides/Insecticide Application

Insecticides are selective poisons which lethal action/effect is partly greater on insect than on any
other forms of life. Insecticides may be applied on field crops and stored produce if and when
necessary against insects infestation or attacks. Generally, insecticides are the first line of defence

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

in insect pest outbreak because they are usually very effective and, generally, act within a short
period of time.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.9

What are Insecticides?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.9

Answer: Insecticides are selective poisons whose lethal action/effect is partly greater on insect
than on any other forms of life.

1.3.14 Harvesting, Weighing and Storage

It is the deliberate act of removing the desired mature material part or planted (leaf, fruit, stem,
root and tuber) or whole plant of cultivated crop from the field through plucking, cutting,
uprooting with the aid of knife, sickle, hand, pole, cutlass, and hoe as well as
mechanization/mechanical devices.

 Yam - digging the soil with cutlass and hoe

 Maize - using hand and cutlass
 Rice - cutting with knife or sickle
 Okro - plucking with hand or using knife.

Weighing is very necessary in other to determine the yield of the crop. When the useful plants
reach maturity, crops are ready for harvesting. Maturity may not be easy to determine in all crops,
but it is usually related to the age of the crop. As a general guide, a crops is considered to have
matured when the harvestable parts have accumulated maximum dry matter. At the points the
harvestable part ceases to increase in size. Maturity may be accompanied by colour changes. In
grains, maturity is associated with reduction in moisture content.

Harvesting of matured fruits ensures maximum yield. Delayed harvesting is sometimes advisable,
particularly in grains crops where it may be necessary to facilitate handling and storage. In fruits,
and leaf crops, high moisture contents is preferred. The time of harvesting depends on the
characteristics and quality requirements of a crop. Although root and tuber crops store better in

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 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

the soil, they depreciate in quality when harvesting is delayed. For example, cassava roots may
become too fibrous in dry soil or rot in very wet soil.

Storage is the act of keeping harvested farm produce/materials. The storage of food crops in the
tropics is a problem during the humid months particularly when air humidity is very high for an
extended period. Insect pest of various kinds are frequently present and can cause serious losses
during storage.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.10

What is Harvesting?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.10

Answer: It is the deliberate act of removing the desired mature material part or planted (leaf, fruit,
stem, root and tuber) or whole plant of cultivated crop from the field through plucking, cutting,
uprooting with the aid of knife, sickle, hand, pole, cutlass, and hoe as well as
mechanization/mechanical devices.
1.4 Nursery
A nursery is a site of ground in which young plants are reared before transplanting. They are raised
under intensive care prior or transplanting to the field. Although many crop plants can be and are
directly sown at stake in the field (maize, cucumber, okro, cowpeas, yams, many vegetable,
amaranthus, corchorius oiltorius), the seedings of others (cocoa, kola, coffee, cashew, tomatoes,
egg plants) are better raised in a nursery and transplanted into the field. For instance, it is very
difficult to sow tomatoes seeds at stake at the rate of one seed per stand, while it is very convenient
to transplant seedlings at one plant per stand. Seedlings receive more intensive care in the nursery,
especially protection from damages by pest, diseases and weeds. Raising seedlings in the nursery
affords the farmers an opportunity to select well-grown, vigorous, disease and pest free seedlings
for transplanting. Root vegetables, such as carots and radish have small seeds but are planted
directly because transplanting adversely affects the quality of the roots. In some case, top soil
must be sterilized through heating for 30-40 minutes and the mixture should be sieved to remove
large clods and soil aggregates.

There are 3 Types of Nurseries

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i. Peasant nursery
ii. Temporary nursery
iii. Standard nursery

A nursery can be established at any site that is relatively flat so as long as there is:

 Permanent supply of water

 Nearness to planting site
 Fertile soil with good drainage system
 A source of permanent wind break
 Availability of labour
 Nearness to market

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.11

What is Nursery?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.11

Answer: A nursery is a site of ground in which young plants are reared before transplanting. They
are raised under intensive care prior or transplanting to the field.

1.5 Yield
In arable crops, there are diversity of the useful products. Yield refers to the quantity of produce
obtained per unit area of land over a period of time from a given crop planted. In some crops,
nearly the entire plant is utilized, while in others only part of the crop, such as fruit or seeds are
needed. Many crops are grown for their seed in which case flowering and seed formation are of
primary concern. The required produce may be the stored nutrients such as oil and protein in
seeds; the carbohydrates in yam or cassava or the fiber associated with the stem, leaf or fruit as in
kenaf or sisal. Thus, yield determination and associated factors vary considerably from one crop
to another.

The common criterion for assessing productivity of crops is yield of the desired produce per unit
of land.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.12

What is Yield?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.12

Answer: Yield refers to the quantity of produce obtain per unit area of land over a period of time
from a given crop planted.
1.6 Handling of Harvested Products and Drying
Agricultural produce may be directly consumed or sold after harvesting or it may be treated in
some way processed to facilitate transportation and storage. Drying is the method by which the
moisture content of the crop is removed or reduced considerably to prevent spoilage.

Crops are dried in order to:

 prevent germination of seeds e.g grains crop,

 retain maximum quality in the gain or forage by preventing deterioration,
 reduce moisture content in order to prevent insect attack and microbial infestation
 to process the crops e.g. crops shelling of maize, removal of the grains from the cobs.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.13

What is Drying?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.13

Answer: Drying is the method by which the moisture content of the crop is removed or reduced
considerably to prevent spoilage.
1.7 Arable Crops Production
Cultivated arable crops are classified in many ways and although there is no standard system, all
methods are fairly well understood and used in crop science.

1.7.1 Classification According To Duration of Growth

We have annuals, biennials and perennials depending on their life circle.

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 Annuals: These are crops which survive for only one season. They germinate, grow to
maturity, flower, produce seed and die within one year. Most food crops are annuals but
a few export or industrial crops also fall into these category. Examples are maize, wheat,
barley, rice, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, groundnut, yam and most vegetables.
 Biennials: These are crops, which require two seasons of growth to reach maturity.
Vegetative growth takes place during first year while growth in the second year is mainly
concerned with the manufacture and storage of food, flowering and fruiting. Examples
are Cassava and Cocoyam which grows in most part of West Africa.
 Perennials: these are crops which live for more than two seasons. Most perennials
produce only vegetative growth during the first year. Flowering does not occur until the
vegetative phase of growth has reached maturity. Once perennials begin to flower, they
produce flowers each season. Herbaceous perennials, Wood perennials, oil palm, cocoa
normally flower in the second year of growth. Examples are pawpaw and pigeon pea.

1.7.2 Classification According to Uses

Arable crops can be grouped according to their uses; these are as below;

 Cereal crops: These belong to the family known as Gramineae and are cultivated mainly
for their seeds. Cereals are by far the most important source of the World’s food supply.
Examples are maize, rice, sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, rye and oat.
 Legumes or pulses crops: Commonly grown legumes are; Cowpeas, Soya beans,
Groundnut, Pigeon pea and Bambara nut, Lima bean.
 Root and tuber crops: Crops whose root are underground and store Carbohydrate e.g
Cassava, Yam, Sweet potato, Irish potato.
 Fruit crops: These are crops whose fruits are consumed directly; they supply mineral salts
and vitamins e.g Banana, Pawpaw, Pineapple, Avocado pear, Citrus, Plantain, Guava,
Apples etc.
 Spices: These are crops, which provide flavor or add tastes to food. Many also have
medicinal properties. Important crops in this category are Ginger, Pepper, Garlic and
Onion. They are also grown by small-scale farmers for both local and export benefits.

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 Oil crops: These are crops which produce oil and they are excellent fat and vitamins
sources e.g. Groundnut, Melon, Sunflower, Coconut, Castor Sesame etc.
 Fibre crops: These are crops used for making clothing, ropes, carpets and cotton materials
e.g. cotton, jute, sisal hemp.
 Vegetable crops: These are crops which leaves or fruits are consumed and provide
minerals salt and vitamins e.g. tomatoes, onions, okro, amaranthus, celosia sulanum,
garden egg.

The bulk of the world’s foods is supplied through rice, maize, wheat, sorghum, potato, sugarcane,
yam, sweet potato, cassava, beans, soya beans, groundnut, banana apart from other tree crops like
oil palm, coconut etc. There are many plant species/crops which contribute complementary foods
item like fruits, vegetables, spices, flavor and condiments. Similarly, stimulants, beverages,
tobacco and other drugs crops are grown to satisfy special aspect of people’s daily needs. As well
as food drinks and drugs, crops also provide materials for the manufacture of fabrics, paper-
packaging materials, dyes, tennis, waxes and structural materials.

Some crops are specially grown to provide food for farm animals while some others are used for
recreational sites, ornamental landscaping and aesthetics.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.14

What is Arable Crops Production?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.14

Answer: Arable crops are short duration crops which are planted mostly for their edible parts
which may be consumed directly (raw) or processed before consumption.

1.8 Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown Arable Crops in Nigeria

Crop Seed Rate (kg) Spacing Methods of Propagation Yield
Cassava 10,000– 13,000 1m x 1m Stem (cassava stem) 8 – 20 tons/ha
Cuttings of 25 – 30cm 80cm x 100cm
stem length
Yam 2 – 5 tons 1m x 1m Tuber/Sets/Seedings 10 - 20 tons/ha

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Cocoyams 2 – 3 tons/ha 1m x 1m Corns, Rhizomes, 4 - 6 tons/ha

90cm x 90cm Corms,
Sweet 1m x 1m Vines, Tubers, Slips 3 – 10 tons/ha
Potatoes 50cm x 75cm
Maize 15 – 20kg 30cm x 90cm Seed 1.5 – 3 tons/ha
50cm x 75cm
60cm x 90cm
Rice 50kg 20cm x 20cm Seed 1 – 2.0 tons/ha
25cm x 25cm Upland Rice
2 – 4 tons/ha
Swamp Rice
Guinea Corn 20kg 75cm x 100cm Seed 1 – 2.5 tons/ha
Soya beans 50 – 60kg 5cm x 50cm Seed 1.5-3 tons/ha
Cowpea 25 – 30kg 30cm x 60cm Seed 0.800-1 ton/ha
Melon 20kg 2m x 2m Seed 0.500-0.800
1.5m x 1.5m Ton/ha
Cotton 15 – 25kg 50cm x 90cm Seed 1 – 2 tons/ha
75cm x 100cm
Groundnut 50kg 25cm x 90cm Seed 1 – 2 tons/ha
30cm x 100cm
Sorghum 20 25kg 30cm x 75cm Seed 1.5 – 3 tons/ha

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.14

List the seed rate, spacing and yield of the following crops:

a. Cassava

b. Yam

c. Maize

d. Cowpea

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e. Sorghum

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.14

Answer: a. 10,000 – 13,000, 1m x 1m, 8 – 20 tons/ha

b. 2 – 5 tons, 1m x 1m, 10 - 20 tons/ha.

c. 15 – 20kg, 30cm x 90cm, 1,5 – 3 tons/ha

d. 25 – 30kg, 30cm x 60cm, 800-1 ton/ha.

e. 20 25kg, 30cm x 75cm, 1.5 – 3 tons/ha.

1.9 Fruit Crops Production

Fruit crops are trees/shrubs planted by farmers primarily for their edible fruits. Fruit trees have
high potentials to improve productivity and sustainability of Agro forestry systems in Nigeria by
addressing issues of food security, income and environmental protection.

Some of the Fruits trees include;

 Mango (Mangifera indica)

 Cashew (Anacardium occidentalis)
 Pawpaw (Carica papaya)
 Guava (Psidium guajava)
 Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
 Grape fruit (Citrus paradisii)
 Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis)
 Shea butter (Vittelaria paradoxum)
 Bitter Kola (Garcinia kola)
 Star apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) (Agbalumo)

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.16

List, with their botanical names, five fruit crops you know

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.16

 Mango (Mangifera indica)
 Cashew (Anacardium occidentals)
 Papaya (Carica papaya)
 Guava (Psidium guajava)
 Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
 Grape fruit (Citrus paradisii)
 Sweet Orange (Citrus saneness)
 Shea butter (Vittelaria paradoxum)
 Bitter Kola (Garcinia kola)
 Star apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) (Agbalumo)
1.10 Tree/Permanent Crops Production
Tree crops are those crops that remain on the field for many years and are therefore sometimes
referred to as permanent crops. Tree crops are economically important for a number of reasons.

Tree crops are foreign and exchange earners. For example, the sale of Cocoa, Rubber, Coffee and
Palm products etc. contributes to the national gross domestic product (GDP).

Tree crops provide food for man and his domestic animals. Man obtains vegetable oils from oil
palm and cashew. Beverage is obtained from cocoa, coffee and tea. Chocolate is obtained from
cocoa and kola; juices from citrus and cashew. Wine from oil and palm, cocoa and kola. Oils and
palm kernel cake from oil palm (PKC) and cashew nut cake (CNC) for domestics animals after
oil had been extracted from the crops.

1.10.1 Classification of Tree Crops

Several methods we used to classify tree crops based on their commercial importance, we have:-
 Beverage/Stimulant crops: These are crops used in preparing food drinks and examples
are cocoa, coffee, kola etc.
 Oil crops:- are crops that produce oil. Examples are oil palm, cashew, coconut, Shea bitter
tree etc.
 Latex crops:- Rubber tree

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1.10.2 Propagation of Permanent Crops

Crops can be classified into 5 groups in accordance with the way they are propagated.
 GROUP A
Can be propagated by seeds or vegetative means – cutting, grafting and building.
Common Name Botanical Name Family
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae
Kola (Gbanja) Cola nitida Sterculiaceae
Kola (Abata) Cola acuminata Sterculiaceae
Cashew Anacardium occidentalis Anacardiaceae
Avocado pear Persea americana Lauraceae
Guava Psidium guajava Myrtaceae
 GROUP B
Normally propagated from seeds which are difficult to germinate. Special techniques are needed
before germination. Seeds of this group are not easily subjected to vegetative propagation.
Oil Palm Elaeis guinensis Palmae
Coconut Cocos nucifera Palmae
 GROUP C
Generally propagated by vegetative means viz suckers, slips crowns, stem, cuttings and very rarely
by seeds except in breeding.
Plantain Musa paradisiaca Musaceae
Banana Musa sapientum Musaceae
Pineapple Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae
Sugar Cane Saccharum officinarum Gramineae
 GROUP D
Propagated by seed or vegetative means – cutting, grafting and budding
Sweet Orange Citrus sinensis Rutaceae
Lime Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae
Lemon Citrus limon Rutaceae
King Orange Citrus nobilis Rutaceae
Grape Fruit Citrus paradise Rutaceae

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Shaddock Citrus maxima Rutaceae

Sweet Lime Citrus limoni Rutaceae
Tangerine Citrus reticulata Rutaceae
Mandarine Citrus reticulata Rutaceae

Tangelo is an inter specific hybrid between Citrus paradise and Citrus reticulate.

 GROUP E
The cultivation of crops in this group is not yet wide spread in the country.
Bread fruit (Seedless) Artocarpus communis Moraceae
Bread nut Artocarpus incisa Moraceae
Sweet Sop Annona signamosa Annonaceae
Sour Sop Anona muricata Annonaceae
1.11 Basic Data on Some Commonly Grown Crops in Nigeria
Name Method of Propagation Average Age Recommended
at 1st fruiting spacing
Seed Vegetative
Cocoa Seed - 3 – 4 years 3.1 x 3.1m
Kola Nitida Seed Rooting 4 – 5 years 6m x 6m
Kola Accuminata Seed Rooting 4 – 5 years 6m x 6m
Cashew Seed - 3 – 4 years 9m x 9m
Oil Palm Seed - 3 – 4 years 9m x 9m x 9mTriangular
8m x 8m square
Mango Seed Patch budding & 3 – 4 years 10m x 19m
grafting
Guava Seed Cutting, budding & 3 – 5 years 7m x 7m, 6m x 6m
layering
Pawpaw Seed - 1 - 1½ years 2m x 2m, 3m x 3m
Banana - Sucker 1 - 1½ years 3m x 2m, 3m x 3m
Plantain - Sucker 1 - 1½ years 3m x2m, 3m x 3m
Pineapple - Crown, Slips and 1 – 2 years 0.5 x 0.5 row
Ratoon spacing x 1m (lm x 0.5m)

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Citrus -
Sweet Orange Seed Budding 3 – 4 years 7m x 7m
Lime Seed Budding 6 – 7 years 5m x 6m
Lemon Seed Budding 4 – 5 years 7m x 7m
Shaddock Seed Budding 3 – 4 years 7m x 8m
Grape Seed Budding 4 – 5 years 7m x 8m
Tangerine Seed Budding 3 – 4 years 5m x 6m
Tangelo Seed Budding 3 – 4 years 7m x 8m
Coconut Seed - 4 – 6 years 8m x 8m

1.12 Horticulture and Ornamentals Production

Horticulture is divided into 3 divisions

i. Pomology – production of fruits

ii. Olericulture – production of vegetables

Vegetable divided into 2 parts

Leafy vegetable

Fruit vegetable

iii. Floriculture – production of flowers/ornarmentals and landscaping

1.12.1 Classification of Horticulture Crops/Plants

Besides the scientific (botanical) method of classification based on genetic relationship which is
universally used in identifying plants, horticultural plants are also classified, according to life
cycle, growth habit, and more commonly according to use.

Vegetable Crops
Salad vegetable - Lettuce, Cucumber, Egg plant
Leafy vegetables - Amaranthus, Telfaria, Talinum, Corchorus, Mint, Celosia
Argentea, Solanum macrocarpon

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Fruit vegetables - Pumpkin, Okro, Tomatoes, Peppers

Vegetable legumes - Cowpea, winged beans
Bubb vegetable - Onion, Shallot, Leek, Garlic
Root Vegetable - Carrot
Condiments & Spices - Ginger, Chilli pepper, Efinrin, Black pepper
Fruits & Nut - Banana, African mango (Irving asp)
Medicinal or Drug plants - Lemon grass, Neem, Morringa
Ornamentals - Pagoda (Clerodendron paniculata) Neem tree
(Azardirachta indica)
Lawn grasses - Axonopus spp, Bahama grass (Cyronodon spp)
Ornamental shrubs - Ixora spp, Hibiscus
Ornamental trees - Cassia fistula, Neem tree (Azadirachta indica)
Ornamental palms - Cocos nucifera (dwarf)
Potted ornamentals - Royal palm (Roystomes regia)
Recommended Spacing for some West African Vegetables

Name of Vegetable Recommended Spacing Products used

Water melon 2m x 1.0m Fruits
Okro 1m x 1m, 0.45m x 0.60m Fruits
Egg plant 1m x 1m Fruits
Tomatoes 1m x 1m Fruits
Pepper 1m x 1m Fruits
Onion 0.25m x 0.25m Bulbs
Flated pumpkin 1.5m x 1.0m Leaves & Fruits
Cucumber 1.0m x 1.0m Fruits
Igbagba/Igbo 1m x 1m Leaves
Cabbage 0.3m x 0.3m Leaves
Curled lettuce 0.30m x 0.30m Leaves
Carrots 0.25m x 0.30m Root
Biter leaf 1.0m x 1.0m Leaves

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However, some vegetables are planted by broadcasting and drilling method, most especially the
leafy vegetable such as Tete (Amaranthus), Ewedu (Corchorus olitorious) and Soko (Celosia
angentea) etc.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.13

a. What do you understand by the term Horticulture?

b. Classify Horticultural crops.
c. Mention 2 leafy vegetables

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.13

Answer: a. Horticulture is the production of ornamentals, fruits and vegetables as well as

landscaping to beautify the environment.

b. Pomology, Olericulture and Floriculture.

c. Tete (Amaranthus), Ewedu (Corchorus olitorious) and Soko (Celosia argentea) etc.

1.13 Vegetable Production (Fadama Farming)

Fadama is dry or partially dry season vegetable production or farming through stream/river or
artificial source of water provision. Fadama cropping is temporary but seasonal. Fadama
cropping is common in the savanna and sahel zone. The main crop enterprises consist of
Vegetable Production

 Directly sown vegetables are Tete (Amaranthus spp), Soko (Celosia argentia), Ewedu
(Cochorus oiltorius).
 Nursery sown vegetables are Igbagba (Solanum macrocarpon) Tomatoes Ogunmo, odu
etc. The nursery plant should be transplanted under irrigation 2 weeks after emerging.
 Production of short season grains (cereals and legumes) and Sugarcane cultivation in less
dry Fadamas

Crops are sown at the commencement of the dry season and harvested before the commencement
of succeeding rainy season. The fadama is “fallowed” during the rainy season until the
commencement of the next dry season.

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The period of fallow includes:

 Latter part of the dry season and

 The succeeding rainy season

The fadama is flooded during the rainy season and the flood water deposited considerable amount
of nutrients into the fadama soils thus making requirements for fertilizers minimal in Fadama
cropping/farming.

Vegetable gardening can also be a rewarding hobby or a viable full-time occupation. It requires
a smaller land area than field or plantation crops and much less capital investment.

In conclusion, having gone through the general principle of crop husbandry, techniques and
cultural practices as related to arable crops, fruit trees/tree crops. Horticulture and Ornamentals
production venture, including opportunities awaiting individual arising from the economic
importance of this crops, you can go into the cultivation of any of the crops. These crops can help
provide the job opportunity you need, help raise your standard of living and help the country’s
economic growth.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.18

What is Fadama?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.18

Answer: Fadama is dry or partially dry season vegetable production or farming through
stream/river or artificial source of water provision.

1.11 Conclusion

Entrepreneurship involves creating something of new value, being creative and innovative by
assuming risks for the purpose of achieving specific goals. It is a process aimed at achieving
personal economic freedom. Its meaning transcends the coordinator of all factors of production or
one-man business. It is a propeller of National growth and development. To be a successful
entrepreneur, one must acquire the appropriate education and skills to survive in an uncertain and
turbulent business environment such as ours.

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its learning
outcomes by answering following these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on
Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 1.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.1)

Explain the five major roles of agriculture for sustainable development.

Answer: Agriculture is expected to play five main roles for sustainable development of
every agrarian economy. The first and perhaps the most crucial is the supply of food which is
expected to be available to people in adequate quantity and quality at affordable price, others
include supply of raw materials for domestic, agro-industrial manufacturing, generation of
incomes to farming households and generation of foreign exchange through export of agricultural
commodities.

SAQ 1.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

Enumerate principles of crops production techniques.

Answer: The principles of crops production are all the activities carried on the farm, before,
during and after planting of crops seed or seedling.

SAQ 1.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.3)

Define tillage (tilling).

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Answer: It involves opening up of the soil for seed planting. This can be done with the
simple farm tools like hoe or Indian hoe on a small scale farm; or mechanically by using a tractor
driven disc plough; disc harrow on a commercial/large scale farms. In mechanized tillage, the
field is ploughed to break up the soil and harrowed to break up large clods of soil resulting from
ploughing before ridge or beds can be made if necessary.

Study Session 2: Farm Animals and Poultry Production

Enterprises
Introduction
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2
This session examines the different enterprises such as sheep and Goat production, poultry
production and pig production on a commercially sustainable. At the end of the session, you
should be able to:

2.1 Study Sheep and Goats Production Enterprise

2.2 Identify production techniques for poultry enterprise

2.3 Examine Piggery production techniques

2.1 Sheep and Goats Production Enterprise
Sheep and goats are generally referred to as small ruminants. They are mainly reared to supply
meat, milk, hair and skin, wool and manure. They can be easily raised in all climates and would
not require elaborate housing. There are 1,314 breeds of sheep and 570 breeds of goats all over
the world.

2.1.1 Qualities of Small Ruminants

 Low Purchase Price

 Produces at an early age and have more off-springs than cattle. They can kid or lamb three
times in two years.
 Ability to survive on low quality food.

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 Cheaper to replace if lost and readily available.

 Good source of meat, milk and skin.
 Adaptive to broad range of environments, arid and semi-arid zones.
 They are important in income generation, capital storage, employment generation and
substantial improvement in household nutrition.
 Have small carcass which is easily marketed over a short period of time, hence their
importance in rural communities without electricity for cold storage.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1

What are Sheep and Goats?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1

Sheep and goats are generally referred to as small ruminants. They are mainly reared to supply
meat, milk, hair and skin, wool and manure.

2.2 Breeds

Nigeria has four breeds of sheep and three breeds of goats that are commonly referred to and these
are:

Sheep: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Yankasa,

iii. Ouda and

iv. Balami

Goats: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Red Sokoto and

iii. Sahel

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i. West African Dwarf Sheep: Found in the sub-humid zone of West Africa. Usually small
in size with white, black, brown or combination of colour coats. Rams have horns and
ewes do not have horns.
ii. Yankasa: Predominantly white in colour with black patches around the eyes, ears, muzzle,
lips and hoots. Matured rams have curved horns and hairy white mane while the females
are hornless.
iii. Ouda/Uda: They are characterized by entirely black, brown or white forequarters and
hindquarters of any of the other colour. Males have coiled horns while females are
hornless.
iv. Balami: This is the biggest of the Nigerian breeds and are found in the Sudan and Sahel
zones. They have all white coat.
v. West African Dwarf Goat: They are small in size and hardy. Both sexes have horns and
have varied shades of colour ranging from black, dark-brown, brown, black spotted with
white and sometimes reddish brown.
vi. Red Sokoto: Possess distinct red coloured coat. Both sexes have horns. Their skin is
valued in leather industry. They thrive better in Northern Nigeria and Niger Republic.
vii. Sahel: Has pendulus ears and wonders from place to place in the scanty vegetative areas
of West-Africa. Well adapted to the hot dry environment but not used to humid areas.

Note: To start a sheep and goats farm, female and male animals above a year old should be
procured from reputable farms or institutions. A ratio of one male to ten females can be observed
with a density of fifteen (15) animals per hectare. (An extra male can be purchased).

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1

Mention 4 and 2 breeds Sheep and Goats respectfully.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1

Answer: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Yankasa,

iii. Ouda and

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iv. Balami

Goats: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Red Sokoto and

iii. Sahel
2.3 Management
Sheep and goats management involve the use of best practices in production. This is usually
obtained under the intensive management system where quality feed, health care, security,
biosecurity, housing, water provision are adequately provided. Other systems of management are

 Semi-intensive system
 Extensive system
 Subsistence system
i. Housing: Good housing units to protect animals from extremes of weather, cold, wind,
predators is important. Such housing units can be fenced round with edge plants such as
Gliricidia, Leucaena, and/or Moringa. These browses will also provide feed during the dry
spell.
ii. Feeding: Adult animals can be fed with hay or crop residue and legume/grasses of choice
at 1-2kg /animal/day. Concentrates consisting of wheat offals, brewers’ dry grains, palm
kernel cake, dry cassava peels, cowpea husk, minerals, vitamins and salts are necessarily fed
to optimize growth and reproduction. Fresh water must always be served everyday.
iii. Mating: Female animals will stand to be mated by males only when in oestrus or heat.
Oestrus or heat are easily detected by ram or buck, but the husbandry man should also be
abreast with these signs which include:
 swollen and reddened vulva
 discharge of mucus
 tail flicking/shaking
 continuous bleating
 mounting of other female animals in the herd/flock
 seeking the male

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 standing for the male to mate

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.3

Discuss the management of Sheep and Goat
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.3

Sheep and goats management involve the use of best practices in production. This is usually
obtained under the intensive management system where quality feed, health care, security,
biosecurity, housing, water provision are adequately provided. Other systems of management are

 Semi-intensive system
 Extensive system
 Subsistence system
2.4 Mating Methods
 Pasture Mating: This is done on the field while the animals are grazing/browsing. Males
detect females on heat and mate.
 Hand/Pen Mating: This is done under intensive management. The husbandry man detects
the females on heat and turn them to males in their pen.
 Artificial Insemination: Scientific mating method involving collection of male’s semen,
processing and storage. It is to be used to inseminate female animals on heat. It is practiced
under scientific herd management schemes for improvement or upgrading the herd/flock.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.4
i. Identify mating methods in Sheep and Goats production
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.4
 Pasture Mating: This is done on the field while the animals are grazing/browsing. Males
detect females on heat and mate.
 Hand/Pen Mating: This is done under intensive management. The husbandry man detects
the females on heat and turn them to males in their pen.
 Artificial Insemination: Scientific mating method involving collection of male’s semen,
processing and storage. It is to be used to inseminate female animals on heat. It is practiced
under scientific herd management schemes for improvement or upgrading the herd/flock.

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2.5 Routine Management Practices

Routine Management Practices

 Identification: This is done by the use of ear-tags, ear-notching, permanent markers and
branding.
 Weighing: determination of the weight of an animal using weighing scales.
 Hoof trimming: cutting-off of over-grown hooves.
 Dipping/spraying: use of chemical agents to control ecto-parasites (lice, ticks, mite) on
animals.
 Deworming: prevention and control of worms by use of drugs e.g. piperazine.
 Castration: removal of the testes/testicles of male animals to prevent indiscriminate
mating.
 Restraining and handling: usually done when we want to work with the animal.
 Age determination: done by estimation through the incisors teeth and by record of birth.
 Record keeping: records of inputs and outputs of production.
 Culling: removal of unproductive animals.
 Marketing: sale of animals and animal products.
 Common disease effecting sheep and goats
 Tetanus: bacterial disease caused by clostridium spp.
 Dysentery and diarrhea: usually signs of an impending fatal diseases.
 Foot and mouth disease: An infectious viral disease.
 Foot rot: an infection of the foot caused by Fusiformis nodosus.
 Mastitis: Inflammation of the mammary gland. Causative organisms include
Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium.
 Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lungs mostly caused by Pasteurella spp.
 Sheep scab: caused by mange mite which is an ecto-parasite.
 Bloat: caused by a build-up of gas in the rumen. It’s a metabolic disease.
 Parasitism: Infestation with ecto-parasites (external) and endo-parasite (internal).
 Pregnancy toxaemia: Metabolic disease of pregnant animal caused by under-nutrition.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5

i. List and explain Routine Management Practices in Sheep and Goats production
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5
Routine Management Practices

 Identification: This is done by the use of ear-tags, ear-notching, permanent markers and
branding.
 Weighing: determination of the weight of an animal using weighing scales.
 Hoof trimming: cutting-off of over-grown hooves.
 Dipping/spraying: use of chemical agents to control ecto-parasites (lice, ticks, mite) on
animals.
 Deworming: prevention and control of worms by use of drugs e.g. piperazine.
 Castration: removal of the testes/testicles of male animals to prevent indiscriminate
mating.
 Restraining and handling: usually done when we want to work with the animal.
 Age determination: done by estimation through the incisors teeth and by record of birth.
 Record keeping: records of inputs and outputs of production.
 Culling: removal of unproductive animals.
 Marketing: sale of animals and animal products.
 Common disease effecting sheep and goats
 Tetanus: bacterial disease caused by clostridium spp.
 Dysentery and diarrhea: usually signs of an impending fatal diseases.
 Foot and mouth disease: An infectious viral disease.
 Foot rot: an infection of the foot caused by Fusiformis nodosus.
 Mastitis: Inflammation of the mammary gland. Causative organisms include
Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium.
 Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lungs mostly caused by Pasteurella spp.
 Sheep scab: caused by mange mite which is an ectoparasite.
 Bloat: caused by a build-up of gas in the rumen. It’s a metabolic disease.
 Parasitism: Infestation with ectoparasites (external) and endoparasite (internal).
 Pregnancy toxaemia: Metabolic disease of pregnant animal caused by under-nutrition.

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2.6 Terminologies Used in Sheep and Goats

 Ram: Male sheep
 Buck: Male goat
 Ewe: Female sheep
 Nanny/Doe: Female goat
 Lamb: Newly born sheep of both sexes
 Kid: Newly born goat of both sexes
 Tupping: Act of mating in sheep
 Service: Act of mating in goats
 In-lamb: Pregnant ewe
 In-kid: Pregnant doe
 Lambing: Act of parturition in sheep
 Kidding: Act of parturition in goat
 Flock: Group of sheep
 Herd: Group of goat
 Mutton: Sheep meat
 Chevon: Goat meat

2.7 Marketing of sheep and Goats

Traditionally, sheep and goats are sold locally and eaten by owners’ family. However, with
increased demand for their meat and other products in the cities, organized marketing systems
have evolved with people moving them from production centres to such markets.

International export markets have also recently developed and live-animals and frozen carcasses
are been exported.

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its Learning
Outcomes by answering these following questions. You can check your answers with the Notes
on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.
SAQ 2.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.1)
What are the qualities of small ruminants
SAQ 2.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.2)
Mention four and two breeds of Sheep and Goats respectively
SAQ 2.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.3)
What is Sheep and Goat Management
SAQ 2.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.4)
Explain pasture mating, hand mating and artificial insemination
SAQ 2.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.5)
Differentiate between identification and castration as routine management practices in Sheep and
Goats production.

Study Session 3: Essentials of Pig Production Enterprise

Introduction
This session discusses the Essentials of pig production enterprise with emphasis on production
techniques, management systems, diseases, pests and marketing of the pigs.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3
On completion of this study session, you should be able to:

3.1 discuss pig production techniques

3.2 Explain how pig enterprise is sustainably run on commercial basis

3.3 establish and operate a commercially viable piggery production enterprises

3.1 Pig Production
Pig can be found all over the world and are kept by peasant farmers and in commercial outfits.
They can also be found in schools, colleges and research centres. They can be found scavenging
in local areas, tethered or kept in pens for commercial purposes. Pigs are multiparous (capable of
multiple births) and are omnivorous too (can eat both plants and animals). However, there are

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religious taboos against the rearing of pigs and eating of its meat (pork) hence, are restricted from
Muslim enclaves. The increase in worldwide demand for meat, fast growing livestock species with
efficient feed conversion rates such as pigs are likely to account for a major share in the growth
of livestock subsector.

Commercial pig production has intensified significantly in recent decades. More pigs of the same
few breeds are kept on fewer farms with increased output of animal products and pig enterprise is
becoming increasingly profitable especially when properly managed with adoption of
technologies and techniques of best practices worldwide.

3.1.1 Advantages of Pig enterprises

The following highlighted advantages has placed pig enterprises in a good stead as an investment
portfolio of choice in the livestock industry:

Pigs are important sources of meat protein (pork) which is in high demand.

They are fast growing and convert feed to meat twice as efficiently as ruminants.

Pigs (sows) bears many offsprings at a time and multiply fast. A sow can give birth to between 5
and 15 piglets at a time and can give birth two times in a year when well manged.

They are easy to feed because they eat wide range of feeds including kitchen wastes and by-
products of agricultural crops.

Pigs have resistance to common diseases compared to other livestock species.

Pigs can easily adapt to any situation.

Their relatively small size provides for more flexibility in marketing and consumption compared
to Cattle.

Terminologies used in pig production studies include the followings:

 Boar - A mature male pig with intact testis.

 Sow - A mature female pig.
 Gilt - A young female pig that has not been mated/bred.

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 Servicing - The act of mating in pigs.

 In-sow - Pregnant sow.
 In-Gilt - Pregnant gilt
 Farrowing - The act of giving birth.
 Piglets - Young pigs that have not been weaned.
 Litter - A group of young pigs given birth to by a sow.
 Weaning - The act of separating young pigs from their dam.
 Weaners - Growing pigs that have been separated from their dam.
 Hog, Barrow or Castrate: A castrated male pig.
 Pork - Meat from pigs
 Lard - Pig fat
 Bacon - Salted pig meat usually from the sides, belly or back of the pig.
 Gestation - Period of pregnancy (conception to birth)
 Sire - A good breeding male
 Dam - A good breeding female
 Wallow - Water filled depression or container large enough for pigs to lay-in
for cooling-down during warm weather.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.1
i. Mention two advantages of pig production enterprise
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.1
i. Pigs are important sources of meat protein (pork) which is in high demand.
ii. They are fast growing and convert feed to meat twice as efficiently as ruminants.

3.2 Factors to Consider For Pig Enterprise Initiative

Some important factors that must be critically considered before setting-up a pig enterprise are as
follows:
i. Availability of Capital: Piggery operation require some money for buildings, equipment
and utensils, feed, drugs, water and labour. Animals (pigs) are also to be purchased. Hence,
capital can be raised from personal savings, loans from friends and family members and/or
from lending institutions.

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ii. Feed and water resources: These are very crucial resources for optimum performance.
Water is particularly a limiting factor in pig production.
iii. Land: Sufficient land should be procured for buildings, waste disposal, offices and store.
Band for foraging pasture and cultivation of grains for feed formulation is also important.
It is essential to register such area for industrial purpose to prevent future litigation.
iv. Market: Availability of market for production is essential. It will be unwise to site a
piggery in an area where there is no market.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.2

i. What are the two most important resources in pig production enterprise?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.2

i. Feed and water resources: These are very crucial resources for optimum performance.
Water is particularly a limiting factor in pig production.

3.3 Types of Operation

Generally, there are two types of operations engaged-in in pig enterprise, namely:

General producer: involves keeping of self-contained herd consisting males and females as well
as growing – finishing breeds or simply as keeping all classes of pigs (practiced by most farmers
in Nigeria). Progenies may be raised to slaughter weight or young ones may be sold as weaners.

Specialist producer: involves keeping of parent stock or foundation stock to be sold to commercial
producer (general producer) or farmers involved in buying of weaners that are fattened for market
purpose or slaughter weight.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.3

i. Itemize the Types of Operations that are involved in Pig production

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.3

i. General producer
ii. Specialist produce

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3.4 Breeds of Pigs in Nigeria

Domesticated pigs are called swine. Most breeds of pigs known descended from the Eurabian wild
boar (Sus scrofa).

Common breeds of pigs found in commercial farms in Nigeria are exotic breeds which include
the following:

 Large white (Yorkshire): Most commonly found breed, white in colour with erect/upright
ears. They are very prolific, have good mothering abilities and have adapted very well to
tropical region.
 Landrace: White in colour with dropping ears. They are longer than the large white and
good for bacon production but requires a high level of management.
 Duroc: Light to dark brown in colour, does not produce very good carcass but very hardy
and survives very well in tropical climate.
 Hampshire: Black in colour with a white belt around the shoulder extending to the forelegs.
They produce more meat than the large white and the landrace and are excellent mothers.

Other breeds include:

 Pietrain: White with patches of black all over the body. They produce good meat and the
sows are good mothers.
 Wessex saddleback: Black with white band over the shoulder and forelegs but too short
and too fat for bacon production.
 Tamworth: Reddish in colour with erect ears used for bacon production.
 Local Breed: They are usual black in colour and small sized due to stunted growth.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.4

i. Mention the Breeds of Pig you know?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.4

Imported or Exotic and Local breeds

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3.5 Management Systems

Three systems are mostly used in pig production and management, namely:
 Extensive system
 Semi-Intensive system
 Intensive system.

3.5.1 Housing

Proper planning of housing units for pigs should commence with site location. Such sites must be

far away from residential quarters. Different types of materials are usually used in constructing

temporary housing unit as well as permanent ones. For temporary units, bamboo, planks, and edge

– plants can be used while blocks and concrete floors are used in the construction of permanent

housing units with adequate attention to standard spacing requirements. The walls of the pen

should be 1.2m – 1.5m high to prevent pigs from jumping outside while 2m x 3m space should be

provided for adult animals. Two to four mature pigs of same sex especially females can be housed

together.

Pigs housing units must allow for:

 comfort
 adequate ventilation
 adequate lighting
 ease of cleanliness
 enough space for required exercise
 supply clean and cool water
 good feeding and drinking troughs
 guarantee constant temperature

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Table 1: Space requirement for pigs using weight

Weight of Pigs (kg) Space Requirement
> 1 – 10 0.14m2/pig
11 – 20 0.22m2/pig
21 – 40 0.36m2/pig
41 – 60 0.47m2/pig
61 – 80 0.57m2/pig
81 – 100 0.60m2/pig
Sow + litters (up to 6 weeks) 3.20m2/sow
Adult sow in stall 0.6 – 2.2m2/pig
Adult boar in stall 0.7 – 2.4m2/pig
Adult pigs in group 6m2

3.5.2 Feed and Feeding

Feed costs usually accounts for over 75% of total cost involved in pig production. Hence profit-
making in pig enterprise is directly related to the quality and quantity of feed available.

Ingredients in pig feed include maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, wheat, barley, sorghum, oats,
cereal brans/grains all of which supply energy while protein sources include groundnut cake,
soyabean cake, palm kernel cake, blood meal, fish meal etc. Vitamins and mineral premixes and
salt are also to be added in required quantities. Pig feed can be purchased from feed millers though
commercially made feed is available. Where possible pig farmers should obtain professional
advice on feed formulation.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.5

i. List pig management systems

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.5

i. Three systems are mostly used in pig production and management, namely:
 Extensive system
 Semi-Intensive system
 Intensive system.

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3.6 Types of Feed Used in Pig Production

 Creep feed: This contains 20-25% protein and fed to piglets from 4 – 56 days of age. Feed
intake per piglet increases from 0.2kg/day to 0.8kg at 56 days (8 weeks).
 Weaner/Grower diet: Contains 16-18% protein with high energy than the creep feed. Fed
till pig attains 45kg weight.
 Fattener’s diet: Contains 14-16% protein and fed from 45kg to 70kg for pork production
and 90-120kg weight for bacon production.
 Breeders diet: Contain 14-16% protein and requires more fibre than the fatteners ration.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.6

i. Mention 2 types of feed used in pig production

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.6

i. Creep feed
ii. Weaner/Grower diet
3.7 Qualities of a Good Pig Feed
 It must be balanced in nutrients

 Well processed and packaged

 Fresh and attractive

 Must be easily digestible

 Must be palatable and available

 Must be affordable

 Must not be stale or moldy

 And above all must support optimum growth and development.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.7

i. Outline the qualities of Good Pig Feed?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.7

 i. It must be balanced in nutrients

 Well processed and packaged
 Fresh and attractive
 Must be easily digestible
 Must be palatable and available
 Must be affordable
 Must not be stale or moldy
 And above all must support optimum growth and development.
3.8 Quantities of Feed Required/Day/Animal
Piglets - 0.2 – 0.5kg/day

Weaners - 1-1.5kg/day

Growers - 2-2.5kg/day

Adults (breeders) - 2.5-3kg/day

Other agriculture by-products used as supplements include: Cassava peels, cocoa pod husk, yam
peels, plantain peels, brewery grains etc.

 Water

Water must be given ad-libitum, hence good source(s) of water must be provided. It may be from
deep wells or boreholes. Apart from drinking, water is also needed for cleaning.

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Table 2: Water requirements of pigs (Litres/Gallons/day)

Class of Pig Litres/Pig/day Gallons/Pig/day
Nursery pigs (up to 60 Ibs BW) 2.7 0.7
2.5-3.0L/kg of feed consumed 0.3 gal/Ib of feed consumed
Grower Pigs (60 – 100 Ibs BW) 8 – 12 2-3
2.5-3.0 L/kg of feed consumed 0.3 gal/Ib of feed consumed
Firishing Pigs (100 – 250 Ibs BW) 12 – 20 3-5
2.5-3.0 L/kg of feed consumed 0.3 gal/Ib of feed consumed
Non pregnant gilts 12 3
Pregnant sows 10 – 30 2.5 – 7
Lactating sows 10 – 30 2.5 – 7
Boars 20 5
Water consumption increase during warm/hot weather and high crude protein diets.
(1gallon = 3.785 litres, BW – Body weight, Ibs – pounds).

3.9 Breeding
Breeding for productivity requires selection of good breed of animals. Boar should be allowed to
attain the age of 12months before being used for mating and gilts should be between 6 and 8 month
or 60-70kgs.

A mature boar should make about three services per week.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.9

i. What is breeding?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.9

i. Breeding is selection of good breed of animals to produce better progenies/offspring

through the reproductive process known as mating.

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3.10 Mating Methods

i. Pen Mating: Placing one boar with a group of sows without observation of matings.
ii. Hand-mating: Attended mating with one boar and one sow in a pen.
iii. Artificial insermination: Using semen collected from proven sires to inserminate sows.

3.11 Selection of Breeding Pigs

Boar: (i) should be from fertile sow and boar with good history

(ii) should have good conformation and strong legs (no injuries)

(iii) should have 12-14 well placed teats which is a genetic plus.

Sows: (i) Gilt should be from a good sire and dam with good mothering ability.

(ii) should posses 12-14 well placed teats.

(iii) select fast growing gilts

(iv) Gilts must be of good conformation with strong legs.

Vicious animals of both sexes should be selected against.

3.12 Undesirable traits to be selected against

The following traits / characters must be selected against to ensure a healthy herd.

 Inverted teats
 Hernia
 Umbilical hernia
 Cryptochordism
 Anal prolapsed
 Shakers

Breeding pigs (boards and sows) with any of the above should not be used for mating/breeding

Mating/Servicing

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This should be done in the boar’s pen in the mornings and evenings. Gilt or sow should be
observed for signs of heat and can be brought to heat by (i) the sight, sound and smell of the males
and (ii) mix with other gilts to stimulate immature females.

Two services within an interval of twelve hours is enough and the sow should be returned to its
pen. One male should service not more than ten females.

3.13 Signs of Heat

 General restlessness,
 Vulva turns red and swollen,
 Riding of other females in the group
 Standing firm when pressure is applied to the loin region.
 Standing for the boar to mate.

If sow/gilt do not conceive, it will return to heat in about three weeks. The gestation period is 114
days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days).

A week before service, sow/gilt should be given 1kg extra feed per day till one week after service.
This is referred to as “flushing”. The date service is carried out must be recorded so as to be able
calculate the farrowing date and prepare toward it.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.13

i. List the signs of heat in pig breeding?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.13

 i. General restlessness,

 Vulva turns red and swollen,

 Riding of other females in the group

 Standing firm when pressure is applied to the loin region.

 Standing for the boar to mate.

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3.14 Farrowing
About 8 to 10 days preceding farrowing and guided by the record of servicing date, the in-sow/gilt
should be moved to the farrow pen to get it adapted to the new environment.

Clean and dry bedding materials should be provided in the creep area to keep the expected piglets
off cold of the concrete floor.

Watch for the following sign of farrowing as the pregnant animal advanced in gestation.

 Swollen teats (nipples)

 Extended stomach
 Docility
 Slower movement
 Abandonment of feed
 Enlargement of vulva

On the day of farrowing, observe the sow/gilt and help it solve any problem noticed. Remove the
placenta as the animal complete farrowing and ensure that the mucus of the body especially the
head are licked-off by the sow or cleaned by the husbandry man.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.14

i. Define the term Farrowing?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.14

i. Farrowing is the act of giving birth in pigs.
3.15 Care of Piglets
 Ensure that the room is warm
 Provide bedding materials
 Cut-off the umbilical cord and apply iodine
 Prop them up and if they are weak give glucose
 Between 2nd and 3rd day give iron injection and repeat on the 21st day.
 Between 3rd and 4th day clip the milk teeth with the use of pincers.
 Ensure that the dam gives them colostrums (first milk).

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3.16 Piglet Fostering

In case a sow die after farrowing, the piglets can be given to another sow which also farrowed
almost at the same time to nurse.

Process: (i) Remove all the piglets of the dead and living sows.

(ii) Rub them with the urine and faeces of the living sow

(iii) Return all off them to the sow and watch for an hour

(iv) If any of the piglets are not accepted, repeat the procedure.
3.17 Artificial Colostrum and Milk Substitute
Where there is no suitable sow to foster motherless piglets on, it will be necessary to prepare
artificial Colostrum for feeding the piglets.

The constituents of such are as follow:

 100ml of milk
 1 table spoon of glucose
 A pinch of salt
 1 tablespoon of vegetable oil
 1 egg
 1 teaspoon of tetracycline powder

These should be thoroughly mixed and warmed (not cooked) and each piglet should be given
100mls/day for the first four days. Milk substitutes which can be from cow or commercial baby
milk should be fed hourly from the fifth day. Piglets can be taught to drink from a bowl easily.
3.18 Weaning
This is the act of separating the piglets from their dam. Weaning is done between the ages of 6
and 8 weeks. However, intensive weaning can be done between 2 and 4 weeks. Weaning is done
by gradual removal of the dam (mother) from the piglets for hours/day at least for three days
before the final separation.

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This will prevent piglets from shock of sudden removal. Thereafter, piglets should be reared
according to sex or weight. And, sows can be mated on the 1st or 2nd heat after weaning.
3.19 Identification
This is usually done through the use of (i) ear notching (ii) tattooing (iii) ear tags/clips.

30 50
v
v 10 10 v
vv
Left Right < 1000
Head
5 1000

100
^ 100
3 300 500

Ear notching

3.20 Handling and Restraining

Pigs are handled and restrained for the following purposes:

 Examination
 Weighing
 Treatment (when sick)
 Transportation
 Marketing

Pigs are restrained with the use of pig-catcher which is applied to their mouth beyond the canine
(tusk). However, piglets can be carried with hands and restrained through the fore and hind legs.
3.21 Marketing
Pigs grow fast and pork (meat from pigs) is in large demand in most countries except where
religions forbid the rearing and eating of pigs. Marketing of pigs is usually in two categories,
namely:

i. Selling on live weight: This involve weighing of the animals and determining the selling
prices (after considering all costs of inputs) that will ensure profitability. Weaners, growers
/ finishers and spent sows and boars can be disposed in this way.

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ii. Processing: This involves selling of meat (pork) and meat products from slaughtered
animals. Such meat are usually weighed and sold directly to the buyers or packaged and
stored for future marketing.

In both ways enumerated above marketing of pigs involves a standardized method through
weighing either of live-animals or processed meat compared to other livestock where price
haggling is still much in practice.

3.22 Diseases/Pests of Pigs

The following diseases and pests infestation are challenges to the farmers profit hence must be
carefully watch-out for and treated timely to forestall losses. Once the symptoms are noticed,
veterinarians should be contacted.

Table 3: Common diseases of pigs

DISEASE CAUSES SYMPTOMS
1. Swine fever Virus High temperature; constipation; diarrhoea. Unsteady
walk, sometimes bleeding in the skin visible as brown
blemishes. Sows may abort.
2. Swine Erysipelas Bacteria Constipation or soft dung. Pink skin with indented
blemishes (you can put thumb in). no appetite; stiff
limping gait screeches hoarsely when roused
manifest itself in hot. Weather, only one or a few pigs
ill in the herd.
3. Preumonia Bacteria virus parasites Common during raining season. Cough especially
due to many Pigs in a after exertion and breathe with convulsions if cause
small Space by virus and bacteria these is going to be retarded.
4. Tetanus Bacteria due to rusty Severe cramp condition stiff neck and extreme ties.
material e.g. nail
5. Mastitis Bacteria Inflation of the udder

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6. Anthrax Bacteria Acute condition, blood stained coming from all the
body endings. Affected animals are usually found
dead in the pen.
7. Brucellosis Bacteria Sterility, infection of the reproductive organs.
8. Intestine Parasites Parasites Worms found in the intestine, erosion of intestinal
walls.
9. Mange Parasite (mites) Itching and irritation around the skin between the
legs, eyes, ears and neck.
10. Lice Parasite Irritation, Aneamia
11. Anaemia Iron-deficiency Paleness of the mucus membrane.
deficiency
12. This sow syndrome Metabolic Nursing sow becomes thin, fall down and may go into
coma.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.22

i. Mention 4 common diseases of pig?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.22

i. Swine fever

Swine Erysipelas

Preumonia

Tetanus

Mastitis

Anthrax

Brucellosis

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3.23 Record Keeping

This involve recording of various activities/operations of the farm. It is very important to

document these activities, most especially cost of inputs and outputs. Such records usually helps

in the following ways:

 planning for expansion and execution of strategic plans.

 explaining underlying causes and contexts of events.

 creates room for predictions and decision making and,

 assess growth or otherwise.

Important records that should be documented in a pig production enterprise include:

 records of inputs for housing units construction, water provision, utilities etc

 sources of animals and their prices

 labour inputs

 mating records

 farrowing records

 weaning records

 health records (vaccinations, deworining, diseases treatment etc)

 feed inventory

 financial records (cost of animals, sales, veterinary)

All these will assist the farmer in determining profitable prices for the animals

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its Learning
Outcomes by answering these following questions. You can check your answers with the Notes
on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 3.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.1)

Discuss Pig Production

SAQ 3.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.2

Explain important factors that must be considered before setting-up a pig enterprise.

SAQ 3.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.3)

Discuss the two type of operations involved in pig production enterprise

SAQ 3.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.4)

Identify the exotic or imported and local breeds of pigs you know

SAQ 3.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.5)

Discuss the 3 pig management systems you know

SAQ 3.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.6)

Discuss 4 diseases of pigs and the symptoms of the diseases you choose.

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Study Session 4: Rabbit Production Enterprise

Introduction

This session examines the Rabbit production techniques, different breeds of rabbit, pest and
diseases of rabbit and acquisition of knowledge of rabbit production enterprise.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4
On completion of this study session, you should be able to:

 Explain rabbit production techniques

 Identify different breeds of rabbit
 Ascertain pest and diseases of rabbit
 Acquire adequate knowledge of rabbit production enterprise

4.1 Rabbit Production

Rabbit keeping dates backs to the Romans who kept them in special enclosures called ‘leporaria’.
It has emerged as a new business opportunity and requires less investment in capital outlay and
land requirement when starting. Rabbits are herbivores, do not require much grain or mixed
concentrate, hence, their feed cost is not much.

Rabbits are gentle, clean and quiet animals and live in the wild where they burrow and live
communally.

However, domestication has brought them to varied countries, towns and homes where they are
kept as pet and as a source of supportive income. Their scientific name is Oryctolagus cuniculus.

4.1.1 Importance of Keeping Rabbits

 Rabbits are very attractive to the sight and quiet.

 They are easy to keep handle and maintain.
 They are kept as pets and companion of the young ones.
 Rabbits are useful for teaching purposes in Schools, Colleges and Universities.
 Rabbits are used for experimental and research purposes.

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 Their skin is of commercial value and have found uses in the leather industry for making
fashionable shoes and bags.
 Rabbit meat is low in cholesterol hence recommended for convalescents.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.1

i. Rabbit keeping dates backs to the Romans who kept them in special enclosures called
_______________?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.1

i. ‘leporaria’

4.2 Breeds of Rabbit

Breeds of rabbit come in varied colours, sizes and body shapes. The American Rabbit Breeders
Association (ARBA) officially recognizes fifty (50) unique breeds, but only few of these are
popular and kept for commercial purposes. These include:

 New Zealand White

 New Zealand Red
 California White
 Flemish Giant
 Big Dutch
 Chinchilla
 Champagned Argent
 Angora
 English Lop
 Checkered Giant
 Himalayan
 Satin

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4.3 Housing

Rabbits are usually kept in hutches. The size of the hutch may vary with the age and size of the
rabbits. The hutches can also be a single deck, double or triple depending on the size of land/house
available. The hutches can be on the floor or raised platform under a shed in a fenced area of land
or in a housing unit. Such a housing unit must be open sided or with a dwarf wall to allow cross-
ventilation. The comfort of rabbits must be taken into consideration in planning their buildings.
A building that will protect the rabbit from wind, rain and bright-sunshine and provide light and
fresh air is required. Cold environment tend to increase feed consumption and can cause chilling
and nephritis in young rabbits.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.2

i. The comfort of ________ must be taken into consideration in planning their buildings?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.2

i. Rabbit.

4.3 Foundation Stock

Buying rabbits for starting a rabbit enterprise should involve the purchase of young animals from
reputable rabbit breeder farms or institution that keep rabbits. A small rabbit unit can be started
with ten (10) to twenty (20) does and one or two bucks.

4.4 Terminologies used in Rabbit Production

Buck - Adult male

Doe - Adult female

Kitten - Newly born

Litter - Group of newly born by a doe

Kindling - Act of giving birth

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Handling: Proper attention must be paid to proper handling of these delicate animals. When
it is necessary to carry a rabbit or move it, two areas to be used are:

Scruff: fold of skin behind the head region (neck)

Pelvic: Loin region (for young rabbits)

Rabbits can be quietened by covering the face. It should be noted that rabbits should not be held
by the ears which can lead to breaking of the ear at the base and this can result in death.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.4

i. What do you understand by term Kindling?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.4

i. Act of giving birth in Rabbit.

4.5 Feeding

The rabbit is an herbivore and its digestive system is adapted to coping with fibrous plant material
such as hay or grasses. However, concentrates (poultry growers’ mash) or household/agricultural
by-products such as plantain peels, yam peels, cassava peels, pineapple peels can be dried and fed
to the rabbits. Grasses such as milk weed, Aspilia, Talinum, Stylo, Tridax etc are useful feeding
material. Mouldy feed should not be fed to rabbits as they are highly susceptible to respiratory
diseases. Wooden materials should not be used in serving rabbits feed as they will eat them. Hence,
earthen pots, aluminum or steel pans should be used.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.5

i. Grasses such as milk weed, _____, _____, _____, ____ etc are useful feeding material?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.5

i. Aspilia, Talinum, Stylo, Tridax.

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4.6 Mating
Male rabbits will be ready for mating at five months old while the female are ready at four months.
However, the size of the female should also be considered to enable it carry the pregnancy to term.
Although they can be mated earlier than this period. Does (females) do not usually show signs of
heat like other animals but when it is restless and want to join others in other cages it should be
taken to the buck in its cage and not otherwise. The doe will ovulate in response to the buck hence,
called SPONTANEOUS OVULATOR. Once mating has taken place the doe should be returned
to its own cage.

Gestation is between 30 and 33 days and a doe can give birth to between 4 and 8 kitten per litter.
Three or four days to kindling, the doe will pull hairs from its abdominal region to make nest for
the forthcoming kittens. This act is called “pulling the fur”. Once this is seen the farmer should
put a kindling box into its cage and put the fur in the box to enable the doe continue its preparation
for kindling.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.6

i. Gestation is between ___ and ___ days and a doe can give birth to between __ and __
kittens per litter?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.6

i. 30, 33, 4 and 8

4.7 Care of Kittens

The young ones (kittens) are usually born blind and hairless. They must not be touched until they
opened their eyes and grow hairs on their body, if touched, their mother will reject them.
Therefore, gloves/nylon should be put on if there is need to touch them. Farmer should endeavour
to check through the fur everyday for mortalities and remove them.

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4.8 Weaning
This is the act of separating the young ones from their dam (mother). It is usually done between
six and eight weeks after kindling. By this time the kittens would have been feeding on their own.
To wean them, the dam should be removed and taken to another cage or hutch.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.8

i. Explain the term Weaning?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.8

i. This is the act of separating the young ones from their dam (mother). It is usually done
between six and eight weeks after kindling.

4.9 Sexing
This is mostly done with the young ones by pressing the sexual aperture close to the anal opening.
In the males, a protrusion will be seen while in the female a slit will be observed. In mature males
the testes are seen dangling between the hindlegs while this cannot be found in the adult females.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.9

i. What is Sexing in Rabbit Production?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.9

i. This act of determining the sex as male or female in rabbit production.

4.10 Identification

Methods of identification of rabbits include:

 Tattooing
 Ear-tagging
 Use of leg rings
4.11 Common Diseases
 Pneumonia
 Coccidiosis

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 Sore hocks
 Snuffles
 Mastitis
 Coenurosis
 Myxomatosis
 Inflammation of the eyes
4.12 Pests of Rabbit
 Mange infestation (Ectoparasites)
 Worms (Endoparasites)
4.13 Enemies of Rabbits
 Ants-especially soldier-ants
 Dogs
 Snakes
 Rats
 Cats
All these can be prevented by ensuring a very clean environment and placing the legs of the
hutches in containers with used engine oil or ashes.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.10

i. Mention 2 pests and 2 diseases of Rabiit.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.10

i. Mange infestation (Ectoparasites), Worms (Endoparasites)
ii. Pneumonia, Coccidiosis.
4.14 Signs of Healthy Rabbit
 normal eating and drinking
 alertness and curiosity
 self grooming
 shiny, smooth, clean fur especially on the front paws and around the anus
 clear, bright eyes without discharges
 clear nostrils
 normal, silent breathing
 gaining weight progressively

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4.15 Useful Products Marketable From Rabbits

 Meat (low in cholesterol)

 Skin (pelt)

 Manure from the faeces

 Live mature rabbits

Summary of Study Session 4

In Study Session 4, you have learnt,

 Rabbit production techniques

 Identification of different breeds of rabbit
 How to ascertain pest and diseases of rabbit
 Adequate knowledge of rabbit production enterprise

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4

SAQ 4.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.1)

Explain Rabbit production

SAQ 4.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.2)

List breeds of rabbit that you have learnt

SAQ 4.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.3)

Define the following terminologist used in Rabbit production

SAQ 4.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.4)

Explain mating process in Rabbit production

SAQ 4.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.5)

Enumerate identification method in Rabbit production

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Study Session 5: Broiler and Layer Production Enterprise

Introduction
This session exposes the students to Broilers and Lauper production Enterprise. It exposes the
students to identification of various breeds of poultry, factors of broiler and layer production,
ascertaining of pests and diseases of poultry and acquisition of knowledge of commercial
operation of poultry enterprise.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5
On completion of this study session, you should be able to:

 Identify the various breeds of poultry birds (both broilers and layer).
 Determine the specific factors of broiler and layer production enterprises.
 Ascertain pests and disease of poultry production enterprises.
 Acquire knowledge of sustainable commercial operation of poultry enterprise
5.1 Poultry Production
In Agriculture, the term “Poultry” generally refers to all domesticated birds kept for egg, meat or
feather productions. These domesticated birds includes: chicken, turkey, duck, pigeon, quail,
goose etc.

The two main branches of poultry production are:

i. Meat production
ii. Egg production

Broiler chicken are majorly reared for meat production, while pullet/layer chicken are reared for
egg production.

Broiler chickens are reared for 8-10 weeks to reach maturity, while pullet/layer chickens are reared
for about 18 weeks to reach maturity and start laying eggs.

Broker chickens have 2 phases of life with different rations

Brooding phase: Day 1 – week 3 - Broiler starter
Growing/finishing phase: week 4 – week 6-10 - Growers mash
Layer chickens have 3 phases of life with different rations

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Brooding phase: Day 1 – Week 8 - Chicks mash

Growing phase: Week 9 – Week 8-20 - Growers mash
Laying phase: Week 20 – Week 72 - Layers mash
Broiler chickens weigh between 1.8-2.5kg at maturity (6-10 weeks)
Layer/pullet chickens weigh between 1.35-1.5kg at point-of-lay/maturity (18 weeks).

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.1

i. The two main branches of poultry production are ________ and _________

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.1

i. Meat production, Egg production.

5.2 Breeds of Chicken
The term “breed” demotes an established group of births within a species from the same ancestors,
having the same general body shape, weight, colour and some common characteristics or traits.

Birds of distinct type and colour patterns that are admitted to the standard are termed as standard
breed.

Birds can be further classified based on class. The term “Class” is used to designate groups of
breeds originating from the same geographical areas.

The following are the breeds found under each class:

Asiatic class - Brahma and Cochim

American class - Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock and New Hampshire

English class - Australorp, Sussex, Corrish and Orpington

Mediterranean class- Leghorn, Anconas and Minorca

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Table 1:

Class Origin Purpose Plumage Egg Colour

Asiatic Asia Meat Buff Brown

American America Dual White/red Brown

English England Meat White/black Brown

Mediterranean Italy Egg White White

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.2

i. Explain the term breeds in poultry?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.2

i. The term “breed” demotes an established group of births within a species from the same
ancestors, having the same general body shape, weight, colour and some common
characteristics or traits.
5.3 Modern Breeds/Strains of Broiler in Nigeria
 Abioka
 Anak
 Anak Titans
 Bovans
 Cobb
 Goldline
 Hubbard
 Marshal
 Noiler

5.3.1 Common Breeds/Strains of Layers in Nigeria

 Isa Brown
 Dominant Black

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 Near Black
 Near Black
 Amberlink White
 Lohmann
 FUNAAB Alpha

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.3

i. List the common modern breeds and strains of broilers you have learnt?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.3

 Abioka
 Anak
 Anak Titans
 Bovans
 Cobb
 Goldline
 Hubbard
 Marshal
 Noiler

5.4 Poultry Housing

The essential of good housing is to provide comfort, protection, convenience and efficient
production. Avian species cannot adjust very well to extremes, therefore, it is important to provide
an environment that will enable chickens to maintain their thermal balance.

 Selection/location of poultry pen

 Away from residential area
 Away from other poultry farms
 Accessible road
 Availability of quality water

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 Availability of inputs (chicks, feed, drugs, vaccines etc)

 Orientation/Direction of pen
 East – West – for proper ventilation and to avoid direct entry/impact of sunlight.
5.5 Height of the pen
 Side height – 8 – 10 fit
 Central/middle height – 16 – 20 ft
 Roof
 It should be made of asbestos sheet

5.6 Type of Poultry Production Systems

 Free range or extensive system

 Semi-intensive system
 Intensive system
 Deep litter system
 Battery cage system

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.5

i. Identify the Three poultry production systems?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.5

 Free range or extensive system

 Semi-intensive system
 Intensive system
 Deep litter system
 Battery cage system

5.7 Brooding

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Brooding is the care and management giving to newly hatched chicks. It entails provision of
artificial heat for the chicks until they grow enough feathers.

5.7.1 Objectives of brooding

The objectives of brooding are to provide basic requirements necessary for optimal growth of
chicks.

Equipment/Materials required for Brooding

 Brooding pen
 Brooder cage
 Litter material
 Chicks guard
 Hover
 Thermometer
 Heat source
 Light source
 Feeding/chicks tray
 Fountain/nipple drinker
 Preparation of Brooding pen prior chicks’ arrival
 Cleaning and disinfection of pen (at least a week ahead)
 Place brooders cage or spread litter material (depending on the system adopted)
 Place chicks guard
 Place chick feeders and drinkers
 Pre-heat for about 3 hours
 Procurement/Collection of Chicks
 Day-old chicks should be purchased from a reputable hatchery
 Place advanced order (pay in advance) and get a collection date.
 Continuous follow-up is required to forestall disappointment.
 At the hatchery, examine the chicks one by one for any defect such as curved beak,
blindness, paralysis, weakness, unhealed navel etc.

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 Chicks with any defect should be rejected and replaced.

 Transportation of chicks from hatchery to the farm should be done in the morning or
evening to prevent stress.
 At the time of chicks’ arrival
 Proper unloading
 Immediate opening of chicks boxes
 Counting of chicks
 Removal of mortality/dead ones
 Separating of weak chicks
 Weighing of sample chicks
 Vaccination (if necessary)
 Opening of records
 Recording of brooder’s temperature and relative humidity (RH) (High RH – Above 70%,
Low RH – Below 30%)
 Recording of mortality
 Keep vaccination and medication records
 Administer anti-stress through drinking water
 Feed after about 3-4 hours of arrival
 Factors affecting brooding
 Brooding pen
 Quality of chicks
 Temperature
 Ventilation
 Relative humidity
 Litter management
 Lighting schedule
 Floor space
 Feed
 Water
 Vaccination and medication

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5.7.2 Temperature of Brooding

Temperature requirements of brooding chicks at different ages

Table 2

Age Brooding Temperature

1st week 35oc (95oF)

2nd week 32.2oc (90oF)

3rd week 29.4oc (85oF)

4th week 26.7oc (80oF)

5th week 23.9oc (75oF)

6th week 21.2oc (70oF)

5.7.3 Brooding temperature and chicks behaviour

The following diagrams illustrate how to use chicks behaviour to determine brooder’s
temperature.

Figure 1: Low Temperature

Brooding pen Chicks moving closer to heat source and

Hover pilling up under hover.
Heat source
Chicks

Figure 2: High Temperature

Brooding pen Chicks moving away from heat source.

Hover
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Figure 3: Optimal Temperature

Brooding pen Chicks are evenly distributed

Hover
Heat source
Chicks

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.6

i. What is brooding?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.6

i. Brooding is the care and management giving to newly hatched chicks. It entails provision of
artificial heat for the chicks until they grow enough feathers.
5.8 Litter Material and its Management
Litter material is used in deep litter system of rearing birds. Litter means any absorbent bedding
material that provides comfort to the chickens and facilitates evaporation of moisture and gases
from faecal material examples of litter materials are; wood shavings, corn cobs, sawdust,
groundnut hulls, chopped straw, peanut hulls, sunflower hulls etc.

5.8.1 Functions of Litter

 It absorbs moisture and promotes drying

 It reduces direct contact chickens with their droppings (faeces)

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 It insulates chicks from cooling effect of the floor

 It provides protective cushion between the birds and floor
 It regulates humidity and temperature of chicken (it absorbs moisture from air when it is
too humid and releases moisture into air when it is dry).

5.8.2 Qualities of Good Litter Material

 Highly absorbent
 Light in weight
 Medium particle size
 Dries rapidly
 Soft and comfortable for chickens to walk on
 Locally available
 Uniform particle size
 Cost effective

5.8.3 Floor Space Requirements

Table 3

Age (Week) Space/Bird (Sq. ft)

1 0.18 – 0.25
2 0.35 – 0.30
3 0.45 – 0.50
4 1
5 1
6 1

5.9 Heat Sources for Brooding

 Electric bulb
 Kerosene lantern
 Kerosene stove

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 Charcoal pot etc

5.10 Feed

The following factors should be considered for good quality feed

 Good quality raw materials

 Proper feed formulation according to the age of the chickens
 Thorough mixing of various feed components
 Proper processing of feed
 Proper storage of feed
 Proper particle size of feed
 Balancing of energy and crude protein
 Form of feed: mash, crumble or pellet
 Free from micro-organisms and toxins

5.11 Diseases
Poultry diseases, like other livestock diseases are caused by disease agents like bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, fungi, parasite and metabolic disorders. Some common diseases of chickens are listed
below:

 Bacterial Diseases
 Pullorum disease or salmonellosis
 Chronic respiratory disease
 Infectious coryza
 Fowl cholera
 Necrotic enteritis
 Viral Diseases
 Newcastle disease
 Infectious bursal disease (IBD) or Gumboro
 Infectious bronchitis
 Marek’s disease

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 Fowl pox
 Fungal Diseases
 Aspergillosis
 Mycotoxicosis
 Protozoal and Parasite Diseases
 Coccidiosis
 Lice and Mite infestation (ectoparasites)
 Endoparasites (Nematodes/Roundworms, Cestodes/Tapeworms and Trematodes leaf
shaped)
 Metabolic Diseases
 Ascites
 Gout

Note: In the case of any disease outbreak, contact veterinary doctors or Animal Health
Technologists for timely treatment.
5.12 Vaccination Programme
The rationale behind vaccination is the usage of an antigen to stimulate production of antibody
that will confer immunity on the chickens, thereby preventing the chickens from being infected
with particular disease agent that is vaccinated against.

Table 4
Day (Week) Vaccine Type Route of Dosage/Bird
Administration
Day 1 Marek’s Disease Vaccine Subcutaneous 0.2ml
Day 1-3 NDV (1/0) Intra ocular 0.01ml
Day 7-10 1st IBDV/Gumboro Drinking water 10ml
Day 14 1st NDV Lasota Drinking water 10ml
Day 21 2nd IBDV/Gumboro Drinking water 10ml
Day 28 2nd NDV Lasota Drinking water 10ml
Day 35 Fowl pox vaccine Wing web 0.01ml
Week 7-8 1st NDV Kamorov Intramuscular 0.2ml

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Week 16 2nd NDV Kamorov Intramuscular 0.2ml

5.12.1 Rules of Vaccination

 Do not vaccinate unhealthy chickens

 Purchase vaccine from reliable and reputable veterinary chops with refrigeration facilities
 Maintain cold chain by using ice pack
 Do not use expired vaccine
 Do not vaccinate during high temperature
 Avoid using chlorinated water
 Avoid spillage of vaccine
 Provide adequate drinking points for oral vaccination
 Do not use less than recommended dosage
 Trained and skilled personnels should handle the vaccination.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.10

i. Identify poultry diseases.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.10

i. Bacterial Diseases
ii. Pullorum disease or salmonellosis
iii. Chronic respiratory disease
iv. Infectious coryza
v. Fowl cholera
vi. Necrotic enteritis
vii. Viral Diseases
viii. Newcastle disease
ix. Infectious bursal disease (IBD) or Gumboro
x. Infectious bronchitis
xi. Marek’s disease
xii. Fowl pox
xiii. Fungal Diseases

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xiv. Aspergillosis
xv. Mycotoxicosis
xvi. Protozoal and Parasite Diseases
xvii. Coccidiosis
xviii. Lice and Mite infestation (ectoparasites)
xix. Endoparasites (Nematodes/Roundworms, Cestodes/Tapeworms and Trematodes leaf
shaped)
xx. Metabolic Diseases
xxi. Ascites
xxii. Gout.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.11

i. What are the rules guiding vaccination programs in poultry production.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.11

 Do not vaccinate unhealthy chickens

 Purchase vaccine from reliable and reputable veterinary chops with refrigeration facilities

 Maintain cold chain by using ice pack

 Do not use expired vaccine

 Do not vaccinate during high temperature

 Avoid using chlorinated water

 Avoid spillage of vaccine

 Provide adequate drinking points for oral vaccination

 Do not use less than recommended dosage

 Trained and skilled personnels should handle the vaccination.

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Summary of Study Session 5

In Study Session 5, you have learnt;

 Identification of the various breeds of poultry birds (both broilers and layer).

 Determination of the specific factors of broiler and layer production enterprises.

 To ascertain pests and disease of poultry production enterprises.

 Acquisition knowledge of sustainable commercial operation of poultry enterprise.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5

SAQ 5.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.1)

What do you understand by term poultry production?

SAQ 5.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.2)

Classify poultry birds on the basis of their origin, purpose, egg colour and Plumage

SAQ 5.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.3)

What are the factors to consider in the establishment of poultry production enterprise

SAQ 5.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.4)

What are the factors to consider for good quality feeds in poultry production.

SAQ 5.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.5)

What is vaccination?

SAQ 5.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.6)

Provide answers to missed spaces.

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Day (Week) Vaccine Type Route of Dosage/Bird

Administration
Day 1 ____________________ Subcutaneous 0.2ml
Day 1-3 ____________________ Intra ocular 0.01ml
Day 7-10 ____________________ Drinking water 10ml
Day 14 ____________________ Drinking water 10ml
Day 21 ____________________ Drinking water 10ml
Day 28 ____________________ Drinking water 10ml
Day 35 ____________________ Wing web 0.01ml
Week 7-8 ____________________ Intramuscular 0.2ml
Week 16 ____________________ Intramuscular 0.2ml

Study Session 6: Manual on Shoe and Sandal Production

Enterprise
6.0 Introduction
This study session will expose students to the definition of sandal and shoe making, lasting
process, footwear; enhance students ability to identify shoe parts, Heels and be used to
Terminologies in sandal/shoe making. It focuses on how shoes are made and how styles are made
as well as pattern making including computer aided patterning.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6
On completion of this study session, students should be able to:

 Define sandal and shoe making, lasting process and footwear.

 Identify shoe parts, heels and be used to Terminologies in sandal/shoe making.
 Ascertain how shoes are made and how styles are made as well as pattern making including
computer aided patterning.
6.1 Definition of Sandal/Shoemaking
Sandal/Shoemaking is the process of creating footwear either by hand or machines. Formerly,
sandal/shoes were made one at a time by hand. Old fashioned handicraft shoemaking has now

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been largely superseded in volume of shoes produced by industrial mass production of footwear,
but not necessarily in quality, attention to detail, or craftsmanship.

Shoemakers or cord-wainers may produce a range of footwear items, including shoes, boots,
sandals, clogs and moccasins. Such items are generally made of leather, wood, rubber, plastic,
jute or other plant material, and often consist of multiple parts, for better durability of the sole,
stitched to leather upper. It is imperative to differentiate between cord-wainers and cobblers. Cord-
wainers or shoemakers produce ranges of shoes while cobblers being those who repair shoes.
Historically, shoemaking has been a handicraft, limited to time consuming manufacture by hand.
The production of wooden shoes was widespread in medieval Europe. They were made from a
single piece of wood roughly cut into shoe form. A variant of this form was the clog. Which were
wooden soles to which a leather upper was attached. The sole and heel were made from one piece
of maple or ash two inches thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired size of shoe. The
outer side of the sole and heel was fashioned with a long chisel-edged implement, called the
clogger’s knife or stock; while a second implement, called the groover, made a groove around the
side of the sole. However, by the 1600s, leather shoes came in two main types. Turn shoes’
consisted of one thins flexible sole, which was sewed to the upper while outside in and turned
over when completed. This type was used for making slippers and similar shoes. The second
type united the upper with an insole, which was subsequently attached to an outsole with a raised
heel. This was the main variety, and was used for most footwear, including standard shoes and
riding boots. The traditional shoemaker would measure the feet and cut out upper leathers
according to the required size. These parts were fitted and stitched together. The sole was next
assembled, consisting of a pair of inner shoes of soft leather, a pair of outer soles of firmer texture,
a pair of welts or bands about one inch broad of flexible leather, and lifts and top-pieces for the
heels. The in-sole was then attached to a last made of wood, which was used to form the shoe.
Some lasts were straight, which curved lasts same in pairs: one for left shoes, the other for right
shoes.

6.2 Lasting process

The ‘lasting’ procedure secured the leather upper to the sole with tacks. The soles were then
hammered into shape; the heel lifts were then attached with wooden pegs and how worn out-sole
was nailed down to the lifts.

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6.3 Finishing operation in sandal and shoemaking

The finishing operation included paring, rasping, scrapping, smoothing, blacking, and burnishing
the edges of soles and heels, scraping, sand-papering, and burnishing the soles, with drawing the
lasts, and cleaning out any pegs which may have pierced through the inner sole. Shoemaking
became more commercialized in the mid-18th century, as it expanded as a cottage industry. Large
warehouses began to stock footwear in warehouses, made by many small manufacturers from the
area. Old-fashioned shoemakers still exist today, especially in poorer parts of the world, and
create custom shoes, Generally, the modern machinery used included die cutting tools to cut the
shapes and grommet machines to punch holes for lacing.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.1

i. What is lasting process?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.1

i. The ‘lasting’ procedure secured the leather upper to the sole with tacks. The soles
were then hammered into shape; the heel lifts were then attached with wooden pegs
and how worn out-sole was nailed down to the lifts.

6.4 Famous Shoemakers and their Origin

 Raymond Lewis, Will Smith - shoemaker who invented the loafer design
 Hans Sachs - German poet
 Salvatore Capezio - Founder of the manufacturer of dance shoes
 Salvatore Ferragamo - An Italian shoe designer
 Jimmy Choo - A Malaysian Chinese fashion designer based
in London.
 Christian Louboutin - French footwear designer
 Daniel Day-Lewis - Actor who apprenticed as a shoemaker

6.5 Footwear

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The footwear can be defined as garments that are worn on the feet. Their main purpose is
protecting one’s feet. Presently, footwear has become a vital component of fashion accessories.
Although, their basic purpose remains that of protection; adornment or defining style statement
has become their additional and a significant function. There are many types of footwear – shoes,
boots, sandals, slippers etc.

They are further categorized into many more types. However, shoes are further divided into many
categories such as athletic shoes also known as sneakers, galoshes, high heels, Stiletto heels,
kitten heels, lace-up shoes, high-tops, loafers, platform, spikes, school shoes and many others.
Shoemaking cam be considered a traditional handcraft profession.

However, now it has been largely taken over by industrial manufacture of footwear. Thus, with
the development of modern machines, a pair of shoes can be made in very less time as footwear.
Thus, with the development of modern a pair of shoes can be made in very less time as each step
in its manufacturing is generally performed by a separate footwear making machine.

6.6 Identification of sandal/shoe parts

Before explaining the shoe making process, it is necessary to fix definitely in our minds the names
of their different parts.
Part Description
The bottom of the shoe. Sole
Interior bottom of a shoe which sits directly In-sole
beneath the foot
that layer of the shoe that is in direct contact Outsole
with the ground
Often the heel of the sole is made from rubber heel
for durability and traction and the front is
made of leather for style
The layer that lies between the outsole and the Midsole
insole for shock absorption
The part above the sole Upper

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The section which covers the sides of the foot Vamp

the lacing which covers the ankle and the
instep
The part of the sole of the shoe between the Shank
heel and the ball
The part which curves around the lower edge Throat of the vamp
of the top, where the lacing starts.
Term used to denote a strip of leather covering Backstay
and strengthening the back seat of the shoe
Term used mostly in low shoes to denote the Quarter
rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not
used.
The toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp Tip
and outside of it.
Term used to denote a strip of leather lace stay
reinforcing the eyelet holes.
A narrow strip of leather used on all lace shoes Tongue
to protect the instep from the lacing and
weather
The name applied to leather of the upper that Foxing
extends from the sole to the laces in front, and
is often cut down to the shank in circular form.
If in two pieces, that part covering the counter
is called a heel fox.
Term applied to leather attached to the upper Overlay
part of the vamp of a slipper.
The inner part of the heel, that is, the section Breast
nearest shank.

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It is observed that a shoe consists of sole, insole, outsole, midsole, heel, and vamp (upper). They
are the basic parts of a shoe that are mostly included in all types off shoes. Other parts of shoe
are lining, tongue, quarter, welt and backstay. These parts are included as per the design of the
shoes.

6.7 Standard measure for heel heights

The standard measure for heel heights is as follows:

i. 8/8 (low heel) is 1 “high

ii. 16/8 (medium heel) is 2” high; and
iii. 24/8 (high heel) is 3” high.

6.8 Major Types of Shoe Heels:

 Louis or French – Features a curved back; ranges in height from 16/8 to 24/8
 Baby Louis – The same shape as a Louis heel, but a 12/8 or shorter
 Built Heel - Created from layers of leather or fibre with contrasting tones:
 Continental - A higher heel with little or no curvature and tapered at the bottom;
usually medium in height
 Stacked - Similar to the built heel, but typically can be created from synthetic
and leather materials. Often found on spectator shoes.
 Wedge - A heel that is as wide as the shoe itself and follows the shoes contour
from toe too heel.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.2

i. Define footwear.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.2

i. The footwear can be defined as garments that are worn on the feet.

6.9 Shoe Making Process

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Process of Shoe Making

Upper Part Button Part
Benver board, Shaping leather; Gum; Dunlop Wood board, Fibre board; Tall;
gum; Insole; Cusion; Threading Leather Sole, Fibre Sole; Shaping
Tall, Ribets, Buckle
Entire Shoe
Colouring
Shiny cream/polish

6.10 Units of footwear Manufacturing

Footwear manufacturer has mainly four units in which a progressive route is followed for
producing finished shoes. These are Clicking or cutting, closing or Machining, Lasting & Making,
Finishing and the Shoe Room.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.3

i. Identify units of footwear manufacturing?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.3

i. Footwear manufacturer has mainly four units in which a progressive route is followed for
producing finished shoes. These are Clicking or cutting, closing or Machining, Lasting & Making,
Finishing and the Shoe Room.

6.11 Clicking or Cutting Unit

In this unit, the top part of the shoe or the “upper” is made. The clicking operative is given skins
of leather mostly cow leather but not restricted to this type of leather. Using metal strip knives,
the worker cuts out pieces of various shapes that will take the form of “uppers:. This operation
needs a high level of skill as the expensive leather has to be wasted at the minimum level possible.

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Leather may also have various defects on the surface such as barbed wire scratches which needs
to be avoided, so that they are not used for the uppers.
6.12 Closing or Machining Unit
Here the component pieces are sewn together by highly skilled machinists so as to produce the
completed upper. The work is divided in stages. In early stages, the pieces are sewn together on
the flat machine. In the later stages, when the upper is no longer flat and has become three-
dimensional, the machine called post machine is used. The sewing surface of the machine is
elevated on a post to enable the operative to sew the three dimensional upper. Various edge
treatment are also done onto the leather for giving an attractive look to the finished upper. At this
stage only, the eyelets are also inserted in order to accommodate the laces in the finished shoes.

6.13 Lasting & Making Unit

The completed uppers are molded into a shape of foot with the help of a “Last”. Last is a plastic
shape that simulates the foot shape. It is later removed from the finished shoe to be used further
in making other shoes. Firstly, an insole to the bottom of the last is attached. It is only a temporary
attachment. Sometimes, mostly when welted shoes are manufactured, the insole has rib attached
to its under edge. The upper is stretched and molded over the last and attached to the insole rib.
After the procedure completes, a “lasted shoe” is obtained. Now, the welt – a strip of leather or
plastic – is sewn onto the shoe through the rib. The upper and all the surplus material is trimmed
off the sem. The sole is then attached to the welt and both are stitched together. The hell is then
attached which completes the “making” of the shoe. That was the process for heeled shoes. When
the uppers are ‘lasted’, they are glued down to the surface of the inner side of the insole. The part
of the upper, which is glued down, is then roughed with a wire brush to take off the smooth finish
of the leather. This is done because rough surface absorbs glue to give a stronger bond: The soles
are usually cut, finished and prepared as a separate component so that when they are glued to the
lasted upper, the result is a complete and finished shoe. Sole can also be pre-molded as a separate
component out of various synthetic materials and again glued to the lasted upper to complete the
shoe.

6.14 Finishing Unit and the Shoe Room

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The finishing of a shoe depends on the material used for making it. If made of leather, the sole
edge and heel are trimmed and buffed to give a smooth finish. To give them an attractive finish
and to ensure that the edge is waterproof, they are stained, polished and waxed. The bottom of
the sole is often lightly buffed, stained and polished and different types of patterns are marked on
the surface to give it a craft finished look. A “finished shoe” has now been made. For shoe room
operation,, an internal sock is fitted into shoe which and be of any length-full, half or quarter.
They usually have the manufacturers’ details or a brand name wherever applicable. Depending
on the materials used for the uppers, they are then leaned, polished and sprayed Laces and any
tags that might have to be attached to the shoes, such as shoe care instructions, are also attached.
The shoes, are last, get packaged in boxes.

6.15 How Shoe Styles Are Made

If proper examination is made on the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice different
styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons go are comparatively usual to -day
for the new designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most
varied at hat ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the new colors
in materials for footwear. Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have
hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of Nigeria. Coronation purple velvet boots look like
an extravagant color for footwear, but they are now selling. The style if the shoe is dominated by
fashion. All styles are related, that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing
fashion, ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline. To illustrate. When short skirts, are stylish
women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them; on the other hand, with long skirts are
stylish shoe that is neat and small, hence, the short vamp. When women wear white in the summer,
cool canvas shoes spring into favor; when gray and blue dress materials are to be used, a variety
of tan shoes are worn to harmonize, etc. After the style has been decided upon, it is necessary to
work out an exact reproduction . An expert model maker, called a last maker, produces a last, a
wooden model of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary to lay out certain plans or
specifications for details of the manufacturer of the shoe. There are certain parts of all feet that
have fixed measurements. To illustrate: the length of the shank, that part of the sole of the foot
between the heel and ball in every person’s foot is always the same. The part of the foot back of

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the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain fixed measurements. These definite measurements
form a basis by which the last maker originates new styles by shortening, lengthening, widening,
or narrowing the space in front of the toes, but always retaining the true and fixed measurements
of the back part of the last. When the last maker desires to produce a new style, he takes an old
last and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it (front of the toes,) he bullds it up and cuts off
other parts. This patche-up last is taken to a special machine (loathe), where a number of
duplicates, are turned from a block of wood. The “pattern maker” is the man in the factory who
makes patterns, consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, in the shapes of the
various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of the shoe. The pattern maker has
found by experience that the top part of the shoe also confirms to certain fixed measurements, and
by working in sympathy with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to
bring out the latter’s ideas. With these measurements as a foundation, he puts forth from time to
time difference style uppers, as buttons, lace, blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps; ties, pumps, etc.
This is the way new style tops originate. After the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns,
the pattern maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made over a certain last
which is submitted to him. Working on the fixed top measurements and the last submitted as a
basis, the pattern maker draws plans for a model pattern. The standard size of a model pattern is
size 7 in men’s shoes and size 4 in women’s. He is also given an order for a certain number of
widths; for in the size 7. These four sets of model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet
iron by hand. But from these sheets any number of iron models, and any size regular cardboard
pattern can be reproduced by a machine. Wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe
manufacturers in a rough unchiseled form. The lasts are made of maple wood; hollow forms used
by travelling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood. The making of the model
of the last is the most exacting operation in the factory. It is produced by a machine most
important. The principle of this machine has been brought about by the pantograph; i.e. it will
turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last; or it will enlarge or reduced a
duplicate of any other size or width, so, from a single model last, such as the manufacturer has
decided on, any number of lasts can be made, and of any size or width. The machine itself consists
of two lathes. On one is placed the model and on the other the block of wood,. The model is held
against a wheel by a spring. By adjusting this wheel, any desired width last can be obtained, and
by adjusting a bar in front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of wood.

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The lathe, when in motion, revolves both the last and the model, the model being pressed against
s the wheel, which is really a guide for the revolving knife that digs into the block of wood, and
regulates the depth that the knife is allowed to cut. In this manner the model is reproduced from
the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel and by the bar. This machine
is so accurate that a tack driven into the model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a
sort of a wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished. The model sole pattern is now tried
on the half-finished last to insure accuracy. Notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has
left stubs of wood on the toes and heels. These must be finished to a “templet” The templet is a
measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of work is to assume when finished. From
the heel and toe of the guide used to indicate the shape any piece of work is to assume when
finished: From the heel and toes of the model, a piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that
model, and is used on the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and toes
of the model. This machine works very rapidly, and by the aid of an irregular shaped, revolving
knife it quickly transforms the toes and heels to the desired shape. The bottoms are again tried
out on a sole pattern and the last number, the size and the width are stamped on. We now have
the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the desired shape, size and width. Were it
possible to insert and extract that last in this form from the half-finished shoe, no other steps would
be necessary in last manufacture but in as much as the leather is stretched very tightly over this
last a little later, it necessary in last manufacture, but in as much as the leather is stretched very
tightly over this last a little later, it necessitates the introduction of some method that will facilitate
a quick removal of the last from the shoe. This is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and
making a hinged heel. The fact that the slightest measurement changes the size of the shoe,
necessitates great care in the introduction of the hinge as a part of the last,, and in order to insure
accuracy and uniformity in all the lasts, they are marked with templets and gigs. The hinge must
be placed inside of the last. The finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or
withdrawn from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides the last, when inserted, with the same
rigid qualities as though it were one piece. The center of the last is indicated, as before stated, by
reproduction in the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model. This is the mark that
locates the position of all the holes, and it is done by a “gigi” in the following manner:- A gig is
a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the boring machine in an exact perpendicular
line. This gig, being placed on the last in the position marked by the turning machine, forms the

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accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge. After the hinge is place in the last, it goes
to ironers to have the bottom put on it, if it is MJckay last, and a heel place if it is a welt. The
bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same. The last is then ready to go to the scouring
room. N this room the last goes through three operations, first of which is ruffing. This consists
of scouring with a coarse grade of quartz. This operation must be carried on so that the sole lines
and insteps are not brought into contact with the quartz. The second operation, medium grinding,
is done with a fine grade of quartz, and in this operation, also the worker keeps away from the
toe. The third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator going over the entire
last. The last is wheel. Then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to the
manufacturer.

6.15 Concept of Pattern Making

Pattern making is the process of creating the ‘Project” of the shoe upper made by the various parts
of upper and lining, so that these can be cut from leather or another material and then joined
together by sewing to from the desired shoe design. But pattern main also extends to other
components, such as the insole, heel and wedge covers or other component’s in case of particular
shoe constructions. The patterns are made in one size (the sample size)m and then they are
‘graded’ (made smaller and bigger) to cover the full size range of shoes to be produced. It is
important to say that only the size of every piece will vary, while the design will never change.
To be a good pattern maker it is fundamental to understand all the production processes of the
footwear making. He should have spent time working in every department of the factory. This is
just to give a better idea of where problems can be hidden when shoe designs are in production.
When the sample patterns are not well done or the grading has not been made correctly, the final
footwear doesn’t fit the last, or shoe machineries don’t work properly or the shoe doesn’t fit the
foot. Examples of the patterns are:

6.16 Shoe Last

The word last is derived from the old Anglo-Saxon word ‘Laest’ which means footprint or foot-
track. The last determines the fit and feel of the shoe as well as wear performance. Last used to

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be made of hardwood. Thousands of people are measure annually to make sure that lasts produced
by the any company match the feet of the prospective customer. However, shoe last must be
manufactured by thinking of two different points of view: styling and manufacturing. The
designer thinks about a last, at the beginning, as a shape given to the shoe and this focused on a
concept composed by last, heel and outsole. On the opposite, the shoe factory or local shoe-maker
must buy sets of shoe lasts conceived as tools for production. This means the sample size last has
to be size graded according to different systems of measurement and with the typical mechanical
characteristics to be used as a production tools. N other words, with hinges, sliding mechanism,
scoop blocks, bottom metal plating and so on. At the same time the last design is a combination
between the needs of the footwear designer and the technical skills and knowledge of the last
designer. These features are strongly connected to the type of shoe to be produced and the
construction required.

6.17. Manual Pattern Making

Tape the outside of the last by the masking tape. Remove the paper in excess along the top line,

the bottom feather edge and along the two center lines. Then detach it carefully. This process is

critical because you may cause an incorrect stretching of the masking tape. The method taught

uses a system of pattern ‘springs’. After the 2D flattened shape has been sprung it is advisable to

cut the two halves of the last in paper to check out the proper shape. Length, width and spring

must correspond to the 3D shoe last. When testing the last fit the paper shouldn’t be pulled too

much. Just lay down it and watch the shape of the natural wrinkles. The same test can be carried

out in leather or fabric but this doesn’t not show the same way. Paper has no elasticity and rips if

not proper shaped. When the fitting is not satisfactory it is necessary to make some adjustments.

A method of cuts, darts and allowances given is enough to fine tune the 3D cover. Most of the

time, the inside and the outside of the last are different in volumes and shapes and so the

corresponding 2D halves. The paper trial is now fundamental to understand where to add the

allowances along the inside picture the pattern maker is showing where to remove and where to

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add the allowances along the inside asymmetrical feather edge. To complete the mean form

making process, the back counter line must be retraced. The 2D flattened form fits well but the

back seat needs more tension given during lasting the shoe.

N this picture the use of particular templates help this process. The final Mean Form is made. It
is called ‘Unified Form’ including inside and outside differences. But this must be completed
with the tracing of construction lines and reference points. These are necessary to convert
sketched lines into technical and functional lines making the patterns of upper and lining. This is
the general explanation of how to make a mean form of a last. The process is used when a pattern
base for Cemented construction is needed. However, there are differences in term of taping,
flattering and springing according to the difference construction followed.

iii. Computer Aided Pattern Making

Footwear design, pattern making and size grading can be faced by using software, in different
ways:

1. Digitizing of patterns and cut: this is the easiest solution. Among the advantages the fact that
is fast for who just wants to cut out the graded pieces of upper and lining. It is very simple
software useful for size grading as well. Some disadvantages, are, for example, the fact that
for every new item a new digitizing is required. According to the amount of pieces this will
take less or more time to engineer and cut by a continuous cutting machine. There is no
possibility of rebuild the standard by assembling the digitized pieces because they have been
made by hand and then “copied’ just to be considered as a file. So, it will not be possible to
change the shape of the pieces if a variation of the stile is required. The only solution will be
remake the pieces by hand and re-digitize them again.
2. Digitizing of the standard (style lines), pattern making and size grading: This is the most
complete way of working by the 2D system. The project is designed by hand and digitized.
Pattern making is obviously consequent and any change of the style lines will automatically
change the patterns made. Size grading is covered in any aspect and the connection between
the standard and the pieces will be reflected to the graded sizes as well. Some software also

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give the possibility of swapping stiles from one standard to another (so from different lasts)
only by some simple operations.
3. Digitizing of the last, flattening, standard making, 3D design, pattern making and size

grading. This is what a complete 3D software can make and assist the updated designer or

technician. Actually nowadays, this is not the most followed solution in the footwear world,

because they always have preferred the 2D software. It is easier and faster, but not only

because of these aspects. The main problems faced have to be referred to some years ago

when it was too complicated to obtain high quality of digitized lasts.

6.18 Leather and Shoemaking Terms

Aglet: - The plastic sheath at the end of a shoelace which makes the lace easier to
thread through the eyelet holes of a shoe.
Ankle Strap: A strap attached at the rear of the shoe that encircles the ankle. Usually
features an adjustable buckle or elastic.
Ankle Wrap: Straps that are meant to be wrapped around and tied around the ankle for a
stylish accent.
Ankle boot: This is footwear that covers the whole foot and ankle
Apron Toe: A type to toe characterized by a large overlay that covers the front of the
toe and has visible edges or stitching.
Assembling: Includes the following operations tacking the insole to the last, putting in
the box and counter of the shoe, and putting the upper of the shoe on the
last.
Back Seam: This is the vertical seam at the back of a shoe or boot
Ball: The padded area of the foot between the big toe and the arch of the foot
Backstay: A term used to denote a strip of leather covering and strengthening the back
seam of a shoe. English backstay means the strip of leather that meets the

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quarters on each side and is sewed to them forming the lower part of the
shoe.
Back Strap: The strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot
Beading: Means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of leaving them raw,
or wheeling nay impression around the sole to the heel. It is called seat
wheeling in many shoes factory rooms.
Beating Out: The same as levelling. It is the term used in turn- shoe work
Belting: The term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide, used in various
thicknesses for machinery belts.
Bellows Tongue: A shoe tongue that is attached at both the too and the sides of the shoe.
Binding: This is the strip sewn over or along an edge for reinforcement or decoration.
Blackball: A mass of grease and lamp-black, formerly used by shoemakers or) edge
of heels and shoes, sometimes called ‘cobbler’s botch’
Brannock Device: A device used to measure the length & width of the foot in order to ensure
proper shoe fit.
Break: The natural crease created across the vamp of the shoe from every day wear.
Buckle: A clasp at the end of a length of fabric or leather that joins one end of the
material to the other
Blocking: The cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that it can be
rounded.
Boxing: A term to designate the stiffening material placed in the toe of a shoe to
support it and retain the shape; such as leather, composition of leather and
paper, a cotton fabric stiffened with shellac, etc
Brushing: The final finish of the top edge, heel, and bottom, by means of a brush.
Burnish: The process of buffing a shoe surface to achieve an antiquing effect of the
leather.
Column Heel: A type of women’s high heel that’s round and column-shaped
Counter: A stiff piece of material placed at the heel of a shoe between the lining and
upper is order to retain the shape of the shoe
Curing: The application of chemicals to animal hides in preparation for the training
process.

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Cushioning: Padding on the insole or outsole of a shoe for added comfort and
stabilization.
Channel: A groove cut in the leather to protect a row of stitches that are laid at the
bottom of the groove.
Clog: A wooden-soled shoe with a leather upper, commonly worn as work boots
are now, also worn over a lighter shoe as a type of pattern. N particularly
muddy or dangerous places, they could be made entirely out of wood with
a carver-out inside for the foot.
Cobbler: A shoe repairer, forbidden by English law from working with new leather,
enforced by the guilds. (Do not call a shoemaker a cobbler).
Cord-wainer: A shoemaker, derived from ‘Cordovan/Cordoban’ leather specific durable
leather named after a city in Spain from whence it was exported. It is
commonly a deep reddish color and used today to described that color.
Dressing: The application of polish or gloss to a shoe to maintain its finish and
appearance.
Elastic Gore: An elastic fabric panel inserted into shoes to provide stretch
Eyelet: A hole through which a lace is threaded; it is fastener consisting of a ‘metal
ring for lining a small hole to permit the attachment of cords or lines.
Eyeleting: This is the operation where the eyelets are attached to the upper. The
machine punches and spaces the lacing holes, feeds and sets the eyelets in
proper alignment.
Fair stitch: The stitching of the Welt to the Midsole.
Finish: The process by which the final appearance of a shoe is created. The finish
can include the application of polish to create a high-gloss finish, or a
contrasting polish to create a rub-off finish like ‘antiquing’
Flat Heel: Shoes with a very low or no heel height
Foam: This is a lightweight material in cellular form; made by introducing gas
bubbles during manufacture
Forefoot: The area of foot between the ball and the toes.
Girth: The circumference of a shoe last, as measured around the ball of the foot.

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Gore: An elastic panel stitched into either side of a shoe’s vamp in order to make
it more comfortable and easier to put on and take off.
Heel Counter: Counters provide support and help the upper wrap around the foot. They
also help protect the heel from impact.
Heel Breast: The forward-facing side of the heel
Heel Height: Heel height is measured on a vertical line at the breast of the heel, from the
bottom surface of the sole where it meets the heel, to the floor.
Heel Seat: The part of the shoe directly below where the heel of the foot rests.
Heel cap: This is the material covering the heel of a boot or shoe and reinforcing or
decorating it.
Hidden Gore: This is an elastic panel at the front of a shoe that is covered by the shoe’s
tongue
Injection Molded Construction: A type of sole unit construction created by injecting melted
PVC or similar material into the sole mold. injection molded construction
is an efficient way to mass-produce footwear.
In-seaming: The stitching together of the welt, upper, lining and insole with a heavy
durable thread.
Insole Rib: The part of the insole that is used when stitching a Goodyear Welt.
Insole Rib: The part of the Insole that is used when stitching a Goodyear Welt.
Instep: The area of the foot between the toes and the ankle, or the top front part of
a shoe
Last: A metal, wood or plastic form used to create the shape of a shoe
Lasting: This is the process of pulling and shaping a shoe on a last. This can be done
by pulling and tacking the upper to the last or by string lasting.
Lift : This is a device worn in a shoe or boot to make the wearer look taller or to
correct a shortened leg.
Lining: The material inside a shoe. Literally, the “lining” on the inside of the shoe
or boot. Leather liners are extremely durable and color to wear, but take
longer to dry.
Mid-sole: The part of the shoe between the very bottom and where the foot rests. The
midsole is a Cushing layer between the outsole and the upper.

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Mule: A backless slip-on shoe, worn in our period by all genders, but still common
today in the women’s section of the shoe store.
Negative Heel: Popular in comfort footwear, a type of foot-bed with a lowered heel area
designed for more natural foot placemen.
Outsole: The very bottom of the shoe, the part that contacts the ground
Overlay: Detailing on a shoe made by layering material on top of other material
Pattern: A protective wooden platform strapped to the foot to raise a walker out of
the mud or at least to provide traction.
Peg: A wooden stake driven into a heel to bind and stabilize the
stacked/laminated leather.
Pump: A light turn shoe with a thin sole meant for wearing mostly indoors. Worn
by all genders, but survives today in the women’s section of the shoe store.
Perforation: A pattern of small holes punched or bored into the trim of a shoe, for the
purpose of decoration or ventilation.
Pinked: Detailing characterized by a saw-tooth edge applied for decoration
Piping: A decorative, narrow strip of leather or synthetic that follows the seam of a
shoe
Pitch: The angle of the back part of the heel where it meets the sole, compared to
the front part of the heel where it meets the sole.
Quarter Panel: The sides of the shoe from the heel to the toe
Quarter Lining: The lining of the rear part of a shoe typically made from leather or fabric
Quarter: The sides of the shoe extending around the back.
Rand: Thin rubber bindings that run around the junction of the upper and sole and
part way up the boot.
Rim: The part of the shoe where the foot enters. This is another term for collar
or top-line
Sculpted Heel: A type of high heel molded in one piece, usually out of high0impact plastic
Shaft Height: This is the measurement of the shaft of the boot. Measurement is from the
inside seam where instep and sole meet to the top of the boot.
Shoe Sizes: The variation between full sizes is one-third of an inch, while the difference
between half sizes and full sizes is one-sixth of an inch.

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Shoe lace: This is a lace used for fastening

Shoebox: This is an oblong rectangular (usually cardboard) box designed to hold a
pair of shoes.
Silicone: A slippery polymeric material used to waterproof shoes.
Skin: This is the layer of tissue that forms the natural outer covering of an animal
Skiving: A trimming process used to reduce the thickness of the edges of the upper
parts prior to joining them together. The skiving machine cuts a bevel at
the edge of the material on the underside as the operator guides the material
past a rapidly rotating razor-sharp knife.
String Lasting: The process of serging a string or tape to the lower edge of the upper so one
the upper is placed on the ‘last’, the string can be pulled tight helping to
form the upper on the ‘last’ prior to bottoming operations.
Sole: The bottom layers of the shoe, usually broken down by layer: insole,
midsole, outsole, etc
Tassel: A rope and knot ornament found on the vamp of a loafer or moccasin
Tannery: This is a workplace where skins and hides are processed
Throat: The main opening of a shoe extending from the vamp to the ankle.
Tip: An additional piece of leather covering the toe of a shoe which may be in several
different shapes or patterns. It is also known as a Cap.
Toecap: This is a material covering the toe of a boot or shoe and reinforcing or decorating
it
Tread: Describing the design of a shoe’s sole
Unit Bottom: A single shoe bottom made from a mould of rubber or plastic. It includes the sole,
platform heel or wedge.
Upper: The part of the shoe that covers the top part of the foot, from heel to toe.
Vamp: This is a piece of leather forming the front part of the upper, of a shoe
Vinyl: Short for polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) vinyl is a shiny plastic often used for coating
shoes.
Vulcanizing: The process where a thermoplastic or rubber sole is joined to the upper suing heat.
Welt: A strip of leather sewn between the insole and the outsole to create a greater
durability

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Wede Heel: A heel which extends from the back of the shoe to the ball of the shoe, following
its contour
Welt Beating: The flattening out of the welt, making it smooth.
Wooden Case: Large box for twelve or more pairs.

7.0 Manual on Tie & Dye

7.1 Introduction

This session discusses the art of making Tie and Dye, types of textile suitable for Tie & Dyes
materials required for Tie & Dyes enterprise, natural dyestuffs and the process of Dying. Batik
process and obtaining of unusual colours will also be discussed.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 7

On completion of this session students should be able to:

 Define Tie & Dyes as an enterprise

 Identify types of textile suitable for Tie & Dyes production.
 Identify natural dyestuffs and the process of Dying.
 Determine Batik production process.
 Produce and market Tie & Dye products as an enterprise.

Dyeing is an ancient art which predates written records. It was practiced during the Bronze age in
Europe. Primitive dyeing techniques included sticking plants to fabric or rubbing crushed
pigments into cloth. The methods became more sophisticated with time and techniques using
natural dyes from crushed fruits, berries and other plants, which were boiled into the fabric and

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gave light and water fastness (resistance), were developed. Some of the well-known ancient dyes
include madder, a red dye made from the roots of the Rubia tinctorum, blue indigo from the leaves
of Indigofera tinctoria, yellow from the stigmas of the saffron plant, and dogwood, an extract of
pulp of the dogwood tree. The first use of the blue dye, woad, beloved by the Ancient Britons,
may have originated in Palestine where it was found growing wild. The most famous and highly
prized colour through the age was Tyrian purple, noted in the Bible, a dye obtained from the spiny
dye-murex shellfish. The Phoenicians prepared it until the seventh century, when Arab conquerors
destroyed their dyeing installations in the Levant. A bright red called cochineal was obtained from
an insect native to Mexico. All these produced high-quality dark colours. Until the mid-l9th
century all dyestuffs were made from natural materials, mainly vegetable and animal matter.
Today, dyeing is a complex, specialised science. Nearly all dyestuffs are now produced from
synthetic compounds. This means that costs have been greatly reduced and certain application and
wear characteristics have been greatly enhanced. But many practitioners of the craft of natural
dying (i.e. using naturally occurring sources of dye) maintain that natural dyes have a far superior
aesthetic quality which is much more pleasing to the eye. On the other hand, many commercial
practitioners feel that natural dyes are non-viable on grounds of both quality and economics. In
the West, natural dyeing is now practiced only as a handcraft, synthetic dyes being used in all
commercial applications. Some craft spinners, weavers, and knitters use natural dyes as a
particular feature of their work. In many of the world’s developing countries, however, natural
dyes can offer not only a rich and varied source of dyestuff, but also the possibility of an income
through sustainable harvest and sale of these dye plants. Many dyes are available from tree waste
or can be easily grown in market gardens. In areas where synthetic dyes, mordants (fixatives). and
other additives are imported and therefore relatively expensive, natural dyes can offer an attractive
alternative. The knowledge required for sourcing and extracting such dyes and mordants is,
however, often not available as extensive research work is required to identify suitable plants,
minerals, etc. In Zambia for example, there is a wealth of plants available for producing natural
dyes, but due to lack of knowledge of the processes involved in harvesting and processing the
plants, little use is made of this natural resource. In some countries, such as India, Nigeria and
Liberia, where this research has been carried out, or where there exists a tradition of natural
dyeing, natural dyes and mordants are used widely.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.11

i. What do you understand by tie and dye?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.11

i. Dyeing is an ancient art which predates written records. It was practiced during the
Bronze age in Europe. Primitive dyeing techniques included sticking plants to fabric
or rubbing crushed pigments into cloth.

7.2 Types of Textiles Suitable For Dying

Natural dyes can be used on most types of material or fibre but the level of success in terms of
fastness and clarity of colour varies considerably. Users of natural dyes, however, tend to also use
natural fibres, and so we will look in more detail at this group. Natural fibres come mainly from
two distinct origins, animal origin or vegetable origin. Fibres from an animal origin include wool,
silk, mohair and alpaca, as well as some others which are less well known. All animal fibres are
based on proteins. Natural dyes have a strong affinity to fibres of animal origin, especially wool,
silk and mohair and the results with these fibres are usually good. Fibres of plant origin include
cotton, flax or linen, ramie, jute, hemp and many others. Plant fibres have cellulose as their basic
ingredient. Natural dyeing of certain plant based textiles can be less successful than their animal
equivalent. Different mordanting techniques are called for with each category. When a blend of
fibre of both animal and plant origin is being dyed, then a recipe should be chben which will
accentuate the fibre which is required to be dominant.

Equipment needed for home dyeing and very shall-scale commercial dyeing. Most equipment
needed for dyeing fabrics at home, or at the’ very small-scale commercial level, can be found in
almost any market place throughout the world. The following isa list Of the equipment
requirements and a brief explanation of their use.

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Heat source. This can be any type of cooking stove; gas, wood, kerosene, charcoal, electricity.
This is used for heating the liquid used during mordanting and dyeing.

Pestle and mortar. Used for milling the natural dye or minerals, where this is called for.

Mordanting and dyeing pans. Stainless steel or enamel pans are the most suitable for dyeing. The
size of. pan depends upon the quantities of fabric that will be dyed., Do not use pans made from
copper; aluminum or iron, unless absolutely necessary, as these metals have properties which can
change the colour of the dye.

Tirring rods. Stainless, steel or glass rods are best as they can be cleaned and used for different
colour dyes. If wooden stirring rods areused then there should be a different spoon for each colour.

Thermometer. This is used to measure the temperature of the liquid during mordanting and dyeing.
A long thermometer (to reach the liquid at the bottom of the pan) is preferred, with a range of 0—
100oC (32 - 2lOoF).

Measuring jugs.. These are used to measure the quantities of liquid called for in the recipe.
Sometimes precise quantities are called for.

Storage containers. Used for storing the dyestuffs and mordants. Large glass and plastic jars are
ideal. Some mordants and dyes are sensitive to light and should’ therefore be stored -in sealed
light-proof containers.

Plastic bowls and buckets. A variety of plastic bowls or buckets of varying sizes re useful when
wetting or rinsing fabrics.

Strainer. Used for straining the liquid off the dyestuff in the dye-bath.

Weighing scales. Used for obtaining the correct quantities as specified in the recipe. A scale with
metric and imperial measurement is useful as conversions from one system to the other are not
then needed.

Protective equipment. Gloves for holding hot pans will prevent burns. An apron will protect your
clothing. Rubber gloves will prevent skin irritation caused by mordants, and will also’prevent you

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from dyeing your hands. A face mask can cut down the amount of fumes or powder inhaled during
the dyeing process.

Mordants
Few natural dyes are colour-fast with fibres. Mordants are substances which are used to fix a dye
to the fibres. They also improve the take-up quality of the fabric and help improve colour and
light-fastness. The term is derived from the Latin mordere, to bite. Some natural dyes, indigo for
example, will fix Without the aid of a mordant; these dyes are known as ‘substantive dyes’. Others
dyes, such as madder and weld, ‘have a limited fastness and the colour will fade with washing and
exposure to light. Traditionally, mordants were found in nature. wood ash or stale urine may have
been used as an alkali mordant, and acids could be found in acidic fruits or rhubarb leaves (which
contain oxalic acid), for example. Nowadays most natural dyers usc chemical mordants such as
alum, copper sulphate; iron or chrome (there are concern, however about the toxic nature of
chrome and some practitioners recommend that it is not used). Mordants are prepared in solution,
often with the addition of an ‘assistant’ which improves the fixing of the mordant to the yarn or
fibre. The most commonly used mordant is alum, which is usually used with cream of tartar as an
additive or assistant. Other mordants are;

 Iron (ferrous sulphate)

 Tin (stannous chloride)
 Chrome (bichromate of potash)
 Copper sulphate
 Tannic acid
 Oxalic acid
 Using a different mordant with the same dyestuff can produce different shades, for
example;
Ironis used as a ‘saddener’ and is used to darken colours. .
 Copper sulphate also darkens but can give shades which are otherwise very difficult to
obtain.
 Tin brightens colours.
 Tannic acid, used traditionally with other mordants, will add brilliancy.
 Chrome is good for obtaining yellows.

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 Oxalic acid is good for extracting blues from berries.

 Cream of Tartar is not really a mordant but is used to give a luster to wool.

Mordants are often poisonous, and in the dye-house they should be kept on a high shelf out of the
reach of children. Always use protective clothing when working with mordants and avoid
breathing the fumes. The mordant can be added before, during or after the dyeing stage, although
most recipes call for mordanting to take place prior to dyeing. It is best to follow the instructions
given in the recipe being used or experiment on a sample before carrying out the final dyeing.
Later in this brief we will explain how the mordant is mixed and used as part of the dyeing process.
These chemical mordants are usually obtained from specialist suppliers or from chemists. Where
this is prohibitive, due to location or cost, natural mordants can be used. There are a number of
plants and minerals which will yield a suitable mordant, but their availability will be dependent
upon your surroundings. Some common substitutes for a selection of mordants are listed below.

Some plants, such as mosses and tea, contain a small amount of aluminium. This can be used as a
substitute to alum. It is difficult to know, however: how much aluminium will be present and
experimentation may be necessary.

Iron water can be used as a substitute to ferrous sulphate. This can be made simply by adding
some rusty nails and a cupful of vinegar to a bucket-full of water and allowing the mixture to- sit
for a couple of weeks.

Oak galls or sumach leaves can be used a substitute to tannic acid;

Rhubarb leaves contain oxalic acid.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.1

i. What are mordants?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.1

i. Mordants are poisonous chemical substances used in Tie & Dye production.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.2

i. List the types of mordants you know

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In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.2

 Iron (ferrous sulphate)

 Tin (stannous chloride)
 Chrome (bichromate of potash)
 Copper sulphate
 Tannic acid
 Oxalic acid
 Using a different mordant with the same dyestuff can produce different shades, for
example;
Ironis used as a ‘saddener’ and is used to darken colours. .
 Copper sulphate also darkens but can give shades which are otherwise very difficult to
obtain.
 Tin brightens colours.
 Tannic acid, used traditionally with other mordants, will add brilliancy.
 Chrome is good for obtaining yellows.
 Oxalic acid is good for extracting blues from berries.
 Cream of Tartar is not really a mordant but is used to give a luster to wool.

7.3 Natural Dyestuffs

Dyestuffs and dyeing are as old as textiles themselves. Nature provides a wealth of plants which
will yield their colour for the purpose of dyeing, many having been used since antiquity. In this
section we will look at some of these naturally occurring dyes, their source and the colours they
produce. Later in the brief we will look at the application of the dyes to textiles. Almost any
organic material will produce a colour when boiled in a dye- bath, but only certain plants will
yield a colour that will act as a dye. Natural dyes fall into, the following categories:

 Leaves and stems

 Twigs and prunings
 Flower heads
 Barks

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 Roots
 Outer skins, hulls and husks
 Heartwoods and wood shavings
 Berries and seeds
 Lichens
 Insect dyes

The choice of mordant for a particular plant is dependent upon the material with which it will be
used. It is necessary to check a recipe before using a plant or one can experiment to see what effect
a mordant has for a particular application. It is recommended that plants be grown specifically for
the purpose of dyeing. Harvesting plants from the wild on .a non-sustainable basis can endanger
he survival of the plant. Many lichens are registered as protected organisms and it is illegal to
gather them from the wild. One source of lichen is from timber mills where logged trees are being
processed, but ask first!

7. 4 Testing dyes
It is always useful and interesting td test the dye which is to be used on a sample of the yarn or
fabric to be dyed. The outcome will depend on the fabric, the mordant that has been used and dye
that has have been chosen. Testing is best carried out on a series of marked (for identification)
samples, which have been mordanted with a number of different mordants. Tests can be carried
out for light, water and washing fastness using simple standard test methods. Box 1 shows a simple
test for Washing fastness. Similar tests exist for water and light fastness.

Box 1: Test method for fastness to washing

To test for fastness follow these steps:

1. Take two pieces of fabric about 5cm by 5cm, one of which is undyed cotton and the other undyed
wool. Stitch them together along one side.
2. Take some sample strips of the dyed yarn and spread them evenly between the two piece of cloth
so that they overlap both sides. If dyed fibre is being tested a combed sample can be used in place
of the yarn.
3. Sew around all four sides of the cloth so that the yarn is held in plate.
4. Prepare a similar specimen with dyed materials that has satisfactory properties and place them in
two jars with screw lids containing a solution of 5gm per litre soap or detergent solution at 3O oC.
5. Agitate the two jars gently for 3omins, then remove the fabrics and wash them Pagegently
130 ofin149
clean I
water for 5mins. Open the stitching and separate the pieces to dry in air.

Examination:
6. Place the dyed yarn next to a sample of the same material which has not been tested,. and compare
the change which has taken place. Compare also with the control sample with satisfactory
 GNS 204: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills

Processing of the plant can take one of many forms, but usually takes the form of soaking of
boiling the plant to extract the dye. Some plants, such as indigo, need special preparation for use:
Some plants will need boiling to extract their dye while others can merely be soaked for extended
periods. Detailed instructions for processing of a wide variety of plants can be found in some of
the texts given in the reference chapter at the end of this document.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.4

i. How will you test for fasting of dye?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.4

1. i. Take two pieces of fabric about 5cm by 5cm, one of which is undyed cotton and the other
undyed wool. Stitch them together along one side.
2. Take some sample strips of the dyed yarn and spread them evenly between the two piece of
cloth so that they overlap both sides. If dyed fibre is being tested a combed sample can be used
in place of the yarn.
3. Sew around all four sides of the cloth so that the yarn is held in plate.
4. Prepare a similar specimen with dyed materials that has satisfactory properties and place them
in two jars with screw lids containing a solution of 5gm per litre soap or detergent solution at
3OoC.
5. Agitate the two jars gently for 3omins, then remove the fabrics and wash them gently in clean
I water for 5mins. Open the stitching and separate the pieces to dry in air.

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7.5 The Process of Dyeing: Application of the Dye

Dyeing can be carried out at any of the following stages in the textile manufacturing stage:

The fibres can be dyed before they are spun. Fibre dyeing provides a deep penetration of the dye
into the fibre, giving even colour and excellent colour-fastness.

The yarn can be dyed after spinning but before, the product is woven or otherwise fabricated. This
is called package dyeing.

Before the fabric is finished, it can be dyed in lengths (piece dyeing).This process allows
manufacturers the opportunity to produce fabrics in their natural colours, and then dye them to
order.

In cross-dyeing, fabrics of two or more fibres can be dyed so that each fibre accepts a different
dyestuff and becomes a different colour, through the use of appropriate dyestuffs for each fibre.

It is essential for the correct identification of the fibre or other fabric to be made before dyeing
commences.
7.6 Methods of Dyeing
There are a number of methods of applying dye to a fabric. Although the most common method
used for applying natural dyes is the vat method, there are techniques which have been developed
to a flow patterns to be incorporated during the dying process. It is worth bearing in mind that
using natural dyes is a complex art and the skills required for using natural dyes are learned over
many years. Don’t be put off if you don’t get the desired results at the first attempt!

7.6.1 Vat Dyeing

In the simplest form of dyeing a textile material is immersed in dte and gradually brough± to the
boil. Alternatively the fibre is allowed to sit and soak for several hours or days. During this period,
agitation is necessary to allow full penetration of the textile by the dyestuff. Depending on the
type of fabric and dye stuff used, certain salts or acids may be added to assist absorption of the
dye. The principal difficulty in dyeing mixed yarns and fabrics is to achieve the same colour in
both fibres. Cotton fibres may, fof instance, absorb dyes rapidly, while the wool fibres will have

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to be boiled over an extended period to reach the same depth of shade. This could lead to
significant damage to the material. In this case a chemical compound would need to be used to
restrain the rate at which the cotton fibre takes up the dyestuff. The amount of dyestuff which is
used is usually given in the recipe. It is usually quoted as a percentage weight of the fabric to be
dyed. Box 2 exhibits a typical, simple recipe for dyeing using natural dyestuff, in this case onion
skins.

Box 2: Recipe for dyeing wool with onion skins

Fabric: applicable to wool or other animal (protein) fibres. You will need:,
 100 grams of natural wool
 30 grams of onion skins (use only the dry, brown, outer skins)
 8 grams of alum (the mordant).
 7 grams cream of tartar (the assistant).
 Some liquid detergent (the scouring agent)
 A water supply*
If a larger quantity of wool is to be dyed, increase the quantities proportionally. Weigh the wool.
All weights given are relative to the dry weight of the wool. Skeins of wool are tied loosely in
several places to prevent tangling. In this case the recipe calls for.30% dyestuff i.e. the weight of
the dyestuff is 30% that of the fabric to be dyed.

The wool should be scoured: This means getting the wool completely dean. For this the wool is
soaked overnight in a liquid detergent solution. Rinse the wool well and gently squeeze out the
excess water. Use lukewarm water and avoid sudden changes in the temperature of the water which
cause the wool to felt or mat.

Next the skein will be mordanted: Dissolve the alum and cream of tartar in a. little hot water and
then add this solution to cool water in the mordant pan. Immerse the wetted yarn and then place the
pan on the heat source. Slowly raise the temperature to S2oC (l800F) and simmer for 45 minutes.
Leave to cool, then remove the wool and rinse well. To prepare the dye bath, place the onion skins
in, the dye pan and cover them with water. Slowly heat the dye bath to boiling point. Simmer for
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about 45 minute which time all the colour should have been extracted from the onion skins.
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Remove from the heat low to cool and then strain off the liquid form the skins. The dyeing
process is then carried out. The mordanted, thoroughly wetted fabric is placed into the now ‘cool
dye bath. Replace the heat under the dye bath, bring the temperature up to boiling paint and then
immediately reduce the heat to 82oC (l8OoF) and simmer for 45 minutes or until the wool is the
required colour. Remember that wool is darker w.hen wet than when dry. Remove the wool from
the dye bath if no further uptake of dye is required, or allow the fabric to cool with the liquid in
the dye bath. Do not cool quickly with cold water. When the skein of wool is cool, rinse it
thoroughly in several changes of water until the water is clear, then wash the skein of wool in
soapy water, rinse and allow to dry.
*ordinary tap water is normally suitable for dyeing. If ‘soft’ water is called for then rain, water
can be used. A plentiful supply of fresh water is always required when dyeing.

7.6.2 Batik
Batik is a starch resist-dyeing process, developed on the Island of Java in modern-day Indonesia.
Colour is prevented from reaching certain areas of a fabric by covering these areas with molten
wax. The fabric is starched prior to the design being drawn upon it. The wax is applied with a t9pe
of cup with a fine pouring spout, usually made of copper. The technique has been developed tO a
high art form in Indonesia from where. It is exported to many parts’ of the world. Batik paintings,
as well as sarongs and lengths of fabric, are produced. When the fabric is dyed, all waxed areas
resist the dye stuff. The wax is then removed by placing the fabric in boiling water. For patterns
with many colours the same procedure is repeated until the full design is completed.

7.6.3 Tie-Dyeing
Tie-dyeing is another popular artisanal dyeing technique. In this resist-dyeing process, waxed
thread is tightly tied around the areas chosen to resist the coloured dyestuff, and the fabric is
dipped into the dye. The waxed thread is then removed and the fabric dried. This process can be
repeated for each colour to be added.

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7.6.4 Obtaining Unusual Colours

Colours other than those obtained by simply using a single dye, can be obtained by rnixiág dyes
or dyenga fabric more than once in different dye baths. The colour triangle on the next page is a
useful tool in determining the colours needed to produce a required shade.

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 6

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its Learning
Outcomes by answering the following questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on
the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 6.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.1)

Identify with their origin, the sandal and shoe designers you know

SAQ 6.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.2)

List sandal/shoe parts and explain each

SAQ 6.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.3)

Discuss how shoe stiles are made
SAQ 7.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.1)

What are natural dye stuffs? Give examples of natural dye stuffs.

SAQ 7.2

What are the method of dyeing that you know?

References
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1

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SAQ 1.1
Agriculture is expected to play five main roles for sustainable development of every agrarian
economy. The first and perhaps the most crucial is the supply of food (Akande et al, 1999),
which is expected to be available to people in adequate quantity and quality at affordable
price, others include supply of raw materials for domestic, agro-industrial manufacturing,
generation of incomes to farming households and generation of foreign exchange through
export of agricultural commodities.

SAQ 1.2

The principles of crops production are all the activities carried on the farm, before, during and
after planting of crops seed or seedling.

SAQ 1.3

It involves opening up of the soil for seed planting. This can be done with the simple farm tools
like hoe or Indian hoe on a small scale farm; or mechanically by using a tractor driven disc plough;
disc harrow on a commercial/large scale farms. In mechanized tillage, the field is ploughed to
break up the soil and harrowed to break up large clods of soil resulting from ploughing before
ridge or beds can be made if necessary. This is also termed pulverise.

Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 2

SAQ 2.1

 Low Purchase Price

 Produces at an early age and have more off-springs than cattle. They can kid or lamb three
times in two years.
 Ability to survive on low quality food.
 Cheaper to replace if lost and readily available.
 Good source of meat, milk and skin.
 Adaptive to broad range of environments, arid and semi-arid zones.

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SAQ 2.2

Sheep: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Yankasa,

iii. Ouda and

iv. Balami

Goats: i. West African Dwarf (WAD)

ii. Red Sokoto and

iii. Sahel

SAQ 2.3
Sheep and goats management involve the use of best practices in production. This is usually
obtained under the intensive management system where quality feed, health care, security,
biosecurity, housing, water provision are adequately provided. Notes on Self-

Assessment
SAQ 2.4

 Pasture Mating: This is done on the field while the animals are grazing/browsing. Males
detect females on heat and mate.
 Hand/Pen Mating: This is done under intensive management. The husbandry man detects
the females on heat and turn them to males in their pen.
 Artificial Insemination: Scientific mating method involving collection of male’s semen,
processing and storage. It is to be used to inseminate female animals on heat. It is practiced
under scientific herd management schemes for improvement or upgrading the herd/flock.

SAQ 2.5

Identification is done by the use of ear-tags, ear-notching, permanent markers and branding while
Castration: removal of the testes/testicles of male animals to prevent indiscriminate mating.

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Questions for Study Session 3

SAQ 3.1
Pig can be found all over the world and are kept by peasant farmers and in commercial
outfits. They can also be found in schools, colleges and research centres. They can be found
scavenging in local areas, tethered or kept in pens for commercial purposes. Pigs are
multiparous (capable of multiple births) and are omnivorous too (can eat both plants and
animals).
SAQ 3.2

i. Availability of Capital: Piggery operation require some money for buildings, equipment
and utensils, feed, drugs, water and labour. Animals (pigs) are also to be purchased. Hence,
capital can be raised from personal savings, loans from friends and family members and/or
from lending institutions.
ii. Feed and water resources: These are very crucial resources for optimum performance.
Water is particularly a limiting factor in pig production.
iii. Land: Sufficient land should be procured for buildings, waste disposal, offices and store.
Band for foraging pasture and cultivation of grains for feed formulation is also important.
It is essential to register such area for industrial purpose to prevent future litigation.
iv. Market: Availability of market for production is essential. It will be unwise to site a
piggery in an area where there is no market.

SAQ 3.3
Common breeds of pigs found in commercial farms in Nigeria are exotic breeds which include
the following:
 Large white.
 Landrace.
 Duroc.
 Hampshire.
Other breeds include:
 Pietrain.
 Wessex saddleback.
 Tamworth.

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 Local Breed.

SAQ 3.4

 Large white (Yorkshire): Most commonly found breed, white in colour with erect/upright
ears. They are very prolific, have good mothering abilities and have adapted very well to
tropical region.
 Landrace: White in colour with dropping ears. They are longer than the large white and
good for bacon production but requires a high level of management.
 Duroc: Light to dark brown in colour, does not produce very good carcass but very hardy
and survives very well in tropical climate.
 Hampshire: Black in colour with a white belt around the shoulder extending to the forelegs.
They produce more meat than the large white and the landrace and are excellent mothers.

Other breeds include:

 Pietrain: White with patches of black all over the body. They produce good meat and the
sows are good mothers.
 Wessex saddleback: Black with white band over the shoulder and forelegs but too short
and too fat for bacon production.
 Tamworth: Reddish in colour with erect ears used for bacon production.
 Local Breed: They are usual black in colour and small sized due to stunted growth.

SAQ 3.5

 Extensive system
 Semi-Intensive system
 Intensive system.

SAQ 3.6

 Creep feed: This contains 20-25% protein and fed to piglets from 4 – 56 days of age. Feed
intake per piglet increases from 0.2kg/day to 0.8kg at 56 days (8 weeks).
 Weaner/Grower diet: Contains 16-18% protein with high energy than the creep feed. Fed
till pig attains 45kg weight.

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 Fatterners diet: Contains 14-16% protein and fed from 45kg to 70kg for pork production
and 90-120kg weight for bacon production.
 Breeders diet: Contain 14-16% protein and requires more fibre than the fatteners ration.

SAQ 3.7
DISEASE CAUSES SYMPTOMS
1. Swine fever Virus High temperature; constipation; diarrhoea. Unsteady
walk, sometimes bleeding in the skin visible as brown
blemishes. Sows may abort.
2. Swine Erysipelas Bacteria Constipation or soft dung. Pink skin with indented
blemishes (you can put thumb in). no appetite; stiff
limping gait screeches hoarsely when roused
manifest itself in hot. Weather, only one or a few pigs
ill in the herd.
3. Preumonia Bacteria virus parasites Common during raining season. Cough especially
due to many Pigs in a after exertion and breathe with convulsions if cause
small Space by virus and bacteria these is going to be retarded.
4. Tetanus Bacteria due to rusty Severe cramp condition stiff neck and extreme ties.
material e.g. nail
5. Mastitis Bacteria Inflation of the udder
6. Anthrax Bacteria Acute condition, blood stained coming from all the
body endings. Affected animals are usually found
dead in the pen.
7. Brucellosis Bacteria Sterility, infection of the reproductive organs.
8. Intestine Parasites Parasites Worms found in the intestine, erosion of intestinal
walls.
9. Mange Parasite (mites) Itching and irritation around the skin between the
legs, eyes, ears and neck.
10. Lice Parasite Irritation, Aneamia
11. Aneamia Iron-deficiency Paleness of the mucus membrane.
deficiency
12. This sow syndrome Metabolic Nursing sow becomes thin, fall down and may go into
coma.

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Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 4.

SAQ 4.1

Rabbit keeping dates backs to the Romans who kept them in special enclosures called ‘leporaria’.
It has emerged as a new business opportunity and requires less investment in capital outlay and
land requirement when starting. Rabbits are herbivores, do not require much grain or mixed
concentrate, hence, their feed cost is not much.

SAQ 4.2

 New Zealand White

 New Zealand Red
 California White
 Flemish Giant
 Big Dutch
 Chinchilla
 Champagned Argent
 Angora
 English Lop
 Checkered Giant
 Himalayan

SAQ 4.3

Buck - Adult male

Doe - Adult female

Kitten - Newly born

Litter - Group of newly born by a doe

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Kindling - Act of giving birth

SAQ 4.4
Male rabbits will be ready for mating at five months old while the female are ready at four months.
However, the size of the female should also be considered to enable it carry the pregnancy to term.
Although they can be mated earlier than this period. Does (females) do not usually show signs of
heat like other animals but when it is restless and want to join others in other cages it should be
taken to the buck in its cage and not otherwise. The doe will ovulate in response to the buck hence,
called SPONTANEOUS OVULATOR. Once mating has taken place the doe should be returned
to its own cage.

SAQ 4.5

 Tattooing
 Ear-tagging
 Use of leg rings

SAQ 4.6

 normal eating and drinking

 alertness and curiosity
 self grooming
 shiny, smooth, clean fur especially on the front paws and around the anus
 clear, bright eyes without discharges
 clear nostrils
 normal, silent breathing
 gaining weight progressively

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Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 5.

SAQ 5.1

The term “Poultry” generally refers to all domesticated birds kept for egg, meat or feather
productions. These domesticated birds includes: chicken, turkey, duck, pigeon, quail, goose etc.

SAQ 5.2.

Class Origin Purpose Plumage Egg Colour

Asiatic Asia Meat Buff Brown

American America Dual White/red Brown

English England Meat White/black Brown

Mediterranean Italy Egg White White

SAQ 5.3.

 Selection/location of poultry pen

 Away from residential area
 Away from other poultry farms
 Accessible road
 Availability of quality water
 Availability of inputs (chicks, feed, drugs, vaccines etc)
 Orientation/Direction of pen
 East – West – for proper ventilation and to avoid direct entry/impact of sunlight

SAQ 5.4

 Good quality raw materials

 Proper feed formulation according to the age of the chickens
 Thorough mixing of various feed components
 Proper processing of feed

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 Proper storage of feed

 Proper particle size of feed
 Balancing of energy and crude protein
 Form of feed: mash, crumble or pellet
 Free from micro-organisms and toxins.

SAQ 5.5

Vaccination is the usage of an antigen to stimulate production of antibody that will confer
immunity on the chickens, thereby preventing the chickens from being infected with particular
disease agent that is vaccinated against.

SAQ 5.6

NDV (1/0)

Marek’s Disease Vaccine

1st IBDV/Gumboro

1st NDV Lasota

2nd IBDV/Gumboro

2nd NDV Lasota

Fowl pox vaccine

1st NDV Kamorov

2nd NDV Kamorov

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Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 6

SAQ 6.1
1. Raymond Lewis, Will Smith - shoemaker who invented the loafer design
2. Hans Sachs - German poet
3. Salvatore Capezio - Founder of the manufacturer of dance shoes
4. Salvatore Ferragamo - An Italian shoe designer
5. Jimmy Choo - A Malaysian Chinese fashion designer based
in London.
6. Christian Louboutin - French footwear designer
7. Daniel Day-Lewis - Actor who apprenticed as a shoemaker.

SAQ 6.2
Part Description
The bottom of the shoe. Sole
Interior bottom of a shoe which sits directly In-sole
beneath the foot
that layer of the shoe that is in direct contact Outsole
with the ground
Often the heel of the sole is made from rubber heel
for durability and traction and the front is
made of leather for style
The layer that lies between the outsole and the Midsole
insole for shock absorption
The part above the sole Upper
The section which covers the sides of the foot Vamp
the lacing which covers the ankle and the
instep
The part of the sole of the shoe between the Shank
heel and the ball

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The part which curves around the lower edge Throat of the vamp
of the top, where the lacing starts.
Term used to denote a strip of leather covering Backstay
and strengthening the back seat of the shoe
Term used mostly in low shoes to denote the Quarter
rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not
used.
The toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp Tip
and outside of it.
Term used to denote a strip of leather lace stay
reinforcing the eyelet holes.
A narrow strip of leather used on all lace shoes Tongue
to protect the instep from the lacing and
weather
The name applied to leather of the upper that Foxing
extends from the sole to the laces in front, and
is often cut down to the shank in circular form.
If in two pieces, that part covering the counter
is called a heel fox.
Term applied to leather attached to the upper Overlay
part of the vamp of a slipper.
The inner part of the heel, that is, the section Breast
nearest shank.

SAQ 6.3.
If proper examination is made on the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice different
styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons go are comparatively usual to -day
for the new designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most
varied at hat ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the new colors
in materials for footwear. Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have

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hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of Nigeria. Coronation purple velvet boots look like
an extravagant color for footwear, but they are now selling. The style if the shoe is dominated by
fashion. All styles are related, that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing
fashion, ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline.

SAQ 7.1
Dyestuffs and dyeing are as old as textiles themselves. Nature provides a wealth of plants which
will yield their colour for the purpose of dyeing, many having been used since antiquity. In this
section we will look at some of these naturally occurring dyes, their source and the colours they
produce. Later in the brief we will look at the application of the dyes to textiles. Almost any
organic material will produce a colour when boiled in a dye- bath, but only certain plants will
yield a colour that will act as a dye. Natural dyes fall into, the following categories:
 Leaves and stems
 Twigs and prunings
 Flower heads
 Barks
 Roots
 Outer skins, hulls and husks
 Heartwoods and wood shavings
 Berries and seeds
 Lichens
 Insect dyes

SAQ 7.2
There are a number of methods of applying dye to a fabric. Although the most common method
used for applying natural dyes is the vat method, there are techniques which have been developed
to a flow patterns to be incorporated during the dying process. It is worth bearing in mind that
using natural dyes is a complex art and the skills required for using natural dyes are learned over
many years. Don’t be put off if you don’t get the desired results at the first attempt!

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SAQ 7.3
Methods of Tie & Dyeing are:
 Vat Dyeing
 Batik.
 Tie-Dyeing.

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