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Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With Autism: Applying Positive

Psychology in Rehabilitation Counseling

Article in Rehabilitation Research Policy and Education · December 2022

DOI: 10.1891/RE-21-19

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Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With
Autism: Applying Positive Psychology in
Rehabilitation Counseling
Heekyung Lee,a Jarhed Pena,b Beatrice Lee,b and Connie Sungb,c

Positive psychology is a subdomain that addresses the importance of human strengths and
personal assets in individuals’ well-being. The principles of positive psychology align with the
philosophy of rehabilitation counseling by emphasizing individuals’ strengths to promote psy-
chosocial adjustment to disability. Considering the intersection between positive psychology and
rehabilitation counseling, applying the positive psychology framework to rehabilitation counsel-
ing will be a promising foundation for improvement in services and outcomes. As the number
of individuals on the autism spectrum increases, more innovative services are needed to keep
abreast of their needs. This article discusses how positive psychology can be applied to the popu-
lation of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and explores possible practices that
can be replicated by practitioners to provide quality services for this emerging disability popula-
tion. Implications for education and research are also discussed.
Keywords: positive psychology; rehabilitation counseling; autism; emerging disability

I
n his American Psychological Association presi- positive character, and positive institutions. Gable
dential address in 1998, Martin Seligman intro- and Haidt (2005) described positive psychology
duced the mission of positive psychology which, as the study that contributes to the flourishing of
aims to build what makes life worth living (Seligman, people, groups, and institutions. Peterson (2006)
1999, 2011). Shifting away from human pathology defined it as the scientific study of what makes life
and suffering, positive psychology focuses on other worth living. More recent scholars have described
areas of human experiences, such as hope, wisdom, positive psychology as the study of what constitutes
creativity, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and a pleasant, engaged, and meaningful life (MacKenzie
perseverance (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). & Baumeister, 2014); these scholars look at the posi-
The goal of positive psychology is to understand tive aspects that revolve around well-being, happi-
and build positive assets and to allow individuals, ness, and thriving (Kim et al., 2012) to explore “the
communities, and societies to flourish (Froh, 2004; other side of the coin” and address the full spectrum
Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive psy- of the human experience (Gable & Haidt, 2005).
chology has permeated the psychology literature
and has become a sub-domain of psychology (Gable a
Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Uni-
& Haidt, 2005; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) versity of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United
that provides a more holistic and appreciative view States
of human potentials and experiences (Sheldon & b
Department of Counseling, Educational Psychol-
King, 2001). ogy & Special Education, Michigan State University,
Researchers have described positive psychol- East Lansing, Michigan, United States
ogy in different ways, albeit related with each other. c
Center for Research in Autism, Intellectual and
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) defined posi- other Neurodevelopmental Disabilities, Michigan
tive psychology as the study of positive emotion, State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
REHABILITATION RESEARCH, POLICY, AND EDUCATION Volume 36, Number 4, 2022
© 2022 National Council on Rehabilitation Education, LLC
276 http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/RE-21-19
 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al. 277

The application of positive psychology in dis- mental health issues (Bellini, 2004). Additionally,
ability and rehabilitation research and practice have they may experience undesirable psychosocial life
been highlighted by Chou and Colleagues (2013) challenges, such as being bullied at school, building
in the special issue of the Journal of Rehabilitation relationships, needing more support for indepen-
Research, Policy, and Education—Positive Psychol- dent living, and facing barriers in educational and
ogy Special Issue. However, questions still remain vocational pursuits (Hofvander et al., 2009). For
regarding the application of positive psychology instance, analyses from the National Longitudinal
across specific populations and contexts. While Transition Study-2 indicate that more than half of
increasing positive psychology research has dem- transition youth with ASD are disengaged from
onstrated that people with chronic illnesses and dis- employment and/or education several years after
abilities can benefit from positive psychology (Chan exiting high school (Shattuck et al., 2012). In terms
et al., 2013; Chou et al., 2013; Sung et al., 2019), of rehabilitation outcomes, among clients with ASD
little is known about its benefits to emerging dis- who received vocational rehabilitation services, only
ability populations such as autism spectrum disorder 37% achieved competitive employment on average
(ASD). Additionally, it has been unknown whether across a 10-year span (Alverson & Yamamoto, 2017),
positive psychology instruments and interventions and of the individuals who were working, they
developed for the general population are applicable tended to work part-time in low-wage jobs (Bennett
to people who have ASD. Although the potential for et al., 2018). With an anticipated 500,000 youth with
integrating positive psychology and rehabilitation ASD entering adulthood through 2025 (Roux et al.,
counseling is intriguing, particularly in serving those 2019), a staggering number of transition youth with
with ASD, a stronger body of evidence is needed this emerging disability continue to be at risk for
that demonstrates shared constructs, the validity experiencing transition challenges. In a systematic
of positive psychology instruments and practices review, Zimmerman et al. (2018) found that greater
when applied in rehabilitation, and how incorporat- symptom severity, impaired nonverbal learning,
ing these contributes to salient outcomes for people cognitive shifting deficits, negative thinking styles,
with ASD. To further promote current interest in and low perceived social support earlier in life were
applying positive psychology research to the ASD associated with poorer psychosocial outcomes in
population within the discipline of rehabilitation individuals with ASD during adulthood. To address
counseling and psychology, the purpose of this arti- the difficulties that individuals with ASD confront
cle is to provide an overview of positive psychology across the lifespan, instead of using a deficit-based
theory and research as well as its specific application model, an integrative, strengths-based approach
in promoting well-being among those with ASD. (e.g., positive psychology) was recommended by
Scott et al. (2019).

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Three Pillars of Positive Psychology
According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 1 in 54 children has an ASD diagnosis Positive psychology has three central pillars: Posi-
in the United States (Maenner et al., 2020). The tive emotions, positive individual traits, and posi-
increasing prevalence of ASD highlights the need for tive institutions (Seligman, 2002). Positive emotions
services and resources for this population (Chiarotti refer to the person’s well-being and satisfaction with
& Venerosi, 2020). ASD is a neurodevelopmen- the past, happiness in the present, and hope for the
tal disorder characterized by persistent deficits in future; it focuses on the person’s positive feelings
social communication, impairments in social inter- and desire to have a “pleasant life.” Positive indi-
actions, repetitive patterns of behaviors, restricted vidual traits pertain to a person’s capacity for love,
interests or activities, and/or sensory sensitivities work, courage, resilience, integrity, and wisdom—
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Indi- characteristics that enable someone to have a “good
viduals with ASD often encounter difficulties with life” and pertain to what a person must do to become
handling changes and transitions and navigating a good person. Positive institutions refer to the
and negotiating the social world (Ashbaugh et al., strengths that foster better citizenship and commu-
2017), leading to depression, anxiety, and other nities, such as justice, responsibility, civility, altru-
278 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al.

ism, work ethic, and tolerance. These three pillars and individuals’ inability or lack of ability to achieve
are the essential framework for positive psychology goals or outcomes (Müller et al., 2016). In contrast,
researchers and practitioners who seek to develop positive psychology focuses on having a balanced
relevant theories, assessments, and interventions perspective on the human experience (Seligman
(Chou et al., 2009). et al., 2005) by focusing on positive constructs.
Boselie et al. (2018) examined the use of online
positive psychology interventions with participants
Benefits of Positive Psychology who had chronic disabilities. These participants
performed positive psychology exercises individu-
The benefits of positive psychology revolve around ally at home that focused on self-compassion (e.g.,
encouraging individuals to shift their perspective writing a self-compassion letter), positive focus (e.g.,
into seeing happiness, virtue, free will, meaning, practicing the “three good things” exercise), savor-
creativity, and success so that they do not miss any- ing (e.g., actively planning pleasant activities), and
thing that can make their life worth living (Seligman, optimism (e.g., practice the “best possible self”
2018). In this section, three major benefits of posi- exercise). The results found that positive emotions
tive psychology are highlighted. decreased levels of pain catastrophizing, depression,
First, although positive psychology has been and anxiety (Boselie et al., 2018).
criticized as a “pseudoscience” (e.g., Coyne & Ten- Third, not only has it demonstrated a posi-
nen, 2010; Tavris, 2014), around 18,000 scholarly tive impact on individuals, but the use of positive
articles have been published on positive psychology psychology has also demonstrated positive impacts
topics from mindfulness to post-trauma growth on environments. For instance, promoting positive
(Rusk & Waters, 2013), which have examined the psychology in the workplace has enhanced employee
use of positive psychology in randomized control tri- experiences and increased organizational morale
als (e.g., Alschuler et al., 2018; Kreutzer et al., 2018; and success (Mills et al., 2013). By highlighting
Peters et al., 2017). In addition, a plethora of studies employees’ positive psychological traits (e.g., hope,
have proved the efficacy of the positive psychology psychological empowerment), significant improve-
paradigm and have measured the validity of positive ment has been demonstrated in employees’ work
psychology instruments (e.g., Lyubomirsky & Lep- performance, increased commitment, and higher job
per, 1999; McGrath, 2019; Seligman, 2019; Snyder satisfaction (Seibert et al., 2011; Youssef & Luthans,
et al., 1996). Positive psychology interventions have 2007). Strategies that employers use to foster psy-
been demonstrated to be effective in enhancing chological empowerment include implementing
well-being and reducing depressive symptoms (e.g., high-performance managerial practices (e.g., open
Bolier et al., 2013; Seligman et al., 2006; Sin & Lyu- information sharing, participative decision-making)
bomirsky, 2009). and establishing supportive and effective work rela-
The number of evaluation studies of posi- tionships (Seibert et al., 2011). These strategies also
tive psychology has greatly increased over the past facilitate hope in employees and encourage them
decade. Many of these studies have demonstrated the to practice positive self-talk, set goals, and gener-
efficacy of positive psychology interventions such as ate realistic goal-achievement pathways (Youssef &
counting your blessings (Emmons & McCullough, Luthans, 2007).
2003; Seligman, 2005), practicing kindness (Otake
et al., 2006), setting personal goals (Green et al.,
2006; Sheldon et al., 2002), expressing gratitude INTERSECTION OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
(Seligman, 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006) AND REHABILITATION COUNSELING
and using personal strengths (Seligman, 2005) to
enhance well-being, and, in some cases, to alleviate Rehabilitation counseling is “a systematic process
depressive symptoms (e.g., Bolier et al., 2013; Selig- which assists persons with physical, mental, devel-
man et al., 2005, 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). opmental, cognitive, and emotional disabilities to
Second, positive psychology emphasizes posi- achieve their personal, career, and independent liv-
tive personality traits to create a more balanced and ing goals in the most integrated setting possible
holistic understanding of individuals. Historically, through the application of the counseling process”
psychology has predominantly focused on deficits (CRCC, 2017, p. 1). The fundamental goal of reha-
 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al. 279

bilitation counseling is to assist individuals with life satisfaction, positive affect, and depression in
disabilities to promote or to re-promote their inde- individuals with chronic pain and physical disabil-
pendence through employment or other meaningful ity. Alschuler et al. (2018) also found that the use
activities. This goal is based on the assumption that of a positive psychology intervention that focuses
meaningful activities enable individuals to become on setting goals, retraining cognitions for positivity,
productive members of society, establish social net- and gaining positive momentum increased resil-
works, and experience a good quality of life (Chan ience, hope, wellbeing, life satisfaction, and reduced
et al., 2004). Accordingly, rehabilitation counsel- depression in individuals with multiple sclerosis.
ing views individuals as people who are in control Resilience and hope, as common positive psychol-
of all decisions about their preferences and goals, ogy constructs, are found to be protective factors
who possess dignity and worth, and who have their and associated with reduced feelings of anxiety and
own personal characteristics and attributes (CRCC, depression, increased social and work participation,
2017; Tarvydas et al., 2018). The strengths-based and improved psychosocial adjustment for individu-
philosophy of rehabilitation counseling focuses on als with chronic illnesses and disabilities, including
the positive elements in individuals’ life experiences, chronic pain (Boselie et al., 2018), traumatic brain
and this provides a strong foundation and clear fit to injury (Sima et al., 2019; Wardlaw et al., 2018),
the goal and mission of positive psychology (Chou multiple sclerosis (Madan & Pakenham, 2014), and
et al., 2013; Martz & Livneh, 2016). This intersec- other functional impairments (Hirsch et al., 2011).
tionality with positive psychology can be further These findings revealed that positive psychology had
implemented in the field of rehabilitation counsel- shown promising evidence in well-being and quality
ing to provide quality and vital services and support of life for persons with disabilities and chronic health
for people with disabilities, particularly for emerg- conditions.
ing disability populations who may need different While the emerging research on positive psy-
approaches to rehabilitation services. chology in disability is prevalent, similar research
The goal of rehabilitation is to focus on the regarding individuals with ASD is sparse. Despite
strengths, abilities, and psychosocial adaptation of the promising outcomes of positive psychology, only
persons with disabilities (Martz & Livneh, 2016) as expert opinions or simple cross-sectional studies are
opposed to pathologizing the disability experience found in the existing ASD literature. Indeed, there
(Smart, 2006). With this, individuals who are more has been an emphasis on improving services for
resilient have higher levels of reported self-efficacy underserved populations such as individuals with
and positive affectivity and are able to adapt to their ASD (Roux et al., 2019). As other fields such as
disability conditions instead of succumbing to the neuroscience, health, and psychiatry have benefited
negative consequences of the disability experience from using positive psychology (Seligman, 2019),
(Martz & Livneh, 2016). Considering that positive rehabilitation counseling professionals should con-
psychology focuses on a strength-based perspective sider incorporating positive psychology principles
(Chou et al., 2013), an increase in positive psychol- and interventions in service delivery to improve the
ogy research in the field of disability and rehabilita- well-being of individuals with ASD and support
tion counseling is emerging. them to lead to a fuller and a more enriched quality
of life.
In positive psychology, the main targets for
Positive Psychology and Individuals With change are internal behaviors instead of external
Autism observable behaviors. These internal behaviors
include the thinking patterns, self-images, attribu-
Growing research has examined positive psychology tions, and cognitive constructs that lead an individual
interventions and related constructs (e.g., resilience, to feel happy and fulfilled with increased self-esteem
hope) across diverse disability groups. For instance, and a greater sense of well-being. By incorporating a
Müller et al. (2016) found that a web-based positive greater focus on these internal behaviors, profession-
psychology intervention with a focus on carrying als may be able to address issues from a more holistic
out acts of kindness for others, appreciating life approach.
situations, and savoring moments of pleasure sig- Dykshoorn and Cormier (2019) insisted on
nificantly improved pain intensity, pain control, the need to shift focus from deficit-based reme-
280 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al.

diation strategies for people with ASD to positive role personal strengths play in promoting positive
psychology constructs. They suggested that focus- psychosocial outcomes for individuals with ASD and
ing on positive experiences will enable individuals the impact of those experiences on life fulfillment,
with ASD to realize their own unique strengths and the rehabilitation process can continue embracing
abilities, which will lead to their resilience. Samson a strength-based, positive, and balanced approach.
and Antonelli (2013) found in their research that Treatment and programming that include a posi-
individuals with ASD benefitted from humor, simi- tive psychology approach can help individuals with
lar to those without ASD. Specifically, they found ASD live enriched and fulfilling lives, and they can
that humor was seen as a beneficial interpersonal be valued for what they can offer to society. Thus,
characteristic of those with ASD. Kirchner et al. interventions should focus on internalizing traits of
(2016) assessed how the Values in Action Inventory positive psychology. Some common character traits
of Strengths (VIA-IS) could be used to evaluate identified in the positive psychology literature that
levels of satisfaction with life for adults with ASD. might apply to the ASD population include opti-
The VIA-IS is a 240-item self-reported question- mism, humor, self-efficacy, kindness, and resilience.
naire that assesses 24 character strengths (Peterson Optimism is operationalized differently depend-
& Seligman, 2004). They found that emotional and ing on the context. Scheier and Carver (1985, 1987)
interpersonal strengths such as hope, zest, kindness, characterized the “disposition” towards optimism,
humor, social intelligence, and teamwork had the called “dispositional optimism,” which refers to the
strongest positive associations with satisfaction with belief that the outcomes of events or experiences will
life in individuals with ASD. More recently, Hilton generally be positive (Carver et al., 2010). Others
et al. (2019) examined indicators of flourishing and (e.g., Peterson & Seligman, 1987) have contended
explored the differences between children with and that optimism is an “attributional style,” which
without ASD. In the study, flourishing was defined resides in the way people explain the causes of
as the ability to make friends, share ideas with fam- events with the tendency to believe that negative
ily, finish tasks, do homework, show curiosity, stay events are inconstant, external, and specific. Studies
calm, and perform well in school. They found that examining the level of optimism people have and
children with ASD had lower social competence and their response when faced with difficult situations
behavioral control compared to their counterparts or stressful life events show that optimism leads to
without ASD, suggesting that interventions should better psychological health, more use of coping strat-
target social competence and behavioral control to egies, fewer perceived barriers to goal attainment,
increase flourishing in children with ASD (Hilton and more benefit from social support. Cognitive-
et al., 2019). Although positive psychology research behavior techniques (e.g., cognitive restructuring)
on ASD is still in its infancy, these research findings can foster optimism by helping individuals focus on
indicate positive psychology has a great potential for the positives in adapting to life changes (Ekas et al.,
positive influence on the lives of individuals with 2010). Rehabilitation counselors can apply these
ASD. techniques and facilitate alternative ways of thinking
in individuals with ASD, which may promote a cli-
ent’s capacity to cope with challenging situations and
Promoting Traits of Positive Psychology in circumstances, enhance problem-solving skills, pro-
People With ASD mote autonomy, and reduce a sense of helplessness.
Humor, the capacity to express or perceive
People with ASD have unique challenges (e.g., lim- what is funny, is both a source of entertainment and
ited cognitive flexibility and social problem-solving a means of coping with difficult or awkward situ-
capabilities) that lead to increased vulnerability in ations and stressful events (Martin et al., 1993). It
the face of adversity. While these challenges and is a fundamental aspect of social interaction which
stressors hinder their ability to thrive, individuals facilitates social connections and interactions that
with ASD also possess strengths of character, unique can be both enjoyable and stressful. In such circum-
skills, and untapped resources that should not be stances, many people will turn to humor to relieve
undervalued or unappreciated. It is important to both anticipated and actual stress. Individuals with
draw on character strengths, positive personality ASD often experience anxiety and stress responses
traits, and resources to help cope. By examining the when confronted with social demands. Cultivat-
 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al. 281

ing a capacity for understanding and using humor threats, or significant sources of stress (Masten,
as a source of joy and as a coping strategy in social 1994). Resilience not only involves “bouncing back”
situations is important as they have the potential to from these adverse experiences but also involves
promote participation, reduce the stress associated profound personal growth. Given resilience is a key
with social demands, and benefit the well-being of component in reaching effective adaptation and
individuals with ASD (Bellini, 2004). While it does successful coping with life challenges, it is impor-
not come naturally for people with ASD, teaching tant to teach individuals with ASD resilience by
humorous and positive reframing strategies, as well nurturing self-regulation and self-control especially
as continued exposure and modeling of humor, will under times of stress, increasing opportunities to
provide them with useful tools for coping with stress experience success, autonomy, and independence;
and managing challenging life circumstances. increasing cognitive flexibility and problem-solv-
Self-efficacy is the belief that people have about ing skills; and maintaining a strong support sys-
their ability and readiness to perform a task which tem. Mackay and Colleagues (2017) pilot tested
is developed through cumulative successful learn- a resilience intervention with youths with ASD
ing experiences (Bandura, 1986, 1994). Self-efficacy that focused on building self-esteem, keeping calm,
can be enhanced through nurturing controllable practicing self-talk, thinking resourcefully, finding
positive behaviors and habits, learning new skills, solutions to problems, identifying and accessing
promoting self-awareness of one’s own capabilities support networks, developing relationships, consid-
and strengths, understanding expectations of others, ering the other person’s perspective. Results showed
increasing self-management, and developing coping significant improvements in coping self-efficacy and
skills. The paradigm shift from the disease model overall self-confidence with the intervention effects
approach to the positive psychology approach has maintained at the 6-month follow-up. Rehabilita-
recognized that humans are the agents of their self- tion counselors can integrate several strategies from
development, who can adapt and self-regulate to this resilience intervention to help clients to improve
achieve their desired future (Zimmerman & Schunk, their resilience which can lead to positive employ-
2003). Self-efficacy beliefs are strengthened when ment and psychosocial outcomes.
tasks are aligned well with a client’s current abili-
ties and functioning (O’Sullivan & Strauser, 2009).
Rehabilitation counselors can promote self-efficacy Positive Psychology Interventions For
in individuals with ASD by helping them be more Individuals With ASD
aware of their own capabilities, so they are more
likely to achieve expected performance standards at Positive psychology interventions could be provided
the workplace. in the form of self-help interventions, group train-
Kindness entails making thoughtful choices ing, and individual therapy. These interventions
and doing benevolent things for others (Otake et al., have the potential to make significant contributions
2006). Teaching kind deeds and other prosocial to the rehabilitation of individuals with ASD by
behavior related to kindness may increase the likeli- heightening their quality of life and satisfaction and
hood of being accepted contributors in communities. strengthening their capacity to cope with challenges
Müller et al. (2016) discussed the importance of and life demands (Groden et al., 2011; Seligman &
performing acts of kindness to others. Rehabilitation Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). In the past, positive psy-
counselors can encourage individuals with ASD to chology research focused more on individuals with
plan and carry out acts of kindness to their family, neurotypical development (Snyder & Lopez, 2002);
friends, or strangers, which will help them develop however, research and interventions that focus on
and maintain relationships with others. For example, the character strengths of individuals with ASD are
they can role model kindness, assign individuals scarce. The integration of positive psychology with
with ASD to carry out one act of kindness toward ASD interventions is yet in its maturity (Seligman
another every day, and discuss with them what that & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Zager, 2013). So far, only
experience was like and how they might improve one study by Mackay and her Colleagues (2017)
their skills in this area. evaluated the use of positive psychology interven-
Resilience is defined as the process of adapt- tions in individuals with ASD. The findings of the
ing well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, study show the preliminary efficacy of a school-
282 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al.

based intervention in promoting resilience through & Evert, 2014; Pahnke et al., 2014; Sung et al., 2019;
enhancing protective factors such as coping self-effi- Thomson et al., 2015) showed that individuals with
cacy in individuals with ASD (Mackay et al., 2017). ASD improved social interactions, prosocial behav-
While there is limited research on positive iors, and demonstrated a better understanding of
psychology interventions for the ASD population, situations after emotion regulation interventions
growing research has explored the effectiveness that focus on strength-based learning, which entail
of positive psychology interventions in families of recognizing and identifying emotions in self and
those with ASD. For instance, gratitude interven- others, implementing mindfulness, relaxation, and
tions (e.g., writing gratitude letters) allowed moth- coping strategies, strengthening adaptive alternative
ers of children with ASD to identify and express behaviors, and identifying social support. Further-
gratitude for positive aspects of their lives and were more, interventions that focus on social and voca-
demonstrated to improve maternal well-being, par- tional skills development (e.g., identifying social
enting self-efficacy, maternal optimism, and rela- nuances, recognizing facial expression and body lan-
tionship quality for mothers of children with ASD guage, exchanging ideas, initiating and maintaining
(Timmons & Ekas, 2018; Timmons et al., 2017). In conversations, recognizing feelings and emotions of
another study, Positive Adult Development (a posi- self and others, understanding others’ perspectives,
tive psychology practice that includes identifying and practicing problem-solving) have demonstrated
and using strengths and practicing gratitude, for- improvement in social interactions and responses
giveness, grace, and optimism) was found to reduce to others (Corbett et al., 2014; Lopata et al., 2010;
personal stress, dysfunctional parent-child interac- McMahon et al., 2013; Stichter et al., 2012; Tse
tions, anxiety, and depression, and to improve sleep et al., 2007; Waugh & Peskin, 2015), empathic
and life satisfaction among mothers of children with responding (Koegel et al., 2016; Laugeson et al.,
autism and other disabilities (Dykens et al., 2014). 2012; Soorya et al., 2015), social communication
(Stichter et al., 2012; Waugh & Peskin, 2015), and
ability to understand others’ emotions accurately
Positive Psychology Character Strengths (Lerner et al., 2011; Schmidt et al., 2011).
Citizenship pertains to working well as mem-
While there are limited positive psychology inter- bers of a group or team and being loyal to the group
ventions specifically targeting the ASD population, (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Garcia-Villamisar and
outcomes of some existing ASD-related interven- Dattilo (2010) conducted a study that revealed that
tion studies (e.g., social/vocational/communication individuals with ASD showed improvements in their
skills, emotion regulation, academic, leisure) to some sense of belonging, community engagements, and
extent are connected with character strengths in pos- quality of life after participating in a 1-year group-
itive psychology. Identification of these associated based leisure program, which included activities
interventions and understanding their relationships such as interacting with media, exercising, playing
with the character strengths would inform rehabili- games and working on crafts, attending events, and
tation professionals to provide services to enhance participating in other activities (e.g., socializing).
these character strengths in individuals with ASD. Curiosity refers to taking an interest in all ongo-
Based on reviewing the ASD intervention literature, ing experiences and openness to experience (Peter-
six character strengths were highlighted, including: son & Seligman, 2004). This character strength is
Social intelligence, citizenship, curiosity, love, pru- illustrated by findings from a study by Goods et al.
dence, and self-regulation. (2013) and Kasari et al. (2010), showing that chil-
Among the character strengths that were iden- dren with ASD demonstrated greater play diversity
tified in the ASD intervention literature, social intel- and that they were open to more types of play acts
ligence was the most prevalent and was found in most after receiving a joint-attention intervention. The
social skills interventions for individuals with ASD. joint attention intervention included learning to use
Social intelligence refers to a capacity to be aware of communicative gestures in a play-based treatment
the motives and feelings of self and others as well as and utilizing toys to help create play routines and
knowing what to do to fit into different social situ- increase social communication outcomes.
ations (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). For example, Love means valuing close relationships and
research (e.g., Hartmann et al., 2019; McGillivray feeling connected to others (Peterson & Seligman,
 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al. 283

2004). Studies have demonstrated that social and Conner & White, 2018; Connor et al., 2020; Hillier
vocational interventions can improve peer relation- et al., 2011; Kiep et al., 2015; Spek et al., 2013; Stich-
ships for young adults with ASD (Hillier et al., ter et al., 2012; Thomeer et al., 2015).
2011), enable them to be more willing to access Social intelligence, citizenship, curiosity, love,
friends and family to ask for help (Oswald et al., prudence, and self-regulation. Overall, much has
2018), and facilitate the development of more mean- yet to be explored regarding the other character
ingful friendships with their peers (McMahon et al., strengths (e.g., creativity, perspective, persistence,
2013; Schohl et al., 2014). These interventions cover integrity, fairness, and gratitude) described in the
topics and strategies related to having conversations, positive psychology literature. Despite the limited
relationship-building, and making adjustments in evidence found in the literature, the outcomes of
different social situations. These group interventions existing interventions have demonstrated that indi-
help participants develop a sense of belonging as viduals with ASD can be taught to develop and
they learn and gain greater understanding by shar- internalize these character strengths through certain
ing personal experiences and listening to those of interventions. We, as rehabilitation professionals,
others, by giving each other advice, and by creating educators, and researchers, have a responsibility to
problem-solving strategies as a group. help support and enhance these positive personal-
Prudence refers to being careful about one’s ity traits in individuals with ASD in order to help
choices and not saying or doing things that might empower them to play a more active role in creating
be regretted later (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). their own happiness and enhancing their quality of
Conner and White’s (2018) study demonstrated life.
that mindfulness interventions (e.g., learning and If the focus of positive psychology interven-
practicing mindfulness meditation) help adults with tion research is to promote the character strengths
ASD establish a sense of impulse control. Pugliese of individuals with ASD, it is important to identify
and White (2014) also revealed that college students parallel instruments that measure these respective
with ASD experienced positive changes in problem- domains. Although the strength-focused concep-
solving and critical thinking after participating in a tual framework of positive psychology is expected
problem-solving skills program. This psychoeduca- to increase our understanding of the adjustment to
tion program entailed learning how to use a posi- disability process and to promote the well-being of
tive problem orientation and practicing appropriate individuals with ASD, there has been limited empir-
skills when solving problems. Stichter et al. (2010) ical evidence to support the efficacy of assessing and
found that youth with ASD showed improvement in enhancing character strengths and unique qualities
executive function (e.g., impulse control, inhibition, of individuals with ASD during the rehabilitation
and flexibility of thought and action) after a group- process.
based social competence intervention that focused The research will have limited value for theory-
on using meta-cognitive strategies, self-monitoring, building and theory-testing for a specific popu-
and self-regulation. lation if the data analyzed are substandard. The
Self-regulation means modifying what one quality of these data, in turn, is dependent upon
feels and does, being disciplined, and controlling the quality of the instrument selected to measure
one’s appetites and emotions (Peterson & Seligman, the outcomes of positive psychology interventions.
2004). Osawald et al. (2018) found that young adults Without assurances of the psychometric soundness
with ASD showed improvement in self-determina- of the instrument, confidence in the accuracy and
tion performance and global adaptive functioning applicability of the conclusions drawn from research
after a social skills group intervention that provided may be unjustified.
training on social functioning, social network devel- Researchers (e.g., Berkovits et al., 2020;
opment, self-determination skills (e.g., decision- Hwang et al., 2020; Kirchner et al., 2016; Samson
making), and self-views on the ability to cope with et al., 2013) have started to examine the use of posi-
life challenges. Many other studies have also dem- tive psychology measures in the ASD population,
onstrated that social skills interventions result in such as the Values in Action Inventory (VIA-IS;
improved emotion regulation as well as positive Peterson & Seligman, 2004), the Assessment Scale for
affect and attitude (Beaumont & Sofronoff, 2008; Positive Character Traits-Developmental Disabilities
284 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al.

(ASPeCT-DD; Woodard, 2009), the Satisfaction that incorporate positive psychology principles will
with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), the promote holistic, strength-based rehabilitation phi-
Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10; losophy and disability perspectives (Chan et al.,
Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007), the Orientation to 2017). Furthermore, promoting the use of positive
Happiness Scale (OHS; Peterson et al., 2005), and psychology during in-service state meetings and
the Children’s Hope Scale (CHS; Snyder et al., 1996). local training workshops may be beneficial for prac-
Their findings have provided some preliminary ticing rehabilitation counselors. As positive psychol-
support for utilizing these measures in people with ogy emphasizes positive aspects of one’s life (e.g.,
ASD. For instance, the Cronbach’s alpha (α) for the strengths and assets; Kim et al., 2012), incorporating
VIA-IS ranged from .70 to .95 (Samson et al., 2013), positive psychology principles and exercises will fos-
α was .84 for the SWLS (Samson et al., 2013), α was ter client engagement during the rehabilitation pro-
.92 for the CD-RISC 10 (Hwang et al., 2020) when cess to help individuals with ASD develop a greater
these instruments were used with individuals with sense of hope and optimism as they work toward
ASD. However, more research is still needed to their rehabilitation goals.
provide psychometric validation in this population. In research, the focus on the strength-based
paradigm in positive psychology provides a rich
opportunity to develop research programs that will
Implications For Education, Practice, and inform evidence-based practices in rehabilitation.
Research In the last several years, a number of studies have
examined the impact of positive psychology con-
This article suggests important implications for structs (e.g., resilience, character strengths) on the
education, practice, and research. Learning about employment and psychosocial outcomes of persons
positive psychology and its applications to popula- with disabilities (e.g., Kim et al., 2016; Silverman
tions such as individuals with ASD can improve et al., 2017; Uyanik et al., 2017). Despite the growing
pre-service rehabilitation counseling students’ abil- body of research investigating positive psychology,
ity to grasp the concepts of strength-based and its application to individuals with ASD is still scarce
person-centered approaches in rehabilitation (Chou (e.g., Samson & Antonelli, 2013), and more research
et al., 2013) as they begin their careers. Additionally, in this area is warranted. Because the breadth of
educators can embed the central tenets of positive rehabilitative services tends to be broad, researchers
psychology, such as character strengths (Peterson will encounter difficulties conducting studies using
& Seligman, 2004), early on during the founda- experimental designs due to practical and ethical
tional courses to emphasize how these characteris- concerns (Chan et al., 2010). Therefore, experience
tics impact disability experiences (Smart, 2006). By sampling methods (e.g., exploring people’s actions,
introducing positive psychology during these foun- feelings, and thoughts during daily lives; Larson &
dational courses, students can better understand Csikszentmihalyi, 2014), diary methods (e.g., using
the empirical-based roots underlying rehabilitation diaries to examine daily life events and mood; Jose
counseling. Furthermore, educators can emphasize et al., 2012), or ecological momentary assessments
positive psychology in practicum and/or internship (e.g., collect repeated momentary assessments of par-
courses to teach students how these principles can be ticipants’ behaviors and experiences in their natural
applied in actual counseling practices when working environment; Stone & Shiffman, 1994) can be alter-
with individuals with ASD. natives to examine positive psychology constructs in
In practice, applying positive psychology will rehabilitation studies to complement the breadth of
encourage rehabilitation counselors to look beyond the field. Utilizing these designs may require a set of
the person’s disability or deficits and focus on their research skills to analyze intensive longitudinal data
strengths. The power differential inherent in any (Laurenceau & Bolger, 2012). Using these methods
counseling relationship may assume that the client, will help build stronger research programs that pro-
as a recipient of services, is deficient (Chun et al., mote evidence-based practice in the field of reha-
2020). Positive psychology shifts this perspective bilitation counseling (Tarvydas et al., 2010). There
into resilience, hope, meaning, and success (Selig- are also various positive psychology measures that
man, 2018). Training and intervention programs can be used, such as the Values in Action Inventory
 Positive Psychology & Autism in Rehab Counseling Lee et al. 285

(VIA-IS; Peterson & Seligman, 2004), the Satisfac- with autism spectrum disorder. Behavioral Devel-
tion with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), opment Bulletin, 22(1), 183–196. https://doi.
the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC org/10.1037/bdb0000057
10; Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007), the Orientation Beaumont, R., & Sofronoff, K. (2008). A multi-com-
to Happiness Scale (OHS; Peterson et al., 2005) for ponent social skills intervention for children with
measuring pre- and post-intervention changes in Asperger syndrome: The junior detective training
positive psychology constructs. program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia-
try, and Allied Disciplines, 49(7), 743–753. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01920.x
CONCLUSION Bellini, S. (2004). Social skill deficits and anxiety in
high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum
Positive psychology has been established over the disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
Disabilities, 19(2), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/
past two decades to create a more holistic perspec-
10883576040190020201
tive of the human experience by emphasizing what
makes life worth living (Seligman, 2018). Since then, Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H.,
positive psychology has received ample attention Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psychol-
ogy interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized
and recognition from different disciplines. Over
controlled studies. BMC Public Health, 13(119),
time, researchers have found that implementing pos- 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-119
itive psychology into practice has led to promising
psychosocial outcomes. Although the literature has Boselie, J., Vancleef, L., & Peters, M. L. (2018). Filling
the glass: Effects of a positive psychology interven-
shown that positive psychology constructs are appli-
tion on executive task performance in chronic pain
cable to diverse disability groups, studies focused on patients. European Journal of Pain, 22(7), 1268–
the applicability of positive psychology constructs 1280. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1214
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Data
or implemented. This gap of positive psychology
& statistics on autism spectrum disorder. February
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implement into rehabilitation education programs, data.html
highlights a strength-based approach in practice,
Chan, F., Bezyak, J., Romero Ramirez, M., Chiu, C.-Y.,
and offers rich opportunities for rigorous research
Sung, C., & Fujikawa, M. (2010). Concepts, chal-
programs that promote evidence-based practice in lenges, barriers, and opportunities related to evi-
rehabilitation counseling. dence-based practice in rehabilitation counseling.
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Disclosure. The authors have no relevant financial Michigan State University, 620 Farm Lane, Room
interest or affiliations with any commercial interests 460, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States. E-mail:
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