SUBJECT CODE

404181

Choico Dased Credil Syslem

SavITRIBAI PIJULE PUNE
UNIVERSITY
2019 SYILABUs
B.E. (E&T Scnester
) - VIl

RADIATION
AND MICROWAVE THEORY
(For END.SEM Exam - 70 Marks)

V.S. Bagad
M.E. (E&Tc), Microwaves
M.M.S. (Information systems)
Faculty, Insfitute
of Telecommunicotion Monagement,
Ex-Faculty Sinhgad
College of Engineering,
Pune.

PEATURES
Written by Popular Authors of Text Books of Technical Publications
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Exact Answers and Solutlons
Chapterwise Solved SPPU Questlons Dec. 2014 to June 2022

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DECODE
A Gulde For Englneorlng Studonts
SYLLABUS
Radiation and Microwave Theory
(404181)
Credit Examination Scheme_
03 End Sem (Theory): 70 Marks

Unit II Passive Microwave Components

Construction, working principle and scattering analysis of passive, microwaye
components such as E-plane, H-plane and magic tec.. Ferrite composition
characteris cs and Faraday rotation principle. Construction, working principle and
scattering analysis of Isolator, Circulator and Directional cóupler. Construction and
operation of Gyrator, Microwave Filters, Phase Shifter, Microwave Attenuator,
(Chapter-3)
Unit IV Active Microwave Components
Limitations of conventional tubes, O and M type classification of microwave tubes
re-entrant cavity, velocity modulation. Construction, operation, performance
analysis and applications of Single cavity and two cavity klystron, Cylindrical
wave Magnètron and Helix Traveling wave, Nunericals. (Chapter - 4)

Unit V Solid State Microwav Devices

Introduction, Principle of'operation, construction, characteristics, parameters with
analysis of Microwave transistors, MOSFET, Varactor diodes, Parametric
amplifiers, PIN diodes, Tunnel diodes, application as amplifiers, oscillators,
modulators, demodulators, Schottky. Barrier diodes, Transferred Electron devices:
Gunn diode, Avalanché diode, Transit Time devices. like IMPATT, TRAPATT
diodes. (Chapter 5)

Unit VI Microwave Systems and Microwave Measurement Techniques

Microwave terrestrial and satellite communication system, Fundamentals of.
RADAR and RADAR range egjuátion. Industrial applications of microwaves such
as microwave heating, medical application such as microwave diathermy.
Miçrowave measuremènt devices such as slotted line, nunable detector, VSWR
meter, power meter, and their working principles. Microwave measurement
techniques to measure S-parameters, frequency, power, attenuation, VSWR,
impedance. Radiation hazards and protection. (Chapter - 6)

(ii)
 TABLE OF CONTENTTS
Unit II
Chapter 3 Passive Microwave Componentss
(3 - 1) to (3 33)
3.1 Scattering Matrix... tioqestorooseroiol** ***snds,3 -1
3.2 E-plane, H-planeand Magic Tee.
io 3 -4
3.3 Ferrite Composition, Charcteristics and Faraday
Rotation Principle, Isolator... . 3117
3.4 Circulator.. . 321
3.5 Directional Coupler ...
325
3.6 Gyrator. . 3 31

Unit IV
Chapter - 4 Active Microwave ComponentS
(4 1) to (4 31)

4.1 Limitations of Conventional Tubes, 0 and M Type Classification.

of Microwave Tubes... 4 - 1

4.2 Kiystron...qose
4 - 7

4.3 Magnetron.. 4 16
4.4 Helix TWT.... 4 23

(iv)
 Unit V
Chapter 5 Solid State Microwave Devices
(5 1) to (5 30)
S.1 Microwave Transistors, MOSFETS:...
-5
5.2 Varactor Diode. sogoege*******aptenogpg*****0*g
**** S
5.3 Parametric Amplifier.. 10
5.4 PIN Diodes.. ******ee*
. 5 13
5.5 Tunnel Diode... ******ngpma -18
S 22

5.7 Gunn Diode .

5.6 Schottky Barrier Diodes.

6amordserteoeaessatao 24
Unit VI
Chapter 6 Microwave Systems and Microwave -
Measurement Techniques (6 1) to (6 40)

6.1 Microwave Systems.. ..6 1.

6.2 Industrial Applications of Microwaves 6-4
6.3 Microwave Measurement Devices. ..6 12
6.4 Frequency Measurement.. .6 15

6.5 PowerMeasurement. ...6-20

6:6 Attenuation Measurement. .-27
...6 29
6.7 Phase Shift Measurement..

6.8 VSWR Measurement.. .6 -30

6.9 Impedance Measurement. ..6-37
6.10 Radiation Hazards and Protection.. .6-39
Solved SPPU Question Paper (S - 1) to (S - 5)
(v)
 Unit Il

3 Passive Microwave Components

-3.1 Scattering Matrix

Q.1 What is the significance of scattering matrix ? Write the
properties of S-matrix. 3T [SPPU: Dec-15, End Sem, Marks 6]
Ans.: Scattering Matrix
Scattering paraméters / coefficients : The power wave déscriptors that
a
defines the input-output relation, of network in terms
of incident;and
retlected power waves are called as sçattering or S-parameters.
The S-parameters are complex numbers.
The scattering parameters are also called as scattering coefficients..
Scattering Matrix :' A matrix that shows combination of power
relationships among various ports of any microwave network is
referred
as scattering-matrix.

.Scattering matrix is a useful analytical technique for studying multiport

microwave networks.
Properties of S Matrix :'
-
Scattering parameters are complex quantities..
In microwave network the S-parameters show following
properties.
1) Symmetry Property: The symmetry property states that if a
microwave junction satisfies a reciprocity condition,
thè junction is a
linear passive circuit and the S-parameters
are equal to' their
corresponding transposes.

or S S
where
S' is the trañspose of S.

(3-1)
 3-2 Passive Microwave Component
Radiation and Microwave Theory,

Examplo 1
Consider S-matrix ofa two port network,

S Si
S2i
Si2
S22
S211
sTS1
S12S22
By symimetry property,
Si2 S
Example 2
Consider 3x 3 S-matrix.
S11 S12 S13
S
=S21 S22 S23
3
S31 S32 S33
S S21 S31

ST= S12 S22 S32

S13 S23 S33

By symmetry property
Si2 S21

S13. S31

S23S32
The syminetry property results from the fact.that the' transmission of
energy from port-l to port-2 is exactly equal in magnitude to the
transmission of energy (in reverse direction) from port-2 to port+l,
provided that the network is bilateral and there are no losses in it.

2) Unity Property Unitary Property Unity property states that

"the sum of the products of each term, of any row or column of S-matrix
multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity." .
1

For j. 1, 2, 3.
Students
OECOD A Guidefor Engineering
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 3-3 Passive Microwave Components

3) Zero Property: Zero property states that "the sum of the product
of each term of any row or column multiplied by the complex conjugate
of the corresponding ternis of any other'row is zero."

S S = o
For k.j=1, 2, 3, .. ...
4) Phase Shift Property ;.
If any of the terminal planes (k" port) is
moved away from the junction by an electric distance B, l each of the .

coeficient S involving k will,be inultiplied by the factor ejBklk.

A chanige in the specified location of the terminal planes of an arbitrary
junction will affect only the phase of the scattering coefficient of the
junction.

0
Where, o =| 0.22 0
0 Pnn

2= Ge)kik fork =1, 2, 3, ...:n

The phase shift property is applicable to a shift of referance planes.
Q.2 Explain the properties of scattering matrix for a multiport
network. 3 ISPPU May-16, Oct-16, Marks 61
Ans. Refer Q.1..

Scattering matrix for multiport Network

S-Matrix Represéntation for Multipot Network
.For a multiport (say n) microwave function, equations of S-pagameters
are expressed as
b1 Si a +S12 a2 +S13 a3t +S1n an
b2 S21 a1 tS2 a2 +S23 a3 S2n an
t t

A Guide for Engineerlng Students

OECODE
Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 3-4 Passtve Microwave Components

Sn1 an +S,2 a2 +S,3 a3t. ..+ Sn an

Above èquations can be represented by nxn matrix. The .scatteringg
matrix for n-port microwave junction is represented as:
b 02 Su S12
S22
Sina
S2n
21 a2

Sn1 Sn2 S Jlan.

|3,2 E-plane, H-plane and Magic Tee
Q.3The input of an amplifjer has a VSWR of 2 and the output has
a VSWR of 3. Find the magnitudes of the S-parameters S11 and
S22 under matched condition. SSPPU : Dec-13, Marks 6]
Ans.: Input VSWR = 2
VsWRin
an ySWRin +1 2
Output VSWR = 3, .

VSWRout
out= VSWR out+
Output reflection coeficient is given by

TinS11*1-soL
System is symmetric identical output reflection coefficient is given by

Tout =
Sz* 1-S11Ts s
Generally, where all S-paranmeters and source and load reflection
coefficients are nonzero, values of S1 and S22 cannot be calculated.
However, if the load and source reflection coefficients are equal to zero,
i.e.. load and source impedances are matched to the characteristic
impedance of the system.

ISl |Tin and IS21 ITout

OeCODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Radialion and Mlcrowaye
Theory 3-5 Passtve Mlcrowave Components
Q.4 Explain wlth
the help of neat diagram properties of E-plane Tec.
U3 [Dec.-16, Dec.-17, End Sem, Marks 6]

OR Lxplin the properties of L plane Tee with the' help of neat

diagram. Also derive its scattering
matrix.
SPPU: Dec.-18, End-Sem, Marks 6]
Ans.: An E-plane tee is designed by fastening
a piece of similár
waveguide to the broader wall
of a waveguide section. The fastened
waveguide is called auxiliary
arin. It is parallel to the plane of the
electric field of the dominant mode TE1o
in Fig. Q4.1. Hence this type of junction
n the main waveguide as shown
is called E-plane Tec.

Port-3

Series:
arm Port-2

2
Collinear arm

Port-1

Fig. Q4.1 E-plane tee

.Fig. Q4.2 shows the propågation of

electromagnetic fields in an E-plane
e
Tee
when the dominant mode TEo is
incident on the symmetrical port-3.
While passing through thé junction
the
electric lines of force bend and as
a
result of this, fields of opposite polarity
emerge from the two arm.
If the fields of opposite polarity are fed
into the two arms 1 and 2, the fields in
Fig. Q.4.2 Transmission line
the symmetrical arm 3 are added as
equivalent of E-plane tee
shown in Fig. Q4.1.

OECODD A Guide for Engineering Studens

 Passive Microwave Components
Radiation and Microwave Theor 3-6
are fed. into the two side arms th
If the fields of same polarity therefore cançel
emerge out the symmetric arm in opposjte phase, and
Out the effect of each other as
shown in Fig. Q.4.3.
Port
inputTE0

Qutput Output
port port2

Fig. Q.4.3 E-field of TEio mode with input at port-3

Q.5What do you mean' by microwave passive devices ? Describe
E-plane tee, H-plane. tee and magic tee.

OR Explain the working of E-plane and H-plane tees.

[SPPU: Dec.-14, Marks 6]

OR With the help of neat diagram, S-matrix and properties explain

H plane Tee ? P ISPPU Dec.-19, Marks 8]

OR Explain and compare the properties of E-plane and E-plane Tee

with neat diagram., Aso derive scattering matrix of E plane Tee.
1 [SPPU : June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]
Ans. A passive device contains no soùrce that could add energy to your
signal. Examples of passive devices are: Termination, Attenuator, Filter,
Coupler, and, Ferrite Devices.
1. E-plane Tee : As shown in Fig. Q.5.1 is an E-plane Tee junction, as
it is an intersection of three waveguides in the form of alphabet T.
Port 1 and 2 are collinear' arms while port 3 is the E arm, which is
along the broader dimensions of waveguides. The T junction is used
for power division or power combining. E plane tee is Voltage
junction and output from the ports is in out of phase and it is 3 db
down output.

OECODED A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory 3-7 Passive Micrówave Components,

Fig. Q.5.1 E-plane tee S-Matrix of. E-plane tee

2. H-plane Tee : It is called an H-type T-junction because the long aixis
arm is. parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the
waveguide.

Fig. Q..2 H-plane tee S- Matrix of H-plane Tee

The E-field is fed into arm A and in-phasè outputs are obtained from
the B and C arms. The réverse is also true. H plàne tee is so called
becaus the axis of the side arm is parallel to the planes of the main
trahsmission line. As all three arms of the H plane tee lie in the
magnetic field, the magnetic field divides itself into the arms.
Therefore this is also called a current junction.

3 Magic Tee : A magic tee is a combination of E-plane and H-plane

Tee. Magic tee, combines the power dividing properties of both
H-plane and E-plane tee, and has the advantages of being completely
matched at all the ports.

QECODE A Guide for Engineering Studenms

 Passive Microwave Components
Radiation ànd Microwaye Theon 3-8

0 1

E-ARM
10 o1-
S]=
H-ARM
L1 -1 0

Magic Tee S-Matrix of Magic Tèe

Fig. Q.5.3
port
and phae åre fed into port and
1

If two signals of same magnitude

additive at port 4. If signal is
and
2, then output will be zero at port 3
divides .equally in magnitude and
fed from port 4 (H-arm) then signals
appears a port 3 (E-am). If
phase' between port and 2 and no signal
1

equally in magnitude, but

signal is fed into port, 3, then signal divides. port 4,
1 and 2, and no signal comes out. from
Opposite in phase at port
zero.
i.c. output' át port 4 is
tee with the help.of neat
Q6 Explain the *properties of hybrid
diagram. Also state its scattering matrix. 18, Marks 7]
May-16, 17,
ISPPU :

tee. Explain vith neat diagram

OR Explain the S-matrix of magic
unknown impedance measurement.
the applicatión of magic tee for 8]-
D3 [SPPU: June-22, End Sem, Marks

Ans. :.Magic Tee: It acts as

tee is a combination of an. E-plane and H-plane tee.
A magic called as Hybrid tee. Fig. Q.6.1 shows
a 4-port hybrid circuit. t is also
magic tee.
Charactèrlstics of magic tee. into
equal magnitude and the same phase are fed
1. If two waves of at
port-2, the output will be zero at port-3 and additive
port-1 and
port-4.
fed into port-4, it will be divided equally between port-1
2. If a wave is
and will not appear at port-3.
and port-2 of the collinear arins
1/V2, S24 = S42 = 1//2 and S34 = 0
S4 S=

A Guide for Engineering

Students
ECODD
Radiation and Microwave
Theor 3-9 Passive Microwve Components

Port 3

-arm Port

Collinear arm-

Port-1 Port-4

H-arm

Fig. Q.6.1 Magic tee.(Hybrid tee)

3. If a wave is fed into port-3, it will produce an output
of. equal
magnitude and opposite phase at port-1 and port-2.
The output at
port-4 is zero.
S13 S31 =
1//2, S24 Sa2 = 1/V2 'and S34 - 0
4. If wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port-1 or port-2,
not appear in the other. collinear arm at port-2, or port-1 t will1
because the
E-arm causes à phase delay while the H-arm causes
a phase lead.
S12S21 =0
Magic tee is symmetrical about an imaginary, plane biseçting
port-3 and port-4. arms

If port-1 and 2 are terminated in matched loads

and no reflections take
place inside the junction, entrance of power through
either port 3 or 4
results in equal power delivery to am 1 and 2.
Refléctions may take
place due to severe discontinuities.in the junction.
Effects of reflections
1. Only a portion of the power
that 'approaches the junction
port-3 or 4 is delivered to port-1 and 2. through
2. Power is not divided equally between port-1
and 2, when power enters
through port-3 or 4.

OECODD A Guidefor Engineerng

Students
Radiation dnd Microwav Theory 3 10 Passive Microwave Compone

3. Balance does not exist between port-1 and 2 1.c. some power
trane.
directly from port-1 to port-2.
Reflections must, thereforc, be avoided or compehsated. By virtue
above properties discussed above, a magic tec has several applicatione of
ons.
Applications of magic tee
1. As an isolator. As a matching device
2.
3.. As a phase shifter. 4. As duplexer. 5. As mixer.
S-matrix for Magic-Tee
S-matrix for magic tee is a 4x4 matrix
S S12 S13 S14
I$] | S21 S22 S23 S24
S31 S32 S33 S34
S41 S42 SA3 S4
But S3. 0,
S21 0, S2 0,
S40
Si0, S22-0, S 0, S44 0
and
Si4S24 Sis =-S
For port-3 and port-4 matched
S-matrix becomes
S14]
00 S13

[S 0S13 S14
S31 S32 0
LS41 S42 0 0
S13 S13
0 0 -S13 S13
S13
S13-S13 0
S13 S13 0

o0 0
0-1
1 1
1|
N2

1 1 0 0

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Studeits

Radiation and Microwave Thcory 3-11 Passive Microwave Components

.a.7 With the help of dingram. explain the Magic Tee

used to
measure the impedance. 0S [Oct-16, In Sem, Marks-4]
Ans. Magic tee has been ued in the form of a bridge, as
showi in
Fig. Q.7.1 for measuring impedance.

MIcrowave

Fig. a.7.1 Impedance measurement using magic te0

Microwave sóurce is connected in arm-3. A null detector is connected.

in arm-4, The unknown impedance is coniected at arim-2. Standard
variable known impedance is connected in arm-1.
Using the properties of magic tee, power from port-3 divides equally in
port-I and port-2.
Now known impedance Z, and unknown impedance Z, is not equal.to
characteristic impedance Z Hence there wil be refleotions from port-1
and port-2 1towards the junction.
fp and p2 are reflectipn cocfficients, then

The reflection from part 1 is P1d

2
The reflection from port 2 is 23
A Guide for Engineering Studenis
OECOD
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 3-12 Passive Microwave Components

The resultant wave reaching at iull port i.e. at port 4 is.

P13P23)
For perfect balancing.

1-P23) =
0.
P1 P2
But Z1z and P2
PiZ1+Zz z2 +z

Or Z1 Z2
' Thus unknown impedance can be measured by adjusting the standard
impedances
variable impedance till the bridge is balance and both
.

beçome equal. .

Q.8 Prove thàt 'it is impossible to construct a perfectly

matclhed,
lossless, reciprocal three port junction D [Oct-16, In Sem, Marks 61
Ans. : Consider a 3-port device. Such a device would have a
scattering
matrix :
SS1213S13
S
S212P23:
S31 S3t S33.
Assuming the device is passive and mode of simple (isotropic) materials,
the device will be reciprocal, so that
S21 S12 S31S13 S23S32
Likewise, if it S22= S33 0.
is method, we know that Si1 =
matrix of
As a Tesult, a lossless, reciprocal device would have a scattering
the form
0: S21 S31
S S21 0 S32
S31 S32

Just 3 non-zero scattering parameters define the entire matrix:

OBCODE) A Guide for Enginèeriug Students

 Radiation und Microwaye Theory 3-13 Pussive Microwave Componcnts

Likewise, if we wish for this network to be lossless, the scattering maux

must be nitary and thercfore.
IS2112+1S3112
.1 S31Ss20
S21 S32 0o

S31l+1S32l -
1 S21 S1=0
Since ench complex value S is représénted by two real nunbers (i.e.,
real and imaginary paris), the equations above result in 9real equations,
The problem is, the 3 complex values S, S and S32 are represented
by only 6 real unknowns.

As unlikely
Teciprocal
as it
might seem, this means that a matched, lossless,
3-port device of any kind is a physical impossibility.
You can make a lossless reciprocal 3-port device, or a matched
reciprocal 3-port device, or even a.matched, lossless (but non-reciprocal)
3-port network.
a.9 Explain S imatrix representation along with the properties for
multiport network. D Oct-16, In Sem, Marks 6
Ans. Refer Q.2.
Q.10 Explain the impedance and admittance. matrices for n-port
microwave network. D Dec-16, Ehd Sem, Marks 4]
Ans. : The ABCD matrix is hot the only matrix representation
two port network. The voltage, and current relationships can of a
defined by following equations.
also be
Vi = Z1ul1 -
Z12l2 Q.10.1)
V2 Z2111 -
Z22l2 0Q.10.2)
Z-matrix representation
V1Z11 Z12][1
V2JZ21 Z22-I2] (Q.10.3)
The 2. x 2 imatrix is known as Z or impedancè matrix as
parameters have dimensions of inpedance. Th current the four.
I, is negative
since the current is flowing into port-2. While deriving
ABCD matrix,
the curent I, was defined flowing out of this
port.

OEcODD A Guide for Engineering Students

 Theory 3-14 Passive Microwave
Radlation and Microwave Components

Y(admittance) matrix representation

Ya]. LV2J .Q.10.4)

-I2JlY
The 2 x .2 matrix is known as Y or admittance matrix a
parameters the four
parameters have dimensions of. admittance. The
parameters
- can be
performing open or shört circuit fests on two, port. by
Q.11
The collinear ports 1 and 2 of a Magic Tee are terminato.
impedances of reflection coetiicient o = 0.5 and
by
= 0.6.
T c
difference port 4 is terminated by an impedance with refe lection
coefficient of 0.8. If 1 W power Is,1ed at Sum port 3, calcu the
power reflected at-port 3 and the power divisions at the other ports.
ports
T SPPU: Dec-15, End Sem, Marks 61
Ans. S-matrix for matched magic Tee

o 1. 11
IS 0 0 1

21 1 0 0
1-1 0 0
At ports 1, 2, 3 and 4
Let the normalized input voltages= a a2 az» a4
and corresponding output voltages = b, b bg, b
Then a P1
aP2b2
ag is input applied voltage

a P4 b4

9 layf =1W
Since b] tS] [a]
o 0 1
110.5 b1
10 0. 1
-1|0.6 b2
b3 21
1
0 0| 1

-10 0J[08 bal

CECODE Engineering Studend

A Guide for
 Radiation und Microwave Theory 3 15 Passtve Microwave
Components

b+0+0-0.8 b4
2
0+b2 +0+ 0.8 b4
2 .2
-0.5b10.0D2+b, +0 0
v2 2
- 0.5 b1
0.0 D2+ 0+ b, = 0
2 2
b, b ba and ba are evaluated using Cramer's rule.

,0.6S66 V
b 0.7576 V
b30.5536V
b-0.0893 V
Power transmitted at output ports
b= 0.4309 Watt
b 0.5738 Watt
bI= 0.00797 Watt
b 0.3065 Watt
Q.12 In an H plane Tee junction, 30 mW power is applied to port
3 that is perfectly matched to the junetion. Calculate the power
delivered to. the load 75 V and 60 V connected to ports 1
and 2.
L3 [oct.-16, In Sem, Marks 4
Ans.: Perfectly matched H plaine Tee junction, therefôre Power at port-3
will be equally divided into ports 1 and 2. Applied 30 mW power
at
port-3 will deliver 15 mW at port 1 and 2. Now the reflected power from
ports 1
and 2 is to be calculated. Power reflected from ports 1 and 2 is
given byp1b1F and
Pab]
Power delivered to load (75 ) at port-1 is: P1

Powet delivered to load (60 2) at port-2 i: P2:

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Passive Microwave Components
Radiatton and iMicrowave Theory.3-16

Assuming characteristic impedance|Z50 2

lPil -5025
pi 175+501 125

Pal 60S0 101 11

60+50 110 .

= 7.2 mW Ans.

=
žt1sx10'1 4 mW. Ans.
P-bat-PaJ=
fed into one of the collinear
ports
Q.13 A signal of power 32 mW is
the power in the remaining
of a loss less H plane Tee. Determine
means of matched load.
ports when other ports are terminated by Marks 6]
ISPPU Dec.-18, End Sem;

the signal of 30 mW is
Ans.: Let the collinéar port be poit 1 to whih
2 (other collinear port) and
port 3
fed. The other ports then are port
matched loads, Therefore,
(H-arm port) that are terminated in
-matrix for H-plane Tee is:
a2 Fa3+0 and a = 30 mW. The S

230mW
0
b2
0
b
b Power at port
mW

OEcODE A Gulde for Engineering Students

 Radiation and Microwave
Theory 3-17 !
Passive Microwave Componenis

b2=. x 32 8 mW

b3 x 32 16 mW

3.3 Ferrite Composition,

Characteristics and Faraday"
Rotation Priñciple, Isolator
Q.14 Explain the Faraday's
rotation principle.? Explain in brief the
working principe of an isolator
ISPPU : Aug.-15, In Sem, May-17, End Sem, Marks 7]

OR Explain Faraday's "rotation principle. Explain in

brief the
working principle of an isolator. DT ISPPU : Dec.-18, End Sem, Marks 6]

OR Explain the 'construction and working of isolator with its

applieation. [SPPU : May-19, June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]

OR Explain the operation of isolator.

SPPU: Dec.-19, Marks 4]
Ans.: Faraday's Rotation Principle
Faraday's principle states that "If a circularly polarized wave (TE, in a.
cylindrical waveguide) is made to pass through a ferrite rod, which has
been influenced by an axial magnetic field B, the axis of polarization

(ciD B

Ferrite

Circularly Tilted
polarized polarized
wave Wave
Fig. Q.14.1 Faraday's principle

QECODD A Guide for Engineering Students

Radtatlon and Microwave Theory 3-18 Passive Microwave
Coniponents
gets tilted in clockwise direction and the' amount a
lt
of tilt depends
the strength of magnetic ficld and,geometry of the ferrite. upoOn
is illustrated in Fig. Q.l4.1. hisprinciple
Microwave components which make use of this phenomenon
1. Circulator 2. Isolator 3. Gyrator are

Isolator: Isolator
Isolators are generally
is a non-reciprocal
used to
ferrite trausmissin
improve the frequency
microwave generators. stLice
of
Isolators transmits electromagnetic wave only in one direes
direction,
reflected wave is attenuated (absorbed). Thus micrówave the
active devices are isolated. An ideal isolator completely genera
absorhtng
of propagation in one directión and provides lossléss transmissioner
opposite direction. The Faraday rotation iolator provides 1
loss in forward transmission and about 20 to 30 dB isolation ine
dB
rtion
direction. in everse

Isolators can be próduced by inserting

a rerite rod along the axis of a
rectangular. waveguide as shown in Fig. Q.14.2.

Output

Ferrite
rod
direction 5
:Resistive of rotation
vane-1

Resistive
vane-2

Input.

Fig. Q.14.2 Ferrite rotation isólator

Let the incident wave has E in x-direction. when it propagates throug

ferrite rod, it is rotated by 45°. It is launched into waveguide whicn
is
at 45. Reflected wave from load travels in reverse direction an

Engineering Studens
EcODES A Guidefor
 Radiation and Nficrowavu Thcory 3- 19 Passive Microwave Components

again rotated by 45° by femite rod. Refleçted E appearing at resistive

vane-1 is in y-direction and it is complctely attenuated.
The performance of an isolator 1s measured in terms of two basic
paranmeters.

) Insertion Loss ()
Insertion loss is defined as

LdB) = 10 log

where P Power launched at input port

P, Power received at output port
i) lsolation (is)
Isolation is defined as
P2
I(cB) = 10 log

where P Power at input port

P Power launched from output port
Application of Isolator In Klystrons and Magnetrons to improve the
frequency stability.
Q.15 Write a short note on concept as well as different types.
of
impedance. [SPPU : Aug.-15, In Sem, Marks 6]
OR Explain the following terms i) Intrinsic impedance
i) Wave impedance and ii) Characteristics impedance.
.
SPPU : Aug.-17, Marks 6]

OR Write a short note: The concept of impedance and different

types of impedance.
AT SPP: Dec.-17, Marks 6]
Ans.: Concept of impedance: The ratio of for a single traveling
wave should be equal to Z of the line. This impedance
is equal to wave
impedance.of line.

QECODE A Gulde for Eugineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory 3 20 Passive Mlcrowave Componcnts

Types of impedance
(
1. Intrinsic impedance of medium The intrinsic impedance of thc
?

_cqualto
medium depends on material is_parameters of the medium, and js
wave impedance for the plane wayes.
Intrinsicimpedance is given by -

2. Wave impedance: Wave impedance isa_characteristic of the

particular ype of wave
waves' each have different wave impedances which.
TEM, TM and TE or guide, the.material and the
may depend on the type of the line
operating frequency.
Wave impedance is given by

ratio of for the travelling

3. Characteristic impedance: It is the
wave on a transmission line.
Characteristic impedance for TEM wáve is unique.
It is given by.

microwave.
Q.16 Discuss the need of network and cireuit concepts for
Auig.-15, In sem, Marks 6]
analysis. SPPU
current
The concept of travelling waves is related to voltage and
Ans.:
at high frequency. So the concept of
along the line which is not possible
frequency.
voltage and cutrent are defined for microwave,
1. Voltage and current
are defined only for a particular waveguide mode,
and are defined so that the vóltag is
proportional to the transverse
transverse magnetic
electric field and currènt is proportional. to the
field.
2. In order to be used in a manner similar
to voltages and currènts of
be defined so
circuit theory the equivalent voltage and current should
that their product gives the power flow of the mode.

A Guide for Engineering Students

OEcODE
 Components
Radiation and Microwaye Theory Pussive Microwave
3-21
wave should be
of voltage to current
for a single traveling
rgltio impcdancc of the linc. This impedance may
uat to the characteristic
be chosen arbitrarily, but is ugually sclected
asequal to the waVe
impedance of the line, or else .normalized to unity.
Q.17 An isolator has nn insertion losS of 0.5 dB and
an isolati0n 0
30 dB. Determiue the scattering matrix of the isolator
if the poris
are perfectly matched to the junction.
May-16, Oct.-16, In Sem Marks 6]
S[SPPU:
0.5.dB
= -20 log| S21
Ans. Insertion loss= 0.025
Or S21 10-0.5/20=10-
The isolation is 30 dB 20 log | S12
10-30/20= 101.5
Si2-
Since there is no reflection, S= S22 *0
Since there is not reflection, S1 = S22 0
Therefore, the S-matrix for the isolator is
10157 Ans.
IS).10- 0.025 0

3.4: Circulator
Q.18 Explain the working principle of non-reciprocal 3 port
circulator.. ug [oct-16, In Sem, Marks 4]

OR Explain faraday's rotation principle. Explain in brief the

working principle of nonreciprocal 3 port. circulator ?
PISPPU: Dec.-19, Marks 6
Ans. : A three port circulator is symmetrical Y type junction of three
identical waveguides with an axially magnetized ferrite post placed at the
center. Fig. Q.18.1 shows a typical three port çirculator. (See Fig: Q:18.1
on next page.)
The ferrite post is magnetized by static Bo field along the axis. It
provides the necessary non reciprocal property. The junction can be
matched by placing suitable tuning element-in each arm.

OECODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

Radiatton and Microwave Theory 3-22 Passive Microwave
Components

ort-2

Port-1

Fernte
post

Por-3

Fig. Q:18.1 Three port

cireulator
It is an essential component
negative resistance amplifier. used
to isolatë the input.and
Three port circulators are alsoOutput in
couple a transmitter to various receivers. used
to
Scattering Matrix for 3-Port
Circulator
For a pérfectly matched lossless, non-reciprocal
S matrix is given by, three part circulator, the

.o0.S13
[S] S21 0 0
0 S32
0
If the locations of the termirnal planes
in the three input lines are
properly choseni, the phase angle of S13,
S21 and S2 can be made zero
and then
S13S21 S32 1.
Now,

F0 0 1
Is] 1 0 0
O 10
Typical chàracteristics
of three part circulator
1. Insertion loss< 1 dB 2.
Isólation = 30 40 dB -

3. VSWR < 1.5

:Q.19 Explain any'two applications of circulator.
Marks 7
LS[SPPU Dec.-15, End Sem,

OecoDD Engineering Suueno

A Guidefor
Radiation and Microwaye
Theory 3-23 Passive Microwave Componcnis

Ans. : Applications of circulator

1. As an Isolator
If one poracts of a cirçulator is 3
loaded, it as an isolator
from
3
i.e. power will pass
ports one to two, but power
reflected back from port two
will go to the. load at port
three versus going back to
port-one.
Fig Q.19.1 shows
implementation of circulator Fig. Q.19.1 Isolator from a circulator
as isolator.

2. Diplexer
The cirçulator can be made to work as diplexer by adding a HPF to
port-2.
Frequencies from port-1 that are below 10 GHz will be reflected by
port-2. Frequencies above 10 GHz will pass through port-2.
Filter could be piece of waveguid which pases above 10 GHz.
At crossover frequency of the diplexer a 10 GHz signal will be
10 GHz
passed to both port-2 and port-3 but will be half power at each port.
Fig. Q.19:2 shows diplexer from circulator.
3 Output
Igput 1
(8-10 GHz)
(8-12 GHz).

HPF

Output
(10-12GHz)
Fig. Q.19.2 Diplexer from clrculat

A Gutde for Engineeriug Students

CECODE
 3-24 Passive Microwave Componcnis
Radiation idnd Microivqve Thcory

Q.20 Compare circulator and isolator in detai. In Sem, Marks 4]

D SPPU : Aug.-15,

Ans.: Comparison betwecn çirculntor »nd, isolntor:

Circulator
Sr Isolator
No.
Circulators are devices that
1. An isolator is a device that sends
microiwave frequencies in one
traismit microwave frequencies
between ports, or electrical
direction. connections.

are Circulators use three or four

Isolators are two-port devices, and
2.
on ports. Power in a circulator
primarily used to protect equipment inputted via any port is sent to
power transmitted
the input side from current
on the output side. This prevents a the next port in that
source from rotation.
microwave frequency
being detuned.
A circulator terminates one of
Isolators transmit unidirectional
3. its three or four ports with a
frequencies directly from one port to
power load, which absorbs the
the second port while absorbing the
power that enters it.
power entering the second port. This
absorption is possible via a ferrite
material, which is contained in th
isolator and enables the microwave
signal to produçe a magietic field.
seçond
This field allows power in th
port to be displaced by the ferrite,

B A BB

Isolatoor Circulator

w.
50 ohm C
Termination

A Guide for Engiineering Students

OECODD
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 3 25 Passive Microwave Componenis

.2 Determine the scnttering matrix of a 3 port circulator witn

nsertion loss of 0.6 dB, isolation of 30 dB and VSWR of 2.

ISPPU : Aug.-15 In Sem, Marks 4]

Ans. Insertion loss = 0.6 dB = -20 log IS2l ( TS

20 1og|

S210:933
Insertion loss, betweèn port 1
and 2, 2 and 3, and 3 and 1.
IS2l S2 S0.933
Isolation between the ports is 30 dB =- 20 log IS12l
Sp= 10- (0/20)= 10"15 = 0.032
But insetion loss between ports 2 and 1, 3 änd 2, and 1
and3
IS12 1S231
ISl 0.032
Since VSWR S = 2

Reflection coefficient 0.33

Pls+1
S= IS22l= IS33= 0.33
S-matrix for 3-port:
S11. S12 S13 0.33 0.032 0.933
S]=S21 S22 S23 0.933 0.33 0.032
S31 S32 S33 0.032 0.933 0.33

3.5 Directional Coupler

Q.22 With the help of diagram,, explain the operation of tvo-hole
directional coupler. . 0 SPPU Dec,-14, June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]
OR What is a directional coupler ? Draw and explaiù the operation
two hole directional coupler. DE SPPU Aug.-17, Marks 6]

OR Explain the construction and working. of two hole directionnl

coupler with its parameters. SPPU May-19, End Sem, Marks 8]

OR Draw and explain tiwo hole directional coupler ? Also derive

S-matrix for it ? ISPPU: Dec.-19, End Sem, Marks 6]

A Guide for Englneering Students

OrcODB
*

Radiation and Microwave Theory

3-26 Passive Microwave
Ans. Two Hole Directional Coupler Components

By making holes in the common wall

can transfer betwecn the guides. Usingbetween two wayeo ndes
*

desigm of a directional
two or more holes powe
coupler, where the power
guide to the second occurs preferentially transfe.O the
in one direction froa
in the second guide. The two hole coupler of one
propagation
is shown in the Fip
Q2.1.
Port 1

sot Port
2

Port 3
n
Port 4

P-lnput port
P2-Output port
P Isolated port
P4-Coupled port
Fig. Q.22.1 Two hole directional
coupler
Two hole directional coupler consists of fwo guides with
common between thein. two (holes)
These two apertures holes are at distance
a
4. of

Energy is coupled through the slots from the main to the coupled guide.
Because the slots are a quarter-wave
length a part, the energy in the
coupied guide will, cancel in one direction
and reinforce in the other
direction.
Consider a wave propagatingg from port 1 to port.2. When the wave
passes lot a energy is radiated into the coupled guide, where
in both directions. The main-guide wave t radiates
contiues to propagate toward
slöt b. Part of the wave coupls through slot b into the other guide. As
before, the coupled wave propagates in both directions in the other
guide. The portion fhat propagates towards port 4 is in phase with slot a
energy and thus reinforces the signal. But the portion that propagates
from slot b back towards slot a is phase shifted 180°. Thus the port 3
Signals trom slots a and b are out of phase by 180° and cancel ea
other. We can label port 1 the input, port 2 the output, port the
isolated port and port 4 the coupled port

The spacing between slots a and b is critical because it is pecessary

effect a 180 phase shift in the a-b-b-a path.

Engineering Studens
OECODD A Guide for
 Radlatton and Microwave Theoy 327 Passive Microwave Componens

Q.23 Draw ànd éxplain the two hole directional coupler, Also
represent it in terms of S-matrix. [Dec-16, 17; End Sem, Marks 6]
Ans.: Two Hole, Dircctionhl Coupler : Refer Q,22.
S-matrix of direetional coupler: Since in a directional_coupler all four
ports are completely matched. Theretore the díagonal elements of S-matrix
are zeros and
S1. Sp2 Si3
S44=0
It may be noted that there is no coupling between port-1 and port-3 and
between port-2 and port-4,
Thereforee:
Si S1 = S4S420
Hence the S-matrix of directional coupler becomes
S21 0 S14
S21 0 S23
S
0S220
(S41
0 S34
S43 0
From the zero property of the S-matrix, we get,
Sy S14 +S32 S34 0 ..(Q.23.1)
Sa Sh3 +S41 S43
0 -(Q23.2)
Also from the unity property of the S-matrix, we get
S2 Si2 +S14 S14 =0 Q.23.3)
We can rewrite the equations (Q.23.1) and (Q.23.2) as follows,

Sl IS Sa1l al
Since S2 S» S4Sa SzSa and S4 S4, then

Consider that
S12S34=P
Where P is positive and real.
But
P (S23 +S41)= 0
A Guide for Eugineering Students
OEcODD
Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 3-28 Passive Mficrowave Components

Let
SzSa1 jq
q is positive.and real.
Where
But
p + 1

:The S-matrix of a directional coupler is reduced to

P 0 j
0
P O iq

i 0 P
directional
Q.24 Define with expressions the following parameters,of
coupler. i). Coupling Factor i) Directivity
DTIMay-17, End Sem, Marks 7]
ii) Insertion loss iv) Isolation
directional
.OR Define with expressions the following paramtèrs of
Insertion loss
coupler. i) Coupking factor "i) Directivity ii)
ISPPU : Deé.-18, End Sem, Marks 6
and principle of
OR Explain with neat diagram. the construction
Define : i) Coupling
operation of a two hole' directional coupler.
coefficient ii) Directivity, ii) solation
DS[SPPU : June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]
coupler is measúred in terms of
Ans. : o The performance of a directional
four basic parameters.
i) Coupling Factor (C) i) Directivity (D)
iit)Isolation (). iv) Retun Loss (R)

Coupllng factor (C) :

i) The coupling factor, is a measure of. how
ratio of power levels
much of incident power is being sampled, It is the
by C
main and auxiliary waveguides: The coupling factor is denoted
in expressed in dBs.
and is
Let the incident power is P in main waveguide and the power coupled
direction is P4.
in the auxiliary waveguide in forward

Then, CaB)10 log 10P

OECOD A Guide for Engineering Studeits

 Radiation andMicrowave Theory
329 Passtve Mlcrowave Components

Main waveguide

Incident
power
P1

Forward
coupled power
PA
Auxlliary
waveguide
Fig. Q.24.1
Coupling factor represents the amount power received
of the auxiliary
of at the output
line in terms of power transmitted in the main
line.
ii) Directivity (D): The:'directivity is a measure
directional coupler distinguishes between of how well the
the forward. and reverse
travelling power It is the ratio of forward coupled
power at auxiliary
waveguide to the reverse power at auxiliary wave guide.
It is denoted by
D and is expressed in dBs.

Reverse. Forward
power coupled power
P3 R4
Auxiliary
waveguide

Fig. Q.24.2
Let the power coupled in the auxiliary waveguide in forward direction
is P and the.reverse power at auxiliary port is P3.

Then, DdB)= 10 log10

OCOD A Guidefor Engineering Students

 3-30 Passive Microwave
.Radiation and Microwav Theory Components

th
Directivity represents the amount of attenuation that the dircctional
infinity i.e
coupler offers to the user. Ideally it should. be
at port 3 is zero.

Isolation (1):
iii) The isolation' measures the directive properti
cident power
directional couplet, It is defined as the ratio of incic of
reverse power at auxiliary waveguide at main
waveguide (P) to the P3) k is
denoted by I and is expressed in dBs.

I= 10log1o dB
Then,
P
Isolation factor represents the amount of isolation between two no
a directional coupler. Ideally, it should be infinity i.e. power outd
port-3 is zero.
iv) Return loss (R): Return loss is defined as the ratio of power
incident to the power transmitted in the. main arm. It is also denoted as
insertion loss.

Then, RaBy10 1og(P1

P
where P, is the received power from the port where power is transmitted.
Q.25 If the incident power of 10 dB directional coupler is 250 mW,
caleulate. ) The output power in the main arm i) The output power
in the auxiliary arm DT[SPPU: Aug.-15, In Sem, Marks 41

mW
Ans. P250
C 10 dB
C =
10 log

10
250x10-
10 1og P4
250x10
= 10
P4
AUS,
P 0.025 mW
Studens
Engineering
QECODES A Guide for
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 3-31 Passive M{crowave Components

Power in auxiliary arm = 0.025 nW

Output power = lnput power -
Auxiliary power

P-P
250 0.025
249.975 mW
Ans.
3.6 .Gyrátor

Q.26 Explain the construction and operation of gyrator.

0 ISPPU: Aug.-17, Marks 4]

OR What is the Faraday, rotation ? Explain the principle operation

S-matrix.
of a gyrator using relevant diagram with its
F ISPPU : May-19, End Sem, Marks 8]

tee. 3 SPPU Deci-19, Marks 6

OR Explain applictions of Magic
:

ferrite device. It is a two port device

Ans, Gyrator isa nonreciprocal
shift of 180° in forward direction and0 phase
that has a relative phase
a gyrator is shown in
shift in reverse direction. The schematic symbol for
Fig. Q.26.1.

Port 1 Port 2

Fig. Q.26.1 Symbol of gyrator

port 2 it offers phase shift of
When signal is transmitted from port to
1

2 if offers 0° phase
180° (7 radians) and when signal is fed to port
as differential phase shift
Shiff to the signal. Hence it. is also known
device

Construction
transition both
Cyrators consists ofa circular to rectangular waveguide
ends is
mode. A twin circular ferrite rod tapered at both
at dominant magners
loçated insidë the circular waveguide surrounded by permannt
which generates d.c. magnetic fild for the operation of ferrite.

Students
OucODD A Guidefor Engineering
Radiation and Microwave Theory 3-32 Passive Microwave Components

A rectangular. waveguide twisted by 90° is connected by input ana

reduces attenuation and also provide smooth attenuation of polarizea
wave.
Q.27 Explain the operation of circulator using two magic tees.
D3T [SPPU: Aug-17, Marks 4]

OR-Explain the concept of circulator and its construction with the

help of magic tee and gyrator.
SPPU: Aug-15, In Sem, Marks 4]
OR Explain the opcration-of circulator uing two magic tees.
T [SPPU Dec.-18, End Sem, Marks 6]

OR Explain applications of magic teg. S ISPPU : Dec,-19, Marks 6]

Ans.: Cirulator : A microwave circulator is a multiport device in

*
which power is circulated from n"
Port
port to (n + 1)" port only in one
direction. A four port circulatoris
most commonly used. Fig. Q,27.1
shows a four port circulator.Port Port
schematic.
Circulator is a. non-reciprocal
component. All the four. ports are
matched and transmission of.
Port
power takes place in cyclic order
only. An ideal circulator is Fig. Q.27.1 Port circulator
perfectly lossless.

,
schematic
.
of Faraday rotation. All the ports ,,
Principle of operation: Working of circulator is based on principle
and are oriented such that
the E-field of transmitted signal couples to these ports successively after
going through a rotation of 45° in clockwise direction.

Gyrator.Gyrator is a nonreciprocal ferrite device. It is a two port

device that has a relative phase shift of 180° in forward direction and0
phase shift in reverse direction. The schematic symbol for a gyrator is
shown in Fig. Q.27.2.

ORCODD A Guide for Engineering Students

 Radlatlon and Mlcrowaye Thcory
3-33 Passive Microwave Components

Port 1
aradiains Port 2

Flg. Q.27.2 Symbol of gyrator

When signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2 it offers phase shift of
180° (Tt radians) and
when signal is fed to' port 2 if offers 0° phase
shift to the signal. Hence it is also
known as, differential phase shift
device.
Construction: Gyrators sists of a circular to rectangular
waveguide transition both at dominant mode.
A twin círcular ferrite rod
tapered at both ends is located inside the
circular waveguide surrounded
by permanent magnets which generates
d.c. magnetic field for the
operátion of ferrite.
A rectangular waveguide twisted by 90° is
connected by input and reduces
attenuation and also provide smooth attenuation
of polarized wave.
Circulator Using Magic Tee: A four-port circulator can be
constructed by using two magic tees and a
phase shifter. Fig. Q.27.3
shows this circuit arrangement.

Magic
tee -1. Magic
tee-2

180° phase
shifter

Fig. Q.27.3 Port circulator using magic tees

END..S

OEcODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Unit IV
ww.
PweYP"S***oa

4 4.1
Active Microwave omponents

Limitations of Conventional Tubes.

0 and M Type Classification
of Microwave Tubes
Q1 Discus the limitations of conventional
tubes at microwa.
frequencies and how to overcome these 1ave
limitaions ?
p[SPPU:'Dec.-19, Marks
2
OR What are the limitations
of conventional tubes at microwave
frequencies and how to overcome these limitations ?.
SPPU Dec.-15, End Sem, Marks 9,
June-22, End Sem, Marks 81
OR Explain the frequençy
limitation of the conventional tubes.
can it be overcome with microwave Ho
tubes ? [SPPU : Dec.-14. Marks 8

OR What are the high frequency limitations

of conventional tubes,
explain in detail.
SPPU : May-19, June-22, End Sem, Marks 8
Ans. : Limitations of Conventional
Tubes
The size of electronic devices required for generation of microwave
energy becomes very stmaller
at microwave. frequencies. Because of
small size, these devices increased the
noise levels and results in lesser
power handling capacity. So, at
the microwave frequencies, the
Microwave tubes are used because they can provide higher,
power, lesser noise, better reliability with reduced
ouu
output power levcls.
Due to some characteristics the conventional tubes and transistors are
not used at high frequencies imentioned
below:
i) Interelectrode capacitances
ii) Lead effect
inductance
i) Gain bandwidth imitation iv) Transit time effect
) Skin effect
vi) Dielectric losses

(4-1)
 Radlatton aHd Microwave Theor 4- 2 Active Microwave Components

) Interelectrode Capacitance :The circuit shown in Fig. Q.1.1

shows the interelectrode capacitance between the grid and the cathode
(C in parallel with the signal source. The reactance is given by the
relation :

Xc2rCC
Cpg

L
-----
Input
signal

Fig. Q.1.1 Interelectrode capacitance

the interelectrode
capacitance decreases the reactance of.
CLLAs interelectrodes increases. As the frequency.of the input signal
increases,
effective grid to cathode impedance of the tube decreases becaise of
the decrease in the reactance of the interelectrode capacitance. When
the
a reactance of the grid
signal frequency is greater than 100 MHz, then the
signal is short
to cathode capacitance is so small that much of the
are effectively
circuited with the tube. Since the électrode capacitances
in parallel with the tuned circuits, as shown in above circuit,
they wil
also affect the frequency at which the tuned circuit resonate. This effect
is minimized by using the smaller electródes and by increasing the
distance betwéen electrodes.
i) Lead lnductance Effect: The lead inductances within a tube are
effectively in parallel with the interelectrode capacitances. The reactances
.is given by relation

2 L
As the léad -inductance increases, the reactance of the circuit also
increases. This effect raise the frequency. limit .of the tube. The

QEcOD A Guide for.Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory 4-3 Actlve Microwave Components

inductance of cathode lead is common to

both the grid and plate circuits. This L2
provides a path for degenerative fecdback V,0-0000
which reduces the overall circuit
efficiency. This effect is minimizcd by.
using the larger sized short Ieads without
base pins.
ii) Gain Bandwidth Limitation: To
achieve the maximum gain, the vaccum
tubes generally use the circuit siown.in Fig. Q.1.2 Lead inductance
Fig. Q.1.3 Replacing Rp and Rz by R.

9m'o Vo

Fig. Q.1.3 Equivalent cirçuit

RR
Vol)-Z)
GV
G

sLCR+Ls+R
ZnlGY)
Z0)
Cs+ RLs
s/C
Zs)=
s24 1
From the characteristic equation of the denominator, the roots give the
values of lowest and highest frequencies o and a0

Students
OECODES A Guide for Engineerlng
 Radiation and Microwave Theor 4-4 Active Micrówave Componenis

G R(Conductance is always reciprocal, of resistance)

Bandwidth
- -o,where 2E
The maximum gain at resonance sAm

Gain bandwidth product = Ama BW=

As shown in above relation, the gain bandwidth
product is independent
of frequency.. Higher gain for a given
tube can be achieved only by
using the narrow bandwidth. This
rstriction is applicable to its resonant
circuit only. To obtain an overall high gain
over a broad bandwidth in
microwave devices slow wave structures are
used.
iv) Transit Time Effect:
Transit
timeis the time required for electrons
to travel from the cathode to the
anode plate. If we consider the circuit
of a simple vaccum tube as shown in
Fig. Q.1.4 When 'd' is the distance
Vod
between two plates, i is plate
current,V is applied input voltage,
Vo is output voltage.
.
Fig. Q.1.4 Transit-time effect
Calcuiation for Transit Time: By definition, Transit Time is
given
by

Vo .

where v is velocity of electrons

Static energy of.electrons .eV
Kinetic energy of electrons eV

Kinetic energy of electrons m v

We know that under equilibrium. state, the static energy of electrons is
equal to kinetic energy of elecirons.

OECOD A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory 45 Active Microwave
Compone
ponents

eV
m v. 2eV
Vo
m

2eV
N
m
At low frequencies, the transit time eftect is negligible because dita.
between anode and cathode is very small.

But at highér frequencies, the transit time is large as

compared to th
period of microwave signal. The potenial between the cathode
and grid
may alternate from 10 to 100 times during the electron transmit.
The grid potential during the negative half cycle thus removes energy
that was given to the .electron during the. positive half ycle.
Consequently, the electrons may oscillates back and forth
in the cathode
grid space or, return to the cathode. The overall result
of transit time
effects is to reduce the overall efticiency of the vacuum tube.
To. minimize this effect, the separaion between electrodes
can be
decreased and the plate to cathode potential 'V"
can be increased.
v) Skin Effect: This effect
introducés at high frequencies, when
the current flows ffom small
cross-sectional area to outer surface
of
the conductor. As given
in the
Fig.Q.1.5 is skin depth (wall
thickness of the. conductor) Aai
and Aft 1s onductor
the effective area over.
which the
Current flows.
8= skin depth Fig. Q.1.5
=2/oLG-

8 Ast
Afto

OECODE Engineering Smate

A Guide for
Radlatlon and Microwave Thcory 4-6 Active Microwave Components

Resistance is given by relation

R PA cff
R plN
As the fiequeney itercases the resistance of the conductor increases, due
to this higher frequency losses are produced.
vI) Dialectrlc Losss These are different insulating materials which
arè used as a glass envelope, silicon plastic
encapsulations in different.
microwave devices. The losS in any of these material is in general related
to power loss given by:
P Tf. VE, tan
where 6,Relative permittivity. of dielectric
8 Loss angle of dielectric
P Power loss
At higher frequencies, the power loss increases. To eliminate these
losses the surface area of glass should be decreased and the tube
báse
$hould be eliminate.
Cathode Emission
High cathode emission can be achieved by
Greater area.of cathode eniission.
More cathode filament voltage.
Higher filament temperature.
But grèater area of cathode émission results into greater value of
. inter-electrode capacitance, which is undesirable. Also the cathode
voltage and temperatir cannot be increased beyond a limit.
Power Losses The power losses associated with a tube and cireuit,
tend to increase with frequency. Át UHF current. flows in the surface
layers because of skin effect. The associated resistance and losses increase
as square' root of frequency
Insulating.materials like glass have losses, associated with molecular
movements produced by the electric fields. These losses are called as
dielectric losses.

SYudenis
OEcODD A Guide for Engineering
 Iclyn
ele (cl4)n
Acttve Microwave Components
Radiatlon dnd iicrowave Theory 4-7

electrodes.
In addition, there are rádiation losses from
increasing the arca of surfaces
The resistance losses can be reduced by
carrying the curent.
lösses can be reduced by proper positioning of glass with
Diclectric
respect to points of electric fields.

4.2: Klystron.
Q.2 With the help of applegate diagram explain the operation of two
L SPPU : May-18, Marks 6]
cavity Klystron.
help of
OR Explain the concept of velocity modulation with the
applegate diagram. How this is used in microwave sources ?
D [SPPU: May-16, Marks 91

OR Explain the concept of velocity modulation. Explain the principle

of working of a reflex Klystron with an Applegate diagram.
T SPPU: June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]
Ans. : Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
a) Construction:

Co-axial
loop Electron beam
Buncher cavity Catcher cavity
RF
RFIpul Electron Output
bunches

Collector
B+

Drift
Calhode space Gap B
Gap A
Focusing
electrodes

Fig. Q.2.1 Klystron amplifier schematic diagram

QEcODE A Guide for Engineering Studeits

 Rudiation and Mlcrowave Theory 4-8 Active Microwave Conmponents

A two cavity Klystron amplificr consists of a cathode, focussing

electrodes, two 'buncher grids scparated by a very small distance
a
forming a gap of two catcher grids with small gap B followed by
collector. The cavity closé to the cathode is known as the buncner
.

Cavity or input cavity, which velocity modulates the electron beam. 1ne
other cavity. is called the catcher cavity or output cavity it catches
energy from the bunched electron beam. Fig. Q.2.1 shows schematic
diagram of two cavity Klystron amplifier.
b) Operatlon:Two cavity Klystron amplifiet works on the principle
of velocity and current modulation. A high velocity electron beam is
formed, focussed and sent down along a glass tube to a collector
electrode: The high velocity electron beam generated by cathode arrive at
the first cavity with uniform velocity. The electron beam passes gap A in
the buncher cavity to which RF signal to be amplified is applied and is
then allowed to drif freely without any influence from RF fields until it
reaches gap B in the output or catcher cavity. The separation between
buncher grid and catcher grid is called drift space.
The focussing electrode (first grid) controls the numbers of electron
beam and serves to focus the beam. The velocity of electrons in: the
beam is determined by the beam accelerating potential. On having the
region of first grid, the electrons pass through the grids of buncher
cavity. The grids of the cavity allow the electrons to pass through, buf
limits the magnetic fields within the cavity. The space between the grids
is referred to ás interaction space. When the electrons travel through
this space they are subjected to RF potentials at a frequency determined
by the cavity resonant frequency or the input frequency. The amplitude
of this RF potential between the grids is determined by the amplitude of
the incoming signal in case of the amplifier, or by the amplitude of the
feed-back signal from the second cavity it used as an oscillator
The cavities are re-entrant type and are tunable.
Velocity Modulation and Bunching: Consider when there is no
voltage across the gap: electroris passing the gap, are not, affected and
continue to collector with same constant velocity.
When an input is applied to the buncher cavity, an electron will pass
gap A at the. time when the voltage across this gap is zero and going
positive, let this be the reference electron y. This reference electron, is
unaffected by the gap, and thus it is shown with the same slope on the
applegate diagram of Fig. Q,2.2 as electrons passing the gap before
any signal was applied to the buncher cavity.
A Guide for Engineering Students
OrcoDD
Radiation dnd Microwave Theory 4-9 Active Microwave
Com
nents
Bunches

Gap A
Reference
electron Y

time

Bunching
limits

Fig. Q.2.2 Applegate diagram for Klystron amplifier

Electron z, passes gap A slightly later than y as shown. In absense of
gap voltage, both electrons would have continued pass the gap with
unchanged velocity. In presence
of positive voltage across gap A,
however elèctron z is accelerated slightly and givn enough time, will
catch up with the reference electron easily before gåp B is approached.
Similarly, electton x passes gap A slightly before the reference electron,
and is retarded by the negative voltage, at that instant across the gap
Since, electron y was not so retarded, it has an excellent chance 0r
catching electron x before gap B, this is shown in applegate diagra.
As a result of these actions, the electrons gradually bunch togetner
they travel down the drift space. The variation in electron velociy
*.
the drift space is known as velocity modulation. The density of tne
electrons in the second cavity gap varies cyclically with time. Such
by
by
velocity modulation.is not sufficient in itself for amplifica
the
Klystron. While bunching of electrons it exchanges energy with tne
slówer electron, giving
ch
two bunch
it some excess energy, and u
CECODE Engineering Studens
A Guide for
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 4-10 Active Microwave Components

together move with the average. velocity of the beam. As the beam
DrOgresses further down along the drift space, the bunching becomes
more complete, as more and more of the faster electrons catch up with
hunches ahead. Eventually, the current passes. the catch gap with quite
pronounced bunches. and,.theretore varies cyclically with time, and this
variation in current density (current modulation) enables the Klystron to
have a significant gain.
occur only per cycle,
Applegate diagram shows tihat the bunching can are also
centering on the referençe electron. The limits of bunching
shown, any electron' arriving after the second limit are not accelerated
sufficiently to catch up with any elecfron passing through the gap A just
before the first limit. Bunches, therefore,
arrive at the catcher grid, once
per cycle and then deliver this energy to this cavity. The catcher
cavity
at its resonant frequency (input frequency)
is excited.into oscillations
and a large sinusoidal output can be obtained
because of flywheei effect
output resonator: Bunching therefore, depends upon the
following
of the
parameters.
i) Drift space should be adjusted properly.
ii) Signal amplitude should be such that proper. bunching takes place.

ii) DC anode voltage.

Above three factors when properly adjusted gives maximum efficiency.
a.3 Explain the principle of working of Reflex Klystron. Where it is
used?. ST ISPPU: Dec,-14, Marks 8]

OR With the help of construction and Applegate diagram éxplain

working of Reflex Klystron ? 1SPPU :Dec.-18, June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]

OR Explain the construction and operation of single cavity klystron

tube. 1 SPPU May-19, Marks 8]
Ans. Roflex Klystron Principle of Working:
:

The Reflex Klystron is a single cavity velocity modulated tube in which

Single cavity does the functions of both the buncher and cavity
Tesonators.

Construction: Fig. Q.3.1 gives the schematic diagram.of reflex

ystron. It consists of an anode cavity resonators a filament surrounded
Dy cathode,
an electron gun and an electrode also called reflector
ectrode. Reflector eléctrode is placed at a short distance from resonator
QECODE
A Guide forEngineering Students
Radiation and Microwave Theory 4-11 Active Microwaye Componcnts

Coaxlal cable

Electron
gun
RF output - Resonant cavlty

Repeller space Reflactor or reflactor

platg

Grld gap

- Va

V
Fig. Q.3.1 Schematic diagram of reflex Klystron

grid and is at negative potential with respect to the cathode. The electron
beam is modulated when passed through the anode resonant cavity. The
electrons travel towards a repeller eleçtrode after passing through gap
in
the cavity. Because of the high negative field, the electrons never reach at
reflector elecrode and are returned back towards the gap ort their return
journey, the electrons give more energy to gap and oscillations. are
Sustainecd.

Operation
In the operation of reflex Klystron three power sourccs are required
1. Filament power
2. Positive resonator voltage or beam voltage which is used to
accelerate the electrodes through the grid gap of resonant cavity.
3. Negative repeller voltage used to push the electrons back to
Tesonator grids.
The electrons are focused into a beam: by electrostatic fields set up by
the resonator potential V^ The resonator potential also causes the
Tesonant cavity to begin oscillations at its natural frequency
when the
tube is energized. These- oscillations causes the RF voltage across
the
grid gap of the cavity that changes the direction of electrostatic ficld
affects the electrons in the beam as they
pss through the grid gap. This
can be casily explained by the applegate
diagram shown in Fig. Q.2.2.

QEcODED
A Guide for Eugineering Students
 Active Microwave
Componenís
Radiation and Microwave Theorn 4-12

wnen gap voltage is zero then clectron passes through the gap 1s know
S rererence electron i.e. o,. Refctence clectron.e, is unaffected by tn
BHp voltage and moves towards the rcflector elecrode. This electron getS
reflected by the negative potential on the reflector electrode, t rerurs
back to the gap.

The electron which passes through the gap before the reference clectron
)is known as early electron i.c. (c). This electron exhibits the
naximum positive potential and accelerated. 'e" moves with grear
velocity and it penetrates deep into repeller. space.
In retum joumey fiom retlector electrode to grid gap, the 'e takes
greater time than e, because of more'penetration into repeller space.

*he electron which passes through the gap after the reference electron
1S known as the late electron 'e. It exhibits maximum negative
potential on it and moves with the rctarding. velocity, The retirm journey
time of 's;. is much shorter than the e, and e, electron because of the
less penetration into the repeller space.The late electron 'e catches up
WIth the refercnce electron e, and early electron e. to form a bunch. The
bunching of electrons occur once per éycle centred around the reference
electron 'e and these bunches transfer the maximum energy
Due to this energy of grid gap, the oscillations to grid gap.
are sustained in the
cavity resonator.
Application of Reflex Klystron
1. Pump oscillator for parametric' amplifiers.
2. Frequency-modulated oscillator in portable microwave
links.
3. Local oscillator in microwave receivers.
4. Signal source in microwave generators.
Q.4 Explain the voltage, power and îrequency
characteristics of
reflex Klystron tube.
SPPU: Dec-16, 17, End Sem, Narks 8]
Ans. : Reflex Klystron: Refer Q.3.

Voltage, power and frequency

.o As mentioned in Fig. Q.4.l
'V is electron gun anode voltage which is
common to electron gun and body of cavity
resonator 'V; is the
reflector voltage and Vj sin ot' is gap voltage of
resonator cavity. The
distance between the cavity gap and reflector electrode
is 'L' and 'x' is

OECOD A Giuidefor Engineering

Students
Radiation and ficrowave Theory 413 Active Mlcrowave Components

distance travelled by elcctrons. The olecyons cntering the cavity gap

from the çathode at x
=0 at time 'l have velocity Vo is

where 'e is charge on electron

'm' is mass of electron

2V m
= 0.593 x 1o /Vo 04.1)
Cathode

- VR

Vj sin ot
Repeller

X
Anode

Fig: Q4.1
a) Transit angle
At x = d (distance between the grids of cavity) at time instant 't,, the
electron leaves the cavity with velocity v

Q.4.2)
When B, is beam cóupling factor of input cavity.
9 is gap transit angle.

o +0,|1 .(Q.4.3)

b) Relation between reflector voltage and accelerating voltage

We know that center of bunch electrons is unaffected by the RF voltage
when V is very much less than Vo

f V, <V%) Q.4.4)
For maximum trarisfer of energy mode 2 is used in which repeller
voltage produces electron transit time of 1cycle.

OECODB A Guide for Engineering Studens

 Radlation nnd iicrowave Thcory 14 Aetlve Microwave Components

Then opinum value of ®g for-maximum cuergy transferis

Because each cycle consists of 2

etc.

21th

2mLo
But
eV,-Vg)
e (VVo e. .Q4.5)
2mLo

From mass and voltage relationship of electron:

mveV,

Frotm equation (Q.4.5), the value of V,

Y2 m-V
4of m2

Vo e
(V,-V, 2e 4mL

11 m
-V6
c)Mathematical expression for change in frequency due to
repeller voltage
ne relation between repeller voltage and accelerator voltage is rewritten
as

OECODS A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory -15 Active Mlcrowave Components

SmLVo
V,-Vo (Q4.6)

.
Differentiating above equation with respect to w and also differentiate V,
w.r.t.
16ml-Vo
2V,-V)
2h-
dr 8ml-Vo .(Q.4.7)
d
(V,-Vo)
From the equation (Q4.6), we substitute the value of (V, V in
equation (Q4.7).
m-Vg. L
8
do

d2rt L 8 mVo
df e
2atn-

2TL Bm Vo
df 2n-

From this relation, it is clear that the repeller voltge is dependent on the
variation of the frequeney.

d) Relation between power output repeller and accelerator voltage

OECODE A Guide for Engineerlug Students

 Radiation and Microwaye Theory
4- 16 Actlve Microwave Components
mLo
Because.
0 2
e(V-Voo
POut 2VoloXJ1X)(V, -Vo)e
2 mL 0Vo
YoloX J1X)(V,
Pout
Lo
-Vo)e
e
V
2 mVo
For maximum value of X = 2.408, J, (X) = 0.52
1.25 VoloV,-Vo)
P Vo2eVo
OL 2 mVo
m

4.3:Magnetron
Q.5 What is magnetron? List the different types of magnetron.
Explain how oscillations sustained in magnetron.
DISPPU : May-14, Marks 8]
OR Explain construction
and principal of operation of cylindrical
magnetron.
SPPU: May-18, Marks 6]
OR Explain the construction and
working of magnetron. Write its
applications. D3P SPPU : May-19, Marks
8]

Ans.:Magnetron:
Magnetrons provide microwave oscillation of very high peak power.
The magnetron was invented by Hull in 1921. and in 1939
improved
high power magnetron was developed by Randall and Boot.
The magnetron is a self contained microwave oscillator that
operates
differently from linear wave tubes, such as the TWT and Klystron. The
magnetrons are cross field tubes in which electric and magnetic fields
are perpendicular to each other, so these tubes are known as M-type
microwave tubes. Fig. Q.5.1 shows a travelling wave cylindrical
magnetron tube schematic.

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Studenis

Radtation and Mierowave Thcory 4-17 Active Microwave
Components

No

Cathode

Anode-
output
Coupling

Fig. Q.5.1 Cylindrical

magnetron
Types of Magnetron: There are three types
of Magnetrons
1) Negative resistance type 2) Cyclotron frequency type
3) Travelling wave or cavity type.
1. Negative Resistance Type These are usefül only at the frequency
less than 500 MHz. These magnetrons ises the negative
resistance
between two anode 'segments. The negatiye resistance
magnetrons are
capable of generating high power output. The
iength of the tube plate is
limited to few centimetres. The small diameter tube required
is to make
the magnetron operate efficiently at microwaye frequency.

2. Cyclotron Frequency Type These are uséful only for frequencies

greater than 100 MHz. The working. of these magnetrons depends upon
the synchronisation between an alternating component of electric field and
periodic oscillations of electrons' in the direction parallel to this field

3. Travelling Wave or Cavity Type es the

These magnetrons prov
OSCillations of very high peak power. These.are very usefül m r
the
applications, The working of these magnetrons depend poonstant
interaction of electrons with a rotating electromagnetic field or these
angular velocity. We have already dicussed the construction o cavity
magnetrons. in next.section we will discuss the operation
magnetrons.

Oscillations in magnetron:, Refer Q.6.

uden:s
Eugineeriug Juuen
DECODD A Guldefor
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 4-18 Active Microwave Components

a.6 How the oscillations are sustained in cavity magnetron ? Explain

the process of phase focusing, effcct. aT [SPPU: Dec.-15; End sem, Marks 9]

OR Explain the phase focussing effect in cavity magnetron.

EF ISPPU : May-16, Marks 8]

OR Explain in detail the phase focusing effect in cavity magnetron.

ST [SPPU ; Dec.-16,17, Marks. 81

Ans.: Oscillations in magnetron:

1) When there is no RF field In cavity magnetron (zero-modo)
.The strong electric ficld going from anode to cathode is created by
applying the negative voltage pulse to cathode. The strong electric field
causes the electrons to accelerate towards the anode after they have
been accelerated by the cathode. As we have discussed earlier that the
electron takes the energy from field when it is accelerated by electric
ficld and moving against the electric field. An clectron gives up energy
to field and slows down if it móving in the same direction as the
electric field. Oscillations are sustainèd in the magnetron because of the
acceleration and retardation of the electric and magnetic fields.
In Fig. Q.6.1 a, b c and d are four different electróns which exerts
different electric and magnetic field (B = 0), the electron travels straight
line from cathode to anode due to the radial electric field force action
on it. It is the path of electron.'a' in Fig. Q.6.1. If the magnetiç field
strength is increased slightly, it will exert lateral force on it and it

b
Anode
block
Interaction
space

AUTTT
Fig Q.6.1 Electron
trajectories in the presence of crossed electric and
magnetic fields. (a) No magnetic field (b) Small magnetic field
(o)Magnetic field B (d) Excessive magnetic field
OECODES
A Guide for Engineering Students
 Radiation and Microwave Theory 4-19 Active Microwave Components
travels from cathode to anode in a small current path of electron 'b' as
shown in Fig. Q.6.1 the radius of the path directly varics with clectron
velocity and inversely proportional to the magnetic field strength.
The radius is given by,

R mV
eB:
where m is mass. of electrón
e is charge on electron.
When magnetic field is increased then the electron does not reach to the
anode shown by path of electron 'C' in Fig. Q.5.1 the anode current
becomes zero. The magnetic field required to return electronss back to
the cathode is called the critical magnetic field (Boc is also known as
critical magnetie ffeld.
magnetic field is made larger than the critical field (B
Ifthetheelectron Boc)
exerts a greater forçe on it and it returns back cathode
to
faster than the electron C. As. shown by path of electron 'd' in
Fig. Q.6.1. All such electrons may cause back heating of the cathode.
This can be avoided by Switching off the heater supply after
commencement of oscillation.
2) When the RF oscillations present in cavity magnetron
(Tt mode)
Assume that.the RF oscillations are initated due to some noise transient
within the magnetron and oscillations are sustained by the device
operation. When n = 4 then there is -mode of operation which is
shown in Fig. Q.6.2. The anode poles are -radians apart in phase.

Magnetic field

Electric
field

Fig. Q.6.2 T-mode of magnetron

OECODD A Guide for Engincerlng Students

 4-20 Active Microwave Conmponenis
Radiation and Microwave Theory

seen to be slow down in the

As shown in Fig. Q.6.2 the electron a isenergy
presence of oscillations thus transferring from cathode to anode.
Theeleotrons which participáte is transferring the energy to the RF field
are called forward electrons and they are responsible for the bunching
effect. The electron "'b' is accelerated by the RF field and. it takes
energy irom the oscillations resulting in increased velocity. It bends
more sharply spends very litle time in interaction space and returned
back to, cathode, these electrons are unfounded electrons, which do not
participate in bunching process. The electron d' slowed down and it
falls back in step with electron a. This results in forward electron like a,
c, d to confined to spokes or electron clouds, The spokes so formed in
T-mode rotate with an angular velocity corresponding to two poles per
cycle. The process is called phase focussing effect corresponding to a
bunch of forward electrons around the reference electrons a. The phase
focussing effect of these forward electrons imparts enough energy to the
RF oscillations so that they are sustained.

Phase Focussing Effect

magnetron causes electron to bunch, but
Tt mode oscillations of cavity this effect
here this effect is known as phase focussing effect. Without
field across
electrons would fall behind the phase change of the electric
interaction with the
the gaps, since such electrons are retarded at each
RF field.

Fig. Q.6.3 shows the bunched

electron clouds rotating
around magnetron cathode.

These bunches rotate counter

clockwise with the correct
velocity to keep up with RF
phase changes between
adjoining a mode poles. Thus
Continued interchange of
energy takes place, with the
Fig. Q.6.3 Phase focussing
RF field.

devices ? Explain the Cavity Magnetron

Q.7 What are the cross field
with Hull eut off condition in detail.
[SPPU May-17, Marks 8]
I :

Students
A Guide for Engineering
OECODE
Radiation and Microwave Theo 4-21 Active Mlcrowave Coinponents

Ans. : Cross Field. Devices

The magnetrons are cross ficld tubes in which èlectric and magnetic
elds are perpendicular to each other, so these tubes are known as
M-type microwave tubes.
Cut-off Magnetic Field Density I Hull Cut-off Condition
It is the magnetic field strength for a given voltage Vo» which causes
the electrons to just graze the anode surface and return
towards cathode.
It is denoted by Boe.
From equation of-electron motion,
eBrdr
dt mdt

where,
=
2 Im and is known as cyclotron angular frequency.

Oc+K (constant)
For r= a (radius of cathode)
do
0
=
K
dt

dt

At

Studens
OECODE A Guide for Engineeing
 Radiation and Microwave Thcory -22 Active Microwave Components
Electron velocity is given as,

2. V
m

No

-2m
Substituting o, = 0m
2e.V
m
at grazing,

eBoc
2m

a2
1
8Vo
POc

7-ab2
The above equation is called
as Hull cut-off magnetic equation.

OEcODS
A Guidefor Enginéering Students
Radiatilon and Microwave Theory.4-23 Actlve Microwave Componenis

Cut-off Voltage
a giveni magnetic field B, the cut-off voltage is given by,
For

m5b1-
The above equation is called as Hull cut-off voltage cquation.

onyvdlo |evhiy
|4.4 Helix TWT m 1 inas
Q.8 Explain the operation of travelling wave tube with its slow wave
structure, (SPPU :
Dec-15, End sem, Marks 9

OR Explain the different types of slovw wave tructures. Brief the

'operation of traveling wave tube with the help of neat diagram.
GP TSPPU.; May-18, Marks 9
Ans.: Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
The travelling wave tube is an amplifier which makes use of a
distributed interäction between an electron beam and a.travelling wave.

The travelling-wave tube (TWT) is an 0-type, paraliel-field, linear beam

device, but it differs from the Klystron in that the RF field and the
electron beam interact with each other over the entire length of the
active region, instead of only at the cavity gaps. Although TWTs exist
that use resonant cavities, most TWTs are non-1esonant devices and
hence have wider bandwidths than Klystrons.
Fig. Q.8.1 shows the basic structure. of the travellinig-wave tube. The
electron gun is the same as in the Klystron, but the RF interaction
region difers considerably ; its principal feature is a slow wave
structure. The goal in this design is to slow down the RF wave, which
propagates at the speed of light (),.to a phase velocity close to the
velocity of the electron beam. Under this condition, direct interaction
occurs between the RF wave and the electron beam. Synchronized
velocities allow both velocity and density modulation of the electron
bearn.

The RF wavepropagates at the speed of light (c = 3x10 ms), while

electron beams propagate at much slower velocitics. For example, in a
1500V electric field,.electron velocity is about c/13. To synchronize
with such a beam, an RF wave must be slowed down to one-thirteenth

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Studeuts

 Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 4- 24 Actve Microwave Components
RF RF
input
output
Collector
Electron
bearn Attenuator

Slow wave.
structure
= Magnetic field

Fig. Q.8.1 Travelling-wave tube

of the normal velocity. The mechanism that

reduces R wave phase
velocity in a TWT is the slow wave structure,
delay line.
also .called a periodic

Helix TWT: The physical construction of a typical travelling wave

tube using a helix is shown in Fig. Q.8.2.

Input Output
guide guide
Focusing
electrode Magnetic Attenuator
field A Collector

AA
Cathode Glass tube
Helix
Electron
beam

Flg. Q.8.2 Helix-type travelling-wave tube

A helix travelling wave tube consists of an electron gun and a slow
wave structure. The electron beam s focussed by magnetic focussing
field and guide it through the centre of the long axial helix. The slow
wave structure is either the helical type or folded backlive. Helix is a
loosely wound thin conducting helical wire. This is termed as 0-type
TWT. The signal to be amplified is applied to the end of the helix

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwqve Theory 4-25 Active Microwave
Components
adjacent to the electron gun. The'applicd
signa propagates around
turns of the helix and produces an the
elcctric field at the ccntre
helix, directed along the helix axis. Tho of th
nmplified signal appcars at
output or other end of the helix under appropriate the
operating conditions:
The helix is made positive with respect to. cathode
so. Thus the beam and collecctor more
is attracted to the colleotor und
acquires a high
velocity. The speed with which the electric
field advances axially is
equal to the velocity of light multipliecd
by the ratio of helix
circumference.
Electrons leaving the cathode at random quickly encounter
axial RF field at the input end the' weak
of the helix, which is due to the input
Signal. As electrons passes across
the gap, velocity modulation and
bunching takes place. When
the electrons enter the helix tube, an
interaction takes place between the moving axial
electric field and the
moying electrons. The electrons transfer energy
helix. This interaction causes the signal wave
to the wave on the
on the helix to become
larger. The electrons entering the helix at zero
field are not affected by
the signal wave, those electrons entering the helix at the accelerating
ficld are accelerated and those at the retarding
field are deaccelerated
As the electrons travel frther along the helix, the bunching
process
continues and the bunching shifts the phase by 2. Each
electron in the
bunch encounters a stronger, also tie microwave energy
of the electrons
is delivered by electron bunch to the wave on the helix
and the RF|
wave on the helix grows exponentially and also. reaches its maximum at
the output end. Thus amplification of RF wave is accomplished.
Slow Wave Structure:. Several different forms of slow wave
structure are commonly used in TWTs single helix, folded or double
helix, ring bar and coupled resonant cavity.
The helix form of slow wve structure uses a conductor wound into a
helical space. In most devices the slow wave helix is wound from flat
tungsten or molybdenum, but in a few. devices hollow tubing is ued
The latter design uses the hollow section of the tubing for cooling fluid.
The pitch (p) of the helix is scaled to reduce the RF wave phase
velocity to the electron beam.velocity. The phase velocity (v)
ofan
RF signal travelling along a slow wave helix is given by

CP
P+(md)
OECODD A Guide for Engineering Studens
 Theory 4-26
Radiation and Mierowave Active Microwave Components

Helx

End viewsS

Ring-bar

structures
Fig. Q.8.3 Slow wave
second (m/s)
v Phase velocity in meters pèr
where
(m/s)
c 3x10 meters per second
p Helix pitch in ineters
d Helix diameter in meters

Need of Slow Wave Structure: cértain

reduce the wave velocity in a
Slow wave štructures are used to
1) clectron beam can interact.
direction so that the sigmal and the
over a wide bandwidth.
2) For producing larger gain
the
beam tubes ? Explain
Q.9. What do you mean by linear
amplifier.
construction, operation and advantages of TWT
May-16, Marks 9]
(SPPU:

What are linear beam tubes ? Explain

construction, operatio,
OR Dec.-19, Marks 8
and applications of two cavity klystron? SPPU:
Ans, : Linear Beam Tubes
name implies, the electron béain and the
nCircuit elements with whích
a linear-beam tube,ás the
interacts are arranged linearly.
it

Studens
OICOD
A Gulde for Engineerlng
 4-27 Active Mlcrowave Componens
Radiatton and Microwave Theory

Fig. Q.9.1

A Guidefor Engineering Students

OECOD
Radlation and Microwave Theory A-28 Active Mlcrowave Componènts
The major classifications of linear-beam tubes
are shown in Fig. Q.9.1
In such a devicé, a voltage applied
drawn from a cathode, creating a beam to anode accelerates electrons
an
of kinetic energy. Power
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy supply
travels toward the microwave circuit. in the electron beam as it
A portion of this kinetic energy
RF waves šlow' down the electrons. is transferred to microwave energy as
either dissipated as heat or returned to The
the
remaining beam energy is
Because electrons will repel one power supply at the collector.
another, there usually is an applied
magnetic focusing field to maintain the
process. The magnetic .field is beam during. the interaction
supplied either by a solenoid or
permanent maggnets.
TWT Refer Q.8.
Advantages of TWT:
i) The TWT is a potentially viable
ultra-high power microwave source.
for various applications if the beam-to electromnagnetic
conversion efficiency can be raised to over energy
50 %
ii) Specific advantages offered by the TWT, over
other sources, include
low surface electric fields, broad bandwidth, and low sensitivity to
dimensions and beam quality.
iii) The main attraction of TWTdevices
is their very high gain (30-60 dB),
linear characteristics and 1-2 octave bandwidth.
Q.10 Explain in detail the construction, operation,. advantages and
applications of a TWT amplifier. PISPPU : May-17, Marks 9]
Ans. Refer Q.8.
Q.11 Compare TWT and Klystron. SPPU : Dec.-14, Marks 41

OR Distinguish between TWTA and Klystron tube.

3F [SPPU : Dec.-16, 17, Marks 8]
Ans. :

Sr. No. TWT Klystron

1. Ficld travels along with beam. Field is stationary,and only beam
travels.

OECODS A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 4 229 Active Microwave
Components

2. The interaction of electron beam Interaction of electron in the

and RF field in the TWT is Klystron occurs only at the gaps
continuous over the entire length | of a. few resonant cavities.
of the circuit.
.

3. The microwave circuit is Klystron circuit is resonant type.

non-resonant.

4. The wave in TWT is a In Klystron wave is not

propagating wave. propagating.
5. TWT uses non-resonant wave Klystron uses cavities for input
circuits for input and output. and output circuits.
6. Wide' band device because use of| Narrow band device 'due to use
of
non-resonant wave circuit. resonant cavities.
7. In coupled cavity TWT there is a In Klystron each cavity operates
coupling effect between the independently.
cavities
8. High power output. Low power output.
9. Long life. Short life.

Q.12 A helical TWT has diameter of 2 mm with 50 turns per cm.

Calculate i) Axial phase velocity i) Anodé voltage at which TWT
can be operated for useful gain.
D[SPPU: Dec-14, Marks 4, May-18, Marks 6]
Ans. : Given: N = 50 tums/cm; d = 2 mm

iy Axial phase velocity

Pitch of helix =
3x 10° m/s,
50 C
P

d 2x 10 m
10 (3x10)
50 = 9.5 x.10° m/sec Ans.
TX 2x10

Studens
ORCODS A Guide for Engineering
 Theory 430
Radiation and Microwave Active Microwave Components

h Anode voltage at which TWT ean be operated for useful gain 'is
given by,

eV,m
10-31
*U9548x10
x(0.9548x 107 12
V vsx9.1x1.6x10-19
25.92 kV Ans.
operates under the following parameters,
fube
o.13 A tavelling
, 3 kV, Beam current = I, = 30 mA,
Beam voltage Vo
= Z, = 10 2, Circuit length
Characteristics impedance of the helix
i) Gain parameter 'e
N 50, Frequency =f= 10 GHZ, Determine:
power gain "A in decibels and ii) All the
i) The 0utput
propagation TISPPU: Dec.-16, Marks 10, Dec.-17, Marks 8]
= volts
Ans Given V,3 kV 3x 10
mA = 30x 10 Amp
30
Z102
N= 50
F 10 GHz = 10x 10 Hz= 10 Hz
1) Gain parameter C is given as

C /o203
4Vo

C=30x10-3x103
4x 3x10
C 2.92 x 102 Ans.
) Output power gain in dB

+ 47.3 NC.
A-9.54

A .
A-9.54
59.52 dB
+47.3 x 50x2.92 x 102
Ans

OECODDS
A Guide for Engineering Students
Radiation and Microwave Theoy -31 Active Mlcrowave Componens

it) Propagatlon constants

2tx 1010
Phase constant B= V.o V(2e/ m)Vo
27tx 10!0
0. 593x106 /3x10

1.93 x 10 rad/m Ans.

Propagation constants

Y1

2.92x 10-2
Y 1.93x x
10) x(2.92 10)x 0.87+ j1.93 x 101+4I02

+j1952 ..Ans.
49.03

Ac+iR[1
+ j1952 ..Ans.
2 49.30
Ys (1-C)
Y3. j (1.93 x 10) (1 - 2.92 x 10*)
.Ans.
j1872.25
Y4 -in
Y4-j (1.93 x 10) 12.92x10-2y||
4

Y -j1930 Ans.
Q.14 What are inear beam tubes ? Explain construction, operation
End-Sem, Marks 8]1
and advantage of TWT amplifier. [SPPU: Dec.-18,
Ans. Refer Q.8 and Q.9.
END...S
OECODD A Guide for Englneering Students
 Unit V
wwwwwwwwww.wwwww

5 5.1:
Solid State Microwave Devices

Microwave Transistors, MOSFETs

Q.1 Explain construcetion and operation of microwave transistor.
Ans.: Construction of microwave transistor
Transistors are fabricated by the usual planar technology by diffusion
of impurities through the strip type windows formed on the oxide layer
as per the design of masks for that difusion.

.The P base .contact diffusion is fabricated so that semiconductor has

high conductivity and its contact with metal does not form Scottky
diode contact but ohmic contact, as shown in Fig. Q.1.1.

-E (Emitter)
SiO2 oB (Base)
layer

p'diffusion for
ohmic metal
conatct
P type base diffusion from base

n type epltaxial layer (Collector)

n substrate for ohmic.contact
zzzznzzZNIZz77I7ZIIIIIIIZIIIZZZZ2-C (Collector)

Fig. Q.1.1 (a) n-p-n silicon double diffused epitaxial translstor

(5- 1)
Radiation and Microwave Theory S-2 Solid Stute Microwuve
Devices
ices

Initerigitated
SIO2-
EREKEEEZZZA top rmetallisation
layer E fof ernitter
and
base
XX

n type epltaxlal layor (C)

n substrate

Fig.Q.1.1 (b) Interdigited geometry of surface metallisation

For the same reason, for metal contact at the bottom with the collector
(which is nepitaxial layer) and n substrate.
These depths are controlled by temperature and time of that diffusion.
The strip type windows on the oxide layer are made at appropriate
Contact
The surface geometry for the difiusion and metallisation
are of
interdigitated, overlay or matrix form as shown
in Fig. Q.1.2.

allsaion
Emter SMetalisakon

Emiters

Basen sallon
Basemefallss
(a) Interdigltated
(6) Overlay (c) Matrlx

Fig. Q.1.2 Surface geometry of npn

microwave transistor

.The main objective behind such geometry with alternate

base an
emitter metallisation strips further promoted
to use maximum surraee
area with lower capacitance with increase
in current.
High power capability of the device is achieved.
Both of thèse strips are metallised.

Studend
OECODD A Guide for Engineering
 Radiation and Aicrowave
Tteory 5-3 Solid State Microwave Devices

Toterdigitated geometry is' suitable for small signal applications in the L

S and C
bands.
geomery has large no of segmented emitters over
The overlay struchure strips.
a number wide
metals
are usefil as power devices in VHF ad
Overlay and matrix surtaces
UHF regions.
Operation of microwave
transistor
microwave transistor, Initially the emitter base and the colector
In a class C condition.
junctións are reversed biased with respect to
base and wil1
microwave signal is applied between emitter and base
The during positive portion of the signal.
förward bias this junction
the holes in the p-region diffuses and drift
. In case of p-n-p transistor, to the. collector and accelerate
to the
thin base region
through the
of the bias voltage bétween collector and base
negative terminal
terminals.
through the load connected in the collector
current flows
.A' pulse of
circuit.
limitations of solid state microwave transistor.
Q.2 Explain various
limitations
: Power frequency
Ans. output power is decrease because of low
With the increase in frequency,
impedance of junction
capacitance (Xc}
was initiated by Johnson and it is due
limitation
The power frequency
parameters.
to following applied to semiconductor.
1. Maximum electric field
for Ge]
V/em for Si, Emax 10 V/cm
Emax2x10 semiconductor. [For
charge carries in a'
2. Maximum velocity of cm/sec.]
electrons and holes in Si and Ge is 6x10°
that determines the maximum current.
3. Width of the base
Voltage frequency limitätions
f incase m is maximum allowable applied voltage then
Vm Em m
where Em Maximum electric field
Lm Maximum collector emitter distance
Students
Guidefor Erigineering
rcoDD A
 Radiation and Microwave Theory S-4 Solid State Microwuve Devices

The charge carrier transit time cut-off frequency is given by

fc 1
21Tav
where Tav Base transit time (7,) + Base collector depletion layer
transit time (Ta)
V
fc 2Lm
Vav

. As VmEmX Lm
Vm Em 2Tf

Vn fc 21T

This equation gives voltage frequency limitation.

where V Drift velocity

Current Frequency Limitations

VmImXc
Where Im z.Maximum current limited by bandwidth

Xc 1 where Co = Collector base capacitance

27Tfco
By considering equation

2T

2T
The power frequency limitatigns is given by. the product of voltage
frequency limitation and curent frequency limitation.

mwhere Em V constant for particular transistor

2T

As frequency is increased, maximum power capability decreases.

OECODED A Guide for Engineering Students

 Radlation and Mterowave Theory 55 Solid Stute Microwave Devices

The power gain frequency limitation is represented by

fyGm Vth Vm Y 27T

where Cn Maximum available power gain

VihKT/e
f = Frequency of operation

5.2: Varactor Diode

Q.3 Draw equivalent circuit of varactor diode. Explain in detail its
construction and operation.
D [SPPU.: Dec,-15, End Sem, May-16,17, Marks 8, June-22, End Sem, Marks 4]

OR Write a note on : Varactor diode. uSPPU Dec-17; Marks 4]

Ans. Varactor diode: Diodes can be used as variable capacitors in
microwave circuits. Special enhanced capacitance diodes intended for this
operation are called by several names, the most common of which are var
actor (variable reactor) and. varicap (variable capacitor). Although
varactors are specially. designed for use as electrically variable capacitors,
all PN junction diodes exhibit the variable junction capacitance
phenomena to some extent. Even ordinary, low leakage, 1-A silicon
rectifier diodes have been used as low frequency varactors in reverse bias.
Fig. Q3.1 shows the usual circuit symbol fór varactor (although several
other symbols are also used). In some cases, the capacitors at the top
end of the, diode symbol has an arrow through it to denote variable
capacitance. Varactors come in several different standard diode packages
including the. two terminal package shown in Fig. Q.3.1. Some
manufacturers bevel the edge of the package to indicate the cathode. In
other cases the package style will be like, other forms of diode package.

A A

(a) Symbols (b) Package

Fig. Q.3.1 Varactòr dlode

A Guide for Englneering Students
OECODE
 Radiatton and Microwave Theory5-6 Solld Stute Mlcrowave Devlces

. Principle of operation Varactors aro specially made.PN Jjunction

diodes designed to enhance the control of the PN junction capacitance
with a reverse bias voltage. A PN junction' consists of P and N-type
Semiconductor regions in opposite with cach other, as shown in Fig, Q.3.2
when the diode is forward biased the chargo carriers (electrons and holes)
are forced to the junction interface where positively charged holes and
negatively. charged. electrons attracts each other (causing a current to
.flow). But under reverse bias situations the charges are drawn away from
theunction, thereby forming a high resistance depletion zone at the
junction inerface. Varactor diode under variable. reverse bias condition
Can operate as variable capacitor. The junction capacitance depends on the
applied voltage.
P N P N

Depletion zone

V
Forward bias
(High capacitance bias) Reverse bias
(Low capacitance.blas)
Fig. Q.3.2 PN diode with forward and reverse biased
The depletion zone is essentially an insulator between the two charge
carying P and N regions, and this situation fulfills the criterion
capacitor, two conductors separated by an insulator. for a
The depletion zone
width is increased by increasing the reverse bias
potential, wiich is
analogous to increasing the separation between
plates. Thus, the
capacitance decreases. Similarly reducing the. reverse
bias potential
reduces the depletion zone width there by increasing
the capacitance.
The diode capacitance (Ci),as a function of applied. reverse-bias
potential (neglecting stray capacitances) is found from

CK
CV-v
QECODE A Gulde for Enginvering Students
Radlation and Microwave Theory 5-7 Solid State Microwave Devlces

where C Diode capacitance.

Diodc capacitancc when thc device is unbiased
(V= 0) expressed in the same units as C; and is a
constant.

V Applied reverse bias potential.

junction
= Barrier potential at the
VV
(0.55 0.7 V in silicon).
Constant. that is material dependent
m
one half)
(tends to be one third to
A constant (often 1). varactor diode
simplified equiválent circuit for a
Equivalent circuit: A. resistance and diode capacitance
Fig. Q.3.3. The series
is: shown in maximum requency according to the relationship.
operating
determine the

F2n Rs
Cut-off frequency, in hertz
where F
R Series resistance in ohms
C Diode capacitance in farads

Rs
K

Rp
Fig. Q.3.3 Varactor.diode
equivalent circuit
maximum operating frequncy is a function of diode
Because
diode capacitance is in turn a function of applied
capacitance and
Teverse bias potential, we can conclude that
the maximum operating
Tequency is also somewhat dependent on applied voltage.
Students
CIEODBD A GuideforEngineering
 Devices
Radiation and Microwave Theory 5-8 Solid State Microwave

the operaling
1he quality factoris (Q) of aas.
varactor diode is a function of
the ratio of cut-off frequency (F) and
irequency and given
operating frequency (i.
F

test
t iscommon' practice for manufacturers to specify Q at a given,
trequency such as 1 MHz. The actual Q at any given operating
frequency can thus be quickly calculated from the preceding expression.
frequency (F) if the
.It is also possible to guess the maximum operating
Q and its test frequency are know
Q.4 Explain working principle of varactor diode.
Enlist the
advantages and applications for the same. [SPPU :
May-18, Marks 8]

capacitor, it can be. used in

Ans.: Because the varactor is a variable
capacitor of the same
most applications where. an ordinary mechanical
to tune variable LC
value might be' used. For example varactors. are used a
a circuit i
resonant tank circuits. Because the frequency of such
voltage in those
function of the capacitance, it is also a function of the
circuits.

1) AFC circuits

oltage-contolled Output
oScillato

Frequency
IVIe

Lowpass ase
Sensfive
detector

Stable
rererénce
FoScilfator

Fig. Q.4.1 Varactor tuning of the voltage controlled oscillator in a

phase locked loop synthesizer

OrcODE A Guide for Enginecring Students

 Devices
5-9 Solld State Microwave
Raliaton and Mierowave Theory
possible. For example 1na
Various. LC tank circuit applications are use a varactor
receiver Automatic Frequency Control (AFC), we can
diode to pull the Local Oscillator (LO) signal to the
correct point un
circuits are
coimand of an error signal generated by the detector, AFC
common place in FM receivers. In both transmiters and receivers the
operating frequency. can be set by a Phase Locked Loop (PL)
frequency synthesizr.
The main oscillator is a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) in which
a varactor sets the operating frequency. When the frequency diVided
VCO output signal strays away from the, stable reference oscillator
frequency, the Phase Sensitive Detector (PSD) issues an error signal to
the varactor. The output of the PD is integrated in a lowpass filter and
sometimes scaled in a d.e. amplifier before being applied to the varactor
input of the VCO.
2) Frequency modulators
Varactors are also used as frequency modulators. Piezoelectric. crystals
are generally used in transmitters to set operating frequency The
requeney of oscillation forn these crystals in a funotion of circuit
capacitance, so by connecting a varactor either in series or parallel with
.
the crystal, its frequency can be changed with .changes in applied
voltage. Thus the audio or analog telemetry signal voltage can_
frequency modulate the crystal oscillator.
Frequency multiplier
3)
When an RF sine wave of frequency f= sirn wt is applied to a varactor
diode, the current through varactor obeys the relationship.

Input
frequency
-
I=I1 cos @t+I2 cos 2at+..In cos (not)
Output
frequency

A L2 2

Fig. Q.4.2 Varactor diode as froquoncy multipller

Gulde for Engineering Students
OECODE
 5-10 Solid State Microwave
Radiaron end Aficrowae Theory Devices

From this relationship one can predict that the varactor diode ean.
erve
as a frequency multiplier by virtue of the fact that th Current
components are a function of the fundamental frequency and
are nt
multiples (2, 3 n) thereof. A typical multiplier circuit is
shown
r
Fig. Q42 n

In this circuit, the input tank circuit (L,C) is tuned to the fundarmen
frequency, while the output tans (2) 1s Tuned to an integer multin

N2, 3, ... n) of the input frequency:

Varactor frequency muliplhers are orten used. n microwave receiver
local ascillator circuits. The achual oscillator îrequency is a subharmon
of the required LO frequency. For example, consider a 2145 MH
microwave receiver designed to pick-up multipoint distribution servica
television signals (which send movie channel services to apartment
buildings. and the ike). A typical doWn converter for this channel
translates the 2145 MHZ signal to channels 5. or 6. If we assume
that
channel 6 is used, then the frequency is 82 MHz. The required LO
frequency is (2145 MHz to 82 MHz) or 2063 MHz. The down.
converter designer chose to use the fourth subharmonic or frequency
a
of 2063/4, or 515.75 MHz. A cascade chain of two 1: 2 frequency
multipliers.
4)Phase shifter
Another common microwave application for varactors is an RF phase
shifter. Because the capacitance is a function of applied reverse bias
voltage the varactor serves as a continuously variable analog phase
shifter: The varactor will, however handle only a few milliwatts of RF
power.

5.3: Parametric Amplifier

Q.5 Explain parametric amplifier.
Ans.: The word parametric stands for electronic deviCe w
operation depends essentially upon the time variation of a charaeie
teristic
parameter usualy mderstood to be a reactance.
It is a high frequency amplifier
whose operation is based on t
vanaion of reactance or non-linear reactance (capacitive or naucu
for its amplification.
Parametric devices depend on the possibility of increasing the en
the signal at one frequency by supplying energy at other freque

OECODD Engineering Stuue

A Guide for
 Radiation and IAicrowave Theory 5-11 Solld State Mlerowave Devlces

Tn a simple tankcircuit, we can separate the plates of the capacitor

= 0, the circuit has been energized so that
1Sed. Assumed at time t .
voltage 'V and charge Q' on the capacitance are varying sinusoidally.

v c-A plates arè stretched apart when C

To achieve. amplification, capacitor
and V are maximum.
.Because of electric field
between the plates it réquires an expenditure of
energy to puil the plates apart.
as additional electric energy stored in the
This mechanical energy seems voltage. Shown in Fig. Q,5.1.
capacitor shows an abrupt increase in the

Fig: Q.5.1
The voltage and charge continue the oscillations towards zero.
At zero voltage, the capacitance plates are brought back to original
Separation and now
energy is required.
aelectric field is zero then' no expenditure of

OECODE
A Guide for Engineering Studeints
 5-12 Solld State Microwave Devices
Radiation and Mierowave Theo

now swing to their maxiniumn wave at wliich

The voltage and charge
process can be continued at
plates are pulled apart once again and the
signal builds up.
each maximum and minimum of voltage and
the plates are separated each time by same extent, amplitude of
If
voltage will rise upto infinity
to separate plates
amplitude builds up, it needs more and more force
As
So.that force required would be infinite.
asymptotically to a
finite force available, the amplitude builds up
With energy 'added per separation equals to the
finite value only, when the
energy dissipated.
present case, circuit is pumped at twice the signal frequency.
In the
cases, is desirable to pump at frequency other.than twice the
In many it
signal frequency.. Ex. a convertor
a parametric amplifier
Varactor diode is often used actiye element in
noise amplifier as no resistance in involved in amplification
It is a low
process.
thermal noise.
active device involved is reactive, there will be no
As
obtained if the reactance is varied at some frequency
Amplification' is
signal being amplified.
higher than the frequency of the
process in parametric amplifier.
Q.6 Explain amplification varactor diode
pump generator acts as local oscillator and
Ans.: e The
Fig. Q.6.1[Parametric amplifier).
c(t) a mixer
as is represented in
are mixed in a
pump frequency fp and signal frequency
The and
capacitor c(t) to produçe fundamental frequencies f,fs
non-linear rise to
sum and difference in frequencies. This give
mft nf i.e.
amplification.
resistance Rt,.
An output voltage of f is produced across load
circuit, is the one that output circuit which does not require
In Idler
extemal excitation.
output at fo in the idler circuit is expressed
as fo mfp +nf.
The
m n are positive integers from 0 to o, Output power is
Where and
per Manley Rowe Relation.
either at +fp or fp-s As

A Guide for Engineering Studenis

OECODE
Radiation and Microwave 7heory Devices
5 13 Solid State Mlcrowave
BPF
R L,
i LBPF IF

Input circuit

ww.O000 .,
BPF
R
Rp i
unoo
Idler circuit J
dwnd

Fig. Q.6.1 Equivalent.circuit for parametric amplifier

Maximum gain is
-1
This is theoretical gain but practically it is less than it.
It output frequency is fp +fs then paramêtric amplifier is called up
converter and works as amplifier. Gain>1,i.e. fo>fs
If output frequency is fp-fs, then parametric amplifier is called down
converter and it does not amplify signal rather is creates losses.
Gain< 1 i.e. fo >ts
5.4 PIN Diodes

a.7 Explain construction, working and applications of PIN diode in

detail. (SPPU May-17, Marks-8]

OR Write a short note on: PIN Diode

uSF ISPPU: Dec-17,18, June-22, End Sem, Marks 41

and
OR Explain in detail 'construction, operation, equivalent circuit
applications of PIN. diode ? [SPPU Dec.-19, Marks 8]

A Guidefor Engineering Students

OecODE)
Radiation and Microwave Theory
S-14 Solid Stute Microwave Devices
Ans.: Structure and working:
The P-I-N or PIN diode is different from the PN,
an insulating region between the P and junction diode, it has
a multiregion device depsite N type materials. It is therefore
having only two electrodes.
The I region is not really a true semiconductor but rather
lightly doped .N-type region. is á very
It is called an intrinsic region because
has very few charge catriers it
to support the flow of an electrical current.
When a forward-bias potential is applied
carriers are injected into to the PIN diode, charge
the I. region from N and P region. But the
lightly doped design of the intrinsic
region is such that the
P-type charge carriers do not immediately N and
diodes). There is always a delay recombine (as in PN junction
period for recombination. Because
this delay phenomenon, there of
is always a small but finite
carriers in the I region that are, number of
unèombined. As a result, the resistivity
of the I region is very low.
Fig. Q.7.2 shows doping profile a
of PIN diode.

ZZZLLIZZZA mpurity profile

of abrupt junction
Impurity
profile due to
diffusion

Impurity -W
concentration
Intrinsic I
n-type layer P-type
layer layer

Fig. Q.7.1 PIN diode Width-

structure Fig. Q.7.2 Doping profile of PIN
diode
A PIN diode consists of a heavily doped p-region
and a n-region
separated by a layer of high resistivity.material
that is nearly intrinsic.
Under zero and reverse bias; the diode has a very high impedance at
microwave. frequencies. This permits the use
of a PIN diode as a switch
in a microwave transmission' line.

OECODE) A Guidefor Eugineering Students

 Radiation and Microwave Theory S- 15 Solld Stute Microwave Devices

Also the resistace of PIN -W-|

diode can be varied
continuously by changing
the diode bias, therefore it
can be used as.a variable
attenuation.
Impurity
concentration
Fig. Q.7.3 shows impurity
concentration, space
charge density and electric
field distribution of an
ideal PIN diode. Space-charge
density
Radio-frequency a.c.
signals can pass through
the PIN device and in fact
under some circumstances Electric
eld
see it as merely a parallel
plate capacitor. We can
use PIN diodes as
electronic switches for RF Fig. Q.7.3 Impurity, charge and field
signals and as an RF delay distribution in PIN diode
line or phase shifter, or as
an amplitude modulator.

Applications of PIN diode

PIN diodes can be used either as variable resistors or as electronic
switches, for RF signals. In the later case, the diode is basically a two
valued resistor, with one value being very high and the other being very
low. These characteristics open several possible applications.

1) PIN diode as switch

When used as switches PIN diodes can be used to switch devices such
as attenuators, filters and amplifiers in and out of the circuit. It has
become standard practice in modern radio. equipment to switch d.o.
voltages to bias PIN diodes rather than directly sitch RF/F signals. In
some cases, the PIN dioe can be used to-simply short out the
ransmission path to bypass the device.
N diode can be used as switches in series, parallel or in combination
modes.

CEEODE
A Guide for Engiueering Studens.
Radiation und Microwave Theor 3-16 Solld State Microwave Devices

A)Series switch
In the series circuit, the D.C.
Blas
diode (D) is placed in series o V+
with the signal line. When
the diodc is turned on, the RFC
signal path has a loww
resistance and when the diode
RF
is turned-off, it has a very PIN
RF
Out
high resistance (thus RFC2
providing the switching
action) when switch S1 is
open, the diode is unbiased,
Fig. Q.7.4 PIN diodes series switch
so the circuit is open by virtue
the diodc is
of the very high series resitance. But' when S1 is closed,
resistance. The ratio of
forward biased and the.signal path is now a low
mcasure of the isolation of the circuit.
offon resistances provides a
B) Shunt circuit:
Fig. Q.7.5 shows the circuit D.C.
for a shunt switch. In this Bias

case, the diode is placed

across the signal ine. When
RFC
the diode is türned-ofi, the
resistance across the signal F
operation of in out
path is high, so
the circuit is unimpeded. But PIND
when the diode is thurned on
(S1 closed) a near short
circuit is placed across the
line. This type of circuit Fig. Q.7.5 PIN diode as shunt switch
turned-off when the diode is
switch, in which aa
forward biased. This action is in contrast to the series
forward biased diode is used to turn the circuit on.

2) PIN diode as attenuator:.Another application for PIN diodes is

circuits. Because of its variable
as voltage variable attenuators in RF
can be used in a variety of
resistance characteristic, the PIN diode
circuit, which is
attenuator circuit. Perhaps the most common is the bridge
similar to a balanced mixer or modulator.

A Guide for Engineering Students

OECODE
 Radintlon and Microwave
Theory -17 Solld State Microwave Devices
) PIN diode asmodulator: The PIN diode will also work as an
nnplitude modulator. In this application a PIN diode is connected across
rnsnission line or inserted into one
end of a piece of microwave
a
waveguide. The audio modulating
to the pin diode. voltage is applied through an RF. choke
When a CW sighal is applied
the varying resistance to the transmission line,
of the PIN diode causes the signal to
modulated. be amplitude
When a PIN atteiuator
a
square wave and pulse is placed along. transmission line, sine wave,
modulation
through diode, Fig. Q.7.6 shows can be obtained by varying current
the arrangement of PIN diode
modulator. as
Control
current

HPF Rmodulated
Output
Fig. Q.7.6 PIN modulator
A typical application of.PIN
modulator is in closed loop'
leveling circuit. automatic
4) PIN diode as limiter:
A PIN limiter
controlled by self bias rather is a microwave switch that is
than external bias: PIN
used to limit the power. Typical diodes in shunt are
PIN limiter is, shown in Fig:
.
Q.7:7.

RE
input Output

PIN Choke for

diodes bias return
Fig. Q.7.7 PIN limiter

OrcoDE A Guide for Engineering

Students.
Radiation and Microwave Theory S-18 Solid State Microwuve
Devices
.The choke provides a retum path for tiie self
bias current. The no
handling capability can be increased
fürther by using more diodee
shunt: PIN limiters can withstand maximum power up
to 100 kw.
Limiters are used for the protection of microwave systems.
dlode as phase shlfter
5) PIN
PIN diode as phase shifter is shown in Short-circuited
Fig.Q.7.8. termination
The phase shifter uses a circulator to
Diode
provide a matched input and. output for Switch
the switched elements. A diode switch
is
used as-either open or short circuit over a
finite bandwidth. RE input
Phase shifters are used in phased-array
radar systems: In these systems, a
phase
shifter is put in series with each radiator RF
of an array of antennas. output
Fig. Q.7.8 Circulator type
phase shifter

5.5: Tunnel Diode

Q.8 Explain principle of operation,
IV characteristics and equivalent
circuit of microwave tunnel diode.
SPPU: Dec.-15, June-22, End Sem, Marks 8]

OR Explain tie working principle

of tunnel diode.
T [SPPU: Dec-16, 18, Marks 8

OR Explain the working principle, advantages

and disadvantages or
tunnel dode in detail.
ISPPU: May-17, Marks 8]
OR Write short notes on : tunnel diode F SPPU: May-18, Marks 4]
Ans.: Tunnel diode : A tünnel diode is a semiconductor p-n
junco
device with extremely heavy doping on both the sides junction
of an
abrupt transition from p-side to n-side i.e. the depletion layer widtn
very small. Hence the carriers can
tunnel through the potential ban
.even if they do not posses sufficient kinetic energy cross
to i
Students
QECODE A Guide for Engineering
 Radiation and Microwave Theory S- 19 Solid State Microwave Devices
The tunneling Pphenomena is a majority-carrier effect and hence is veri
fast, (transit time is short) thus enabling the construction useful for
microwave applicatións.
Tunnel diode shows a negative resistance region over a part of he
forward voltåge characteristic. Because of negative resistance in the
forward characteristic,
thedevice can be usedI -
actively as an oscillator. Anode Cathode.
Tunnel diode symbol is
shown in Fig. Q.8.1.
Fig. Q.8.1 Tunnel diode symbolI

Tunnel. diode I - Characteristic

V. Fig.. Q.8.2 shows the
current-voltage relationship observed in tunnel diodes.

Peak point

Valley point
Forward
current
(I)

Vy Forward voltage (V)

VP
Tunneling Negative
region
resistance
region

Fig. Q.8.2 Tunnel diode J-V characteristic

at first forward current. rises sharply as voltage
Characteristic shows that point-P is
is applied upto point-P. The voltage associated with. with thisthis point is
called as peak voltage Vp and current associated
called as peak current lp

OECOD A Guide for Engineering Stsdents

Radiation and Microwave Theory 5-20 Solid State Microwave Devices

drops
As the forward bias is increased fiurther the forward current
and current
continuously upto point B, this is point V..The voltage
valleyY
associated with this point is called as valley voltage (Vy) and
current (ly) respectively.'
If voltage is increased further the current through diode increases as
shown in Fig. Q.8.2. When tunnel diode is reverse biased it acts as a
good conductor.
Tunnel Diode Construction
Semiconductor material used in tunnel diode is Germanium (Ge),
gallium antimonide (GaSb) or gallium arsenide (GAs). Fig. Q.8.3
'

shows construction of tunnel diode.

Tin dot

Cathode

GaSb, GaAs or Ge Pellet

.Tin plated
nickel mesh
Ceramic body

Anode

Fig. Q.8.3 Tunnel diode construction

A very small tin dot is soldered to a heavily doped pellet of n-type Ge,
GaSb or GaAs.
The pellet is soldered on kovar anode contact. The cathode contact is
also kovar, which is connected to the tin dot via a mesh screen to
eliminate inductance.
The diode has a ceramic body and is hermatically sealed.
Tunnel Diode Equivalent Circuit: Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode
is shown in Fig. Q,8.4.

R, Series resistance,.is a combination of ohmic contacts

and spreading resistance in the wafer.
L Series inductance, is a function of the conduction
of diode and the surrounding circuit geometry.

OECODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave 17heory 5- 21 Solid State Microwave Devlces

R
Fig. Q.8.4 Tunnel diode equivalent circuit

Junction capacitance, corresponds to space-charge

depletion width and varies with applied bias.
Non-linear junction differential resistance
of tunnel diode.
Q.9 Compare following microwave'devices :

i) Normal p-n diode and Tunnel diode ISPPU: May-16, Marks 51

Ans.

P-n diode Tunnel diode

Moderate noise device' Low noise devicè
Preferred semiconiductors used are Ge Preferred semiconductos used are Ge
and Si and GaAs
Current consists of minority carriers Tunnelling current consists of majority
i.e. holes from p-side to n-side) carriers(i.e. electrons from n-side to
. P-side)
Doping is normal in both p and n Doping levels at p and n sides are
sides very high

OrcODS A Guide for Engineering Studenis

 1Theory 5-22 solid State Microwave
Radiation and Microvave DevicCes
es

Leakage current is extremely small1 At a small Value of reverse volta2

reverse bias voltage. large curient flows due to large
upto certain overlap betwecn conduction band
Increases abruptly to extreme' high at nd
voltage. valance band. It is useful as fregue
breakdown converter.
It has negative resistance
It does not have negative resistance
and hence used as detector and
RF characteristics. Hence it is useful for
mixers.
reflection amplifiers and oscillators,
Majority carrier. (current) responds
Majority carrier (current) does not
respond so fast to voltage changes. much faster to voltage changes. This
is suitable foT microwave applications.
This' is suitable for iow frequency
applications only.
Q.10 Explai the construction, workimg principle and application of

the following: i) Mierowave tunnel diode ii) Varactor diode

[SPPU: June-22, End Sem, Marks 8
Ans. : i) Microwave tunnel diode : 'Rfer Q.8.
i) Varactor diode : Refer Q.3.

5.6: Schottky Barrier Diodes

a.11 Write a short note on schottky barrier diode.
sISPPU : May-16,17,18, Dec.-16, June-22, End Sem, Marks 4]

OR Explain the working of Schottky diode.

barriér
L [SPPU: Dec.-17, Marks 6]
Ans. : Schottky barrier diode : The Schottky barrier diode is a metal
metal
semiconductor junction diode.. It is made by depositing a
(aluminium) on top of N-typé silicon by vacuum suputtering. For vacuti
deposition, is used an exacuation chamber as shown in Fig. Q.11.1.W
Sputtered aluminium particles
Vacuum
chamber Vessel carrying aluminium
Quartz boat-

To vacuum pump
Fig. Q.11.1 Schottky barrler diode Engincering Stude1s
OECODE A Guide for
Radiatton and Microwave Theory 5-23 Solid State Microwave Devlces

shows a bell jar connectod to a vacuum pump inside the bell jar. N-type
semiconductor wafers are placed on a quartz. boat.
The motal to be depositcd is placcd inside another small quartz vessel,
and the chamber is evacuated. Thereafter, the materials inside the
chamber are hcated to very high tempcrature by means of induction
heating.
finc particles
At high temperature, aluminium gets vaporized into very
and on cooling it gets deposited on top of the. silicon wafer surface
to
form the Schottky barrier diode.

An SBD formed at all places wherc an N semiconductor forms junction

with a metal. Such junctions are quite common when aluminium is
deposited to semiconductor regions to. form external leads. To prevent
sub rectifying contacts being formed generally an N semiconductor is
coniverted into a heavily doped region before aluminium is deposited on
it.
Characteristic of the SBD
Silicon SBD is different from other ordinary PN semi-conductor diodes in
that its depletion region is only half that of the other diodes. This is
because there is only one semiconductor (N) region in SBD. As much the
depletion region can exist only in the N semiconductor portion of the
diode. There will be no, depletion region in the aluminium metal.

9 Anode (mA)
Aluminium
N silicon

N silicon

Cathode 0 0.3 VV

Silicon SBD] M characteristics of SBD]

ISymbol of SBD]

Fig. Q.11.2

A Guide for Engineering Students

QECOD.
Radiation and Microwave Theory 5-24 Soltd State Microwave Devices

Q.12 Write short note on PIN diode and Schottky barricr diode.
L ISPPU: May-19, Marks B]

OR Write a short note on Schottky Barrier Diode, also .explain

difference betwcen P-N junction diode and Schottky Barrier Diode.
SF [SPPU : Dec-19, Marks 8]

Ans. . Refer Q.7 & Q.11.

Q.13 Explain the construction, working principle and application of
the following: i) PIN diode as a modulator i) Schottky barrier diode
USTISPPU: June-22, End Sem, Marks 8

Ans.: () PIN Diode as modulator - Refer Q.7.

() Schottky Barrier diodes - Refer Q.11.

5.7:Gunn Diode
Q.14 Explain Gunn effect using two valley model. Mention its typical
eharacteristic and applications of Gunn diode.
ISPPU Dec.-15, End Sem, May-16, Marks 3]

OR Explain the working principle of Gunn diode.

D [SPPU :Dec.-17, Marks 8]

Ans.: Gunn Diode : Transferred electron device are one of the most
popular microwave devices used as oscillators and power amplifiers. The
important features of TEDS are
1. TEDs are bulk devices without junctions.

2. TEDs are fabricated from GaAs or InP,

3. TEDs operate with hot electrons having more thermal energy.
4. TEDs are tunable over.a wide frequency range with low noise
characteristic,
Fig. Q.14.1 shows structure and characteristics of Gunn diode. (See
Fig. Q.14.l on next page.)
Eventhough there is. no p-n junction, but called a diode wr.t. to positive
and negative terminals of d.c bias applied. As the d.c bias is incrcased,
currcnt through it aiso increases gradually. When the d.c voltage
increases sufficiently to produce electric field of 3.3 kV/ems, the current

OICoDD A Guide for Engineering Students

 Mlcrowave Theor 5-25 Solid State Microwave Devices
Radlntton and

Negative
Motal contacto differential resistivity
region

D.C. Bla9

Fig, Q.14.1 Gunn diode structuro and characteristics of two-vallev

devlce
deoreases with increase in voltage is results in negative resistance:
effect. This negative resistance property 1s used to produce oscillations
at microwave frequencies. The electrical equivalent circuit of Gunn
diode is shown in Fig. Q.14.2.
Anode 9

Cp Lp

Cathode o
Fig. Q.14.2 Equivalent circuit of Gunn diode
Rs
R, = Total resistanc of leads, ohmic contacts,
buik.resistance of diode
Lp Package inductance
Cp Páckage capacitance
-R Diode resistance
Cj Diode capacitance
OrcoDES A Guldefor Engneèring Students
 5-26 Solid State Microwve
Radiation and Microwave Theory Devices

RWA/Two valley model: Two valley model theory is alsokn

Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWE) theory. RWH theory is based
on
as
population inversion principle.

Population Inversion
For an n-type GuAs energy band model ünder equilibrium when elaas
field E Sthreshold value (3.3 kV/cm) the electrons are transferred from
lower valley to upper valley of conduction band in which they are m
less mobile, and thus the current reduces and the device offers ative.
resistance. This is also known as transferred electron effect.
Fig. Q.14.3 shows two-valley model of n-type GaAs.

Upper valley
Energy
Conduclion
Transfer
band
of electrons
Lower AC
valley

Forbldden
band
Momentum

Fig. Q.14.3 Two-valley. model of GaAs

.The conductivity (o) of the n-type GaAs is given as

e(4 ny t4unu).

where e Charge on electron (1.6x 10-1° C)

H Mobility of electron in lower valley.

n'= Density of electron in lower valley.

Pu Mobility of electron in upper valley.
nu Density of electron in lower valley
Condition for negative resistance : In a two-valley model, the electron
densities in the lower and upper valley remain the same nu an
equiibrium condition. When the applied electric field is lower na
clectric field of the lower valley (E<E)) no electrons will transter to
upper valley. When the applied the
electric field is higher than tna n
lower.valley and lower than that of upper valley (E1 <E<Eu
OrcODE Engineering Students
A Guide for
Radiation and Microwave Theory 5-27 Solld State Microwave Devlces

will begin to transfer to the upper valley. And when the applied clectric
or upper valley (Eu <E) all, clectrons will transfer
field is higher than that
to the upper
valley.
Differentiating equation with respect to E gives,
d
e4dE +HdEnn .(Q.14.1)

If the total electron density is given by n = Á +nu and it is assumed

that and Pu are proportional to E, where p is a constant, then
0 (Q.14.2)
dE+nu)=
dn dnu (Q.14.3)
dE dE
.. (Q.14.4)
and
dEP F pEP=p
and aEdE
Substitute equation results in

-H+e(nju elnu + nuHu)

do (Q.14.5)
Eel
Ohm's law is,
.. (Q.14.6)
do (Q.14.7)
dE t
1o d1do/dE .. (Q.14.8)
dE
1+ /E
ratio
negative resistance, J. must decrease with increasing E or the
For
of dJ/dE must be negative. This happens itf,
dodE0
a/E

OL do/dE (Q.14.9).
o/E

dodE1
oE
Euginéerinig Students
QECOD A Guidefor
 Radiation and Microwave Theory
5-28 Solld State Microwave Devices

Substituting equation with =

f nu/n1 results in
or
H- E
dn.
dE
+uf n (Q.14.10)
Equation (Q.14.9) and consequently (Q.14.10)
is the required condition for
negative resistance in, Gunn diode.
Gunn diode applications
1. Gunn diodes are used as
low and medium power oscillators in
microwave receivers.
2. In parametric amplifiers as pump source.
3. In radars.

4. Broadband microwave amplifiers.

Q.15 Explain Gunn effect with: the help of two valley model.
Also
explain -I characteristics and applications of Gunn diode.
DISPPU : Dec.-18, End-Sem, Marks 8]
Ans.: Refer Q.14.
Q.16Explain various modes of operation of Gunn diode,
Explain
LSA mode and give limitations. of this mode..
SPPU : Dec.-14, Marks 10]

OR Explain the four modes of operation of Gunn diode.

SPPU: May-18, Marks 8]

Ans.: Gunn diode operation mode According to material1
parameters and operating conditions, Gunn diode can be used.
in four
basic modes.
1. Gunn oscillator mode (Transit-time mode).
2. Stable amplification mode. 3. LSA oscillation mode.
4. Bias circuit oscillation mode.

1. Gunn oscillator mode (Transjt-time

mode)': * În Gunn oscillator
mode -

Operating frequency (f)x Length (L) = 10' cm/sec

and Doping (n,) x Length (L)> 10"/cm

In this mode the device is unstable. Higher oscillation frequency

obtained when the device can be
is operated with a high-Q cavity
resonator.
OECODES
A Guide for Engineering
Students
Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 5-29 Solld State Microwave Devices

2. Stable amplification mode: In stable amplification mode -

Operating frequency (;x Length (L) = 10 cm/sec

and Doping (n,) x Length 1) = 10 to 10/cm2
3. LSA oscillation mode (limited space charge accumulation mode)
.
In LSA mode -
Operating frequency ()x Length (L) > 2x 10' cm/s

LSA mode is the simplest mode of operation. In LSA mode, the Gunn
diode is placed in a resonator which is tuned to an oscillation frequency
of fo
1
T Oscillation period
In this mode the device can be biaed to several times the threshold
voltage. As the input RF voltage increases above the threshold voltage,
the device remains. in the negative resistance region. The oscillating
frequency is determined by the external components only and not by
transit carier time. And output obtained in LSA mode is much greater.
The output power of the oscillator in LSA mode is given as
Pn, Y
P n MEL) (n evg A)
where n Conversion parameter of'material
=

I=Operating current
V, Operating voltage
M Multiplication factor of operating voltage above
threshold.
Eh Threshold electric field (kV/m)
L = Device length (um)
n,.Donor concentratiòn (/ m)
e Charge of electron (C)
Vo Average carrier velocity (m/s)
A Device area (m*)

A Guide for Engineerhng Students

QECODE
Radiation and Microwave
Theory 5-30 Solid State Microwave Devices
The output power of LSA oscillator
is ranging from 400 watts to 6 kW
pulsed mode. in
Limitations of LSA
mode
1. LSA mode is very sensitive
to load.
2. LSA mode is sensitive
to operating temperature.
3. Variation in doping concentration
affects frequency stability.
4. Bias circuit oscillation
In this mode -

Operating frequency () x
Length.(L) is very small. The
at the threshold: The oscillation device is biased
1 frequency can be obtained in the range
kHz to 100 MHz. of
Q.17 In a Günn
diode with active length 20 um,
electrons is 2 x 10' cm/s. the drift velocity of
Calculate natural frequency of
and its critical voltage. the diode
SPPU : Dec-15, End Sem; Marks 4]
Ans. L = 20 jum, v = 2 x
10 cm/Js
Natural frequency f

_2x10 x10=10 x 10
20x 10-6 Hz= 10 GHz Ans.
Critical voltage V lx Critical field for GaAs
20x 104x 3.2 kV/cm = 640 V
Ans.

END..ES

ORCODE
A Guide for Engineering
Students
 www.NAfawwwwwAm

Unit VI
wwwwww.wwwww.www
AwAWww

6 Microwave Systems and

Microwave Measurement Techniques

6.1 Microwave Systems

communication system. Also
Q.1 Explain microwave satellite
communication system.
differentiate between satellite and terrestrial Dec.-19, Marks 8]
End Sem, Marks 6, Dec.-18, Marks 10,
SPPU : June-22, are
. eThe basic elements of a .communication satellite service
Ans.
divided between;
1. Space segment 2. Ground segment
Satellite

Downlink
Uplink

W. Antenna
Antenna

rth stato
arta slation

erresra

communications
Fig. Q.1.1 Structure of Satellite

(6-1)
 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-2 Microwave Measurement Techlquues

The space segment conšists of the spacecraft and launch mechanism and
center
ground segment comprises the carth station and network control
of entire satellite system.
communication
rig. Q.I.I ilustrates basic structure of a. satellite
systems.

Space segment .
The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and composed
is
satellite and
of three separate units, namely the fuel system, the
the
telemetry controls, and the transponder... The transponder includes
.

station, a broad
receiving antenna to. pick-up signals from the gronnd
converter which is
band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a frequency
amplifier
used to reroute the received signals through a high powered
for downlink.
The primary role ofa satellite is to reflect electronic signals. In the case
a
of a telecom satellite, the primary task is to receive signals from a
ground station and send them down to another ground station located
considerable distance away fom the first. This relay action can be
two-way, as in the case of a long distance phone call. Another use of
the satellite is when, as is the case with television broadcasts, the
ground station's uplink is then down linked over a wide region, so that
it may. be received by many different customers possessing compatible
equipment.
use
The for satellites is observation, wherein the satelite is equipped
with cameras or various sensors, and it merely downlinks any
information it picks.

Ground station
This is the carth segment. The ground station's job is two-fold. In the
case of an uplink, or transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of
baseband.signals, ispassed through a baseband processor, an up
converter, a high powered amplifier,. and through a parabolic dish
antenna up to an orbiting satellite.
In the case of.a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse
fashion as the uplink, ultimately:onverting signals received through the
parabolic antenna to base band signal,
Satellite links
Satellite communication' takes place through the propagation of focused
and directed electromagnetic (EM) waves.

OECODE A Gulde for Engineering Students

 Microwave Systemis and
atton antd Microwave Theory 6-3 MicrowaveMeasurement Techniques

ince both reccived and transmitted waves are simultaneously present at

ery different power levels, in a satellite, both frequency separation and
M
field polarization are used.to decouple the channels.
he term link refers to a path used to communicate with the satellite
and is sometimes used to refer to the communication itself)
. Uplinks transmit signals from a ground station to the satellite.
2. Downlinks transmit signals from the satellite to a ground station.
3. Cross-links transmi signals from satellite to satellite.
4. Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C). link is the part of
the uplink and downlink used to control a satellite's function and
monitor its health.

plink components
The other major components of a typical earth station uplink are the
modem; up-converter, and 'high-powered amplifier. The following is a
brief description of each.
Modem:
Modulates a baseband signal to an Intermediate Frequency (IF). Usually
70 MHz or 140.MHz.
Up-converter:
It converts IF to RE.
High Power Amplifier (EPA):

The HPA increases, the power of the RF signal to achieve satisfactory

uplink operations.
.Downlink Components
On the downlink side there.is a low noise amplifier, down-converter,
and modem. A loiw noise blóck down converter can be used in place of
a low noise amplifier and down converter. The following is a brier
description of eaçh.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA):
The LNA amplifies the RF signal received from the satellite.
Down-converter':
The down-converter converts the RF into IF that is then sent to the
modem.

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students:

 Rudiatton and Microwave Theory Mlcrowave Systems
6-4 and
Microwave Measurement Techniques
Low Noisc Block (LNB)
down-converter:
.
The LNB amplifices and converts
the RF signal from the satellite into
Essentially it isa Low Noise Amplificr
thaat have been (LNA) and down converter
incorporated into a single unit.
Modem:
Demodulates the IF signal and extracts
the data for use. Keep in mind
uhat depending on several factors, earth stations' may,
equipment that is not listed use additional
here.
Diference between Satellite
and Terrestrial Communication

Satellite based communication

Terrestrial wireless
communication
|ln this. communication system,
the area |In this communícation
of coverage is more. coverage
system, the area
of the is less.
|This uses limited resources
of
spacecraft power and allocated This uses unlimited resource in earth'
bandwidth. station/ satellite.
The time is invariant between the
communicating satellites. There is no time variation between
two terrestrial wireless antennas. the
Precision is achieved accurately
| between the satellite communications. Less precision is achieved between the
terrestrial antennas.
The quality of the transmission is The quality of transmission is low.
extremely high. Because the satellite
Because the satellite links
links are used in short term basis. are used in
|long term.
Very High bandwidths are available
to Bandwidth or data rates are moderately
the user. available to the user.

6.2 Industrial Applications of Microwaves

Q.2 Explain with neat,diágram
the mechanism of microwave heating
in microwave ovens.
[SPPU June-22, End Sem, Marks 6]
Ans. : The rate of microwave power absorption most materials is
proportional to its water content. This property is in
used for microwave
heating. Because the microwave signal, penetrates most
non-conductors,
microwave power provides á most eficient means
of applying heat
QECODE A Guidefor Engineering Students
 Microwave Systems and
Radiatlon and Microwave Theory 6-5 Microwave Measurement Technigues

uniformly throughout a body. Microwave heating is used in many process

industries for heating, drying and sterilizing.
In microwave heating, heat is generated inside the material bcing
heated. The microwave heating is totally different than conventional
heating where, the heat is first transferred to the surface of the material
either by conduction convection. or radiation or by the combination of
all three mechanisns and to the interior by thermal conduetion. In
contrast, in microwave heating, heat is generated directly inside the
material. Therefore faster temperature rise can be obtained.
In microwave heating heat is generated because of skin effect and
dielectric losses. Imaginary part of diclectric constant e, is very
important in heat generation.
Power dissipated is given as -

Pa
V

27.8x 10 fJe, |EI dV

V

where V = Volume of material

E Electric field intensity

Imaginary port of dielectric çonstant of material.

From above expression we can conclude.

is proportional to frequency, electric ficld and imaginary part of
Pa
dielectric material.
Q.3 Explain microwave oven 'with a simple sketch.
End Sem, Marks.6]|
SPPU: June-22,
homne
AnS,: The microwave oven is an electronically controlled
dielectric heating at
appliance used for.cooking. It uses the principle of
can. be represented by the
rOwave frequencies. A microwave oven
Dlock schematic shown in Fig. Q,3.1. (Sec Fig. Q.3.1 on next page.)
the power gcnerated by the magnetron of an oven is Pm then,

P PRt PA + PL
he Power reflected back to the magnetron

PECODE Engineering Students

A Guide for
 Mlcrowave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-6 Mlcrowave Meusurement Techniques
Multtmode
cavity

Mode
stirrer
Magnelron.
High Microwave
Pm_ Food
Mains
voltage generator
UP
transformer

Turntable

Waveguide

Fig. Q.3.1 Block schematic of microwave oven

PA Power absorbed by the transmission line, microwave

oven cavity and other feeding structure
to the material placed
PP Power delivered
cavity
inside the

Magnetron power (P
a magnetron depends on magnetron anode
The power generated by reflected power (PR). In domestic
voltage, magnetic field and the
microwave output
microwave ovens, the anode voltage affects the
microwave ovens dse
power strongly. Almost all the domestic
ferro-Tesonant constant voltage transformer, which
holds output voltage
variation.
to within 1 % for a t 15 % ine voltage
Magnetron temperature
output in two ways. The first is
The magnetron temperature áffects the
the permanent magnet as the
due to the change in the magnetic field of
the power
magnetron heated up. Secondly, with time the transformer of
in the transformer
supply also heated up. Thus increasing the losses
magnetron. Both those effects
causing lesser power delivered to the
oven.
joinily reduce the power output of an
Reflected power (PR
magnetron is determined by the
The output power and frequency of apower
magnitude and phase of the reflected to the magnetron. When a
and dielectric
dielectric is heated up in an oven its thcrmal conductivity
standing wave
loss changes with time, which also changes the voltage tube.
ratio (VSWR). This reduces the usable life of magnetron
bottom
Therefore, most oven manufacturer uses a lossy glass tray at the

A Guide for Engineering Students

OECOD
 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave
Theor 6-7 Microwave Measurenent Techniques

Othe oven cavity which serves as a permanent.load for the magneron

and it is advised that not to operate the oven without this tray.
Absorbed power (PA
Power is also absorbed by the oven cavity walls and the feeding
Sructure between the cavity and magnetron. More power is absorbed by
power
ne contaminated oil, grease, water on the oven walls and
delvered to the load is decreases. Thercfore, to achieve maximum
efficicncy, the oven cavity should be kept as clean as poSS1 Dic.
Drawbacks of microwave oven
drawback of microwave oven is its non-uniformity of heating
he main standing
Multiple waves in oven lead to variation of electric field,
Which creates "hot' and 'cold' spots in the load iwhich is placed in the
OVen Cavity. To overcome this drawback and to reduce the
non-uniformity of the electric field. in the cavity following three
methods are normally used in ovens.
1. Use of multimode cavity.

2. Use of mode sirrer.

3. Use of turn table.

.Technical Specifications of Microwave Oven

TMicrowavefrequency 2.45 GHz
2. Output voltage > 850 watt
Number of modes at 2.45 GHz 68 modes
4. Field variation in empty multimode cavity 40 dB
Microwave radiations at 5 cn from its external surface
S.

<1 mW /cm.
Q.4 Write a short note on: Microwave thickness measurement.
[SPPU: May-19, Marks 51

Ans. Reflection coefficient "measurement technique is used for

measuring thickness of metal sheet. Typical arrangement is 'shown in
Fig. Q4.1. It requires a three-port circulator, a phase shifter and two horn
waveguides. (See Fig Q.4.1 on next page.)
Metal, sheet is placed between the two hom waveguide. Homs are
placed such that they face each other. Port-A and port-B are connected
to the waveguide horns. The port-C is conected to reflection
measurement circuit. A resonant cavity is formed along the length of

A Guide for Engineering Students

orcoDD
 Mlcrowave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory -8 Mlcrowuve Measuremnent Technlques

Phaso
shifter
Wavoguido
1
horn
Port B Metal
To Port C sheet
reflection
measurement Circulator 222227227ZIIZnÍA
clrcuit Wåveguide
a-hotn 2.
Port A

Fig. Q.4.1 Thickness measurement of metal shoet

the guide, phase shifter and horns. The resonance frequency can be
varied by adjusting the phase shifter and hence the reflection coefficient.
When metal plate thickness is detected, the length of cavity and
resonance frequency changes resulting in change in reflection
coefficient. An indicating meter çan be calibrated to monitor
the
thickness.
Q.5 Write a short note on: i) Microwave heating technique
ii) Microwaye moisture measurement ISPPU: May-19, Marks 10]
Ans. : 1) Microwave heating technique
The. rate of microwave power absorption in most materials is
proportional to its water content. This property is used
for microwave
heating. Because the microwave signal, penetrates most
non-conductors,
microwave power provides a most efficient means
of applying heat
uniformly throughout a. body. Microwave heating
process industries for heating, drying is. used in many
and sterilizing.
In microwave heating, heat is generated inside the material being
heated. The microwave heating. is totally different than conventional
,

heating where, the heat is first transferred to the surface of the

material
either by conduction convection or radiation or by
the combination
all three mechanisms and to the interior by thermal conduction. of In
contrast, in microwave heating, heat is generated directly
inside the
material. Therefore faster temperature rise çan be
obtained.
In microwave heating heat is generated because of skin effect
and
dielectric losses. imaginary:"part of. dielectric constant e
is very
important in heat generation.

OFCODE A Guide for Engineering Studénts

 Mierowave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theury -9 licrowave Measurement Techulgues

Power dissipated is givcn as -

Pa 8x 10-12
27,
fe (E| dV

whhere V Volume ofmaterial

E Electric field intensity
E Imaginary port of dielectric constant of material.
From above expression we can conclude.
P is proportional to frequency, electric ficld and imaginary part of
dielectric material.
) Microw&ve moisture measurement:
Measuring principle
One:of the properties of microwaves is the ability to travel through non
conductive materials.
Microwave technology is used in two ways for measuring moisture
content of various types of ores, coal and other minerals
a) By reflection or resonance
b) Transmission
In materials with bipolar molecular structure, (i.e. water), the electric
feld of microwaves can induce oscillations whilst travelling through the
medium. During this process, the microwaves loose some of their.
energy.

This loss in energy increase with the amount of water that medium
contains, with the result that as the water concentration increase, less
energy will reach the other side of the medium.
Water not only absorbs but also'reflects some of the microwave energy.
By utilising these two effects (reflection and absorption) one is åble. to .

perform moisture measurements with microwave techniques.

During transmission, (where the substance to be analysed is placed
between the microwave. emitter and detector) the microwave intensity
aiving at the detector. decreases with increasing of moisture.

OICODE
A Guide for Engineering Students
 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theoryv 6-10 Microwave Measurement Techniques

The moisture content can then be calculated by taking into account thc
absorption of the dry substance and some geometrical factors.
In reflection the procedure is equiyalent, except that both microwave
emitter and detector are mounted on the same side of the substance.
The reflection technique fails to be a reliable bulk moisture
determination for material with a high attenuation since it causes the
measured microwaves to only penetrate a thin surface layer of the
material. This is especially important for materials such as magnetite
wherè penetration will be at best of the order of a centimeter.
The resonance frequency of the microwave field is detuned and
dampened depending on the water content of the material. The changes
and
in the nicrowavc frequency are measured by the receiver antenna
this signal is then evaluated by the microprocessor based control unit.
it
With the' measurcment of the above parameters. and their evaluàtion,
is possible to determine moisture content and material density
separately.
Working
Microwave moisture analyzers work on the'principle that water has a
very higher dielectric constant compared to most other materials.

Mechanical
structuro
TRX

Phase and
3G. attenuation
Tranceiver
antenna
Communication
Belt conveyor

Molstmeaas
LFM Receiver
antenna

4-20 mA Belt weigher

4-20 mA
ModBus Automation system

Fig. Q.5.1. Microwave transmission technology arrangement

OECoDE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Mlcrowave Systens and
Techniques
6- 11 Microwave Meusurement
Radintton and Microwave Theory
microwaves interact witlh water molecules within the.material
When
down (and hence change phase) and weaken (attenuate) as
tney slow
the cnergy is transferred to the water.
on the
A lovw profile antenna transnits a beam through the material
located
conveyor belt. The signal is received by a receiver antenna
to thee
below the conveyor belt. The received signal is compared
,

transmitted signal for phase and amplitude change.

the change in phase shift and attenuatión is measured
and
Both
of the
processed by the control unit to calculate the moisture content
material measured.
Since phase shift and attenuation is dependant and influenced by the
amount of material to be measureed (% moisture by weight), a
measurement of the nmáss loading on the belt is.required to compensate
or ."normalise" the microwave measurements.
The mass, profile or height measurement is provided by, use of belt
weighers, radar level, ultrasonic level, radar scanners etc, or even a
combination of, these devices. In some, cases the density of the material
is measured using a Nuclear Type Density Transmitter.
Another technology that is used for. online moisture méasurement iis
NIR (Near Infra Red) which is limited in the fact that it only measures
surface mnoisture and does not penetrate the whole bürden of material.
In Dust Extinction Moisture (DEMM applications where the moistureis
measured immediately following sprayers, the moisture reading will be
biased to read high moisture which is true for the surface but not for
the whole burden of material.
Advantages of microwave moisture determination
1. MWs are not sensitive to pH and conductivity of the material
to be
measured.
2. Total moisture (surface as well as inherent)
is measured.
:
.3. Contactless measurement No abrasion
of the sensors, no sticking
of material, no interference with the process.
4. The measurement gives instantaneous results (real time
measurement) and can be utilisd for process control.
Q.6 Writé a short note on; Applications of
microwave
SPPU : Dec.-19, Marks 51
Ans.: Refer Q.3, Q,4.

OEcODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Microwuve Systems
Measurement
Microwave. and
Radiation and Microwave
Theory 6-12 Techniques

Measurement Devices
6.3: Microwave
meter.
Q.7 Write a short note on VSWR
2F (SPPU : Dec.-16, 17, Marks
61.

OR Write short note on : power measurement

i) Tunable detector i) Microwave
0 SPPU May-17, Marks
8
OR Write explanatory notes on:
Power meter
i)VSWR meter it) Tunable detector ili)
SPPU : May-16, Marks 12]
Ans.: i) VsWR meter: A VSWR*meter
1s shown in Fig.
Q7.1 and
its scale shown in Fig. Q.7.1. A VSWR meter is
a, sensitive high gain,
tuned a
high quality factor (Q), low noise voltage amplifier. It ata
frequency of 1 kHz at which microwave signal in niodulated. There are
two inputs to VSWR: meter :

VS WR

ttlach

203

Fig. Q.7.1 VSWR meter

Input 1: The output of the amplifier which is measured with a voltmeter.
The detected output gives the values, of Vmax and Vmi: from which the
VSWR can be calculated:
max.

VSWR = 'max
V.
min

Studens
OECODE A Guide for Engineering
 Microwave Systems and
Rädiation and Microwave Thcory 6-13 Mlerowave Measurenent Techniques
"**"** ***
,.'
The voltmeter always gives tho VSWR reading for an input of min
when the vSWR adjusted to unity "VSWR for an input corresponds to
V..
max
Input 2: Signal output which is measured by microwave detector
Scales of VSWR meter : There are three scales which are used by
VSWR meter.
When the VSWR is botween the and 4, the reading
1
1. Normal scale:
can be taken from SWR normal scale.
2. Expanded scale : When the VSWR is less than 1.3, then to get the
more accurate reading the expanded SWR scale is used...
3. Expanded dß scale: Fór VSWR between 1 to 1.3, then the third
scale expanded dB scale is used. It is shown in Fig. Q.7.2.

SWR
1.4
1.6 1.2

L,
7.8
TTTT 5
1.1

Normal
4
L TT 1.1 SWR
1.05
3
TTTT Expanded
'SWR
1.3 1.5 0.5 TT DB
.< Expanded
Scale of tho.VSWR Indicalor DB

Fig. Q.7.2 VSWR scale

i).Tunable detector The low.frequency square-wave modulated
: *

microwave signal is detected using non-reciprocal detector diode mounted

in the microwave transmission line. These diodes are specially point
contact or metal semiconductor Schottky barrier diodes. The tunable
waveguide detector is shown in Fig. Q.7.3. To match the detector to
transmission system a tunable stub is used. Broadband detectors are
anutactured in coaxial form as shown in Fig. Q.7.4. A coaxial line
tunable probe detector shown in Fig. Q.7.5 is used to pick up propagating
ffelds.

OECODED
A Guide for Engineering Students
 Microwave Systeims und
Radiation and Microwave Theory
6-14 Alicrowave Measurcment Technlques

Dieloctrlc
Coaxial line support

Half-wave Tuning
choke plunger
Waveguide
RF
Input Diode Diode

Cover
Fig. Q.7.3 Tunable waveguide detector
Tuning plunger
Diode
RF zzwwwwww.
input AAAAAAAAAAAAAANE

Detected output
Fig. Q.7.4 Coaxial detector

Dlode RF bypass
Tunable probe
dotector
Tjunction - Coaxial output

Standing waves

RF S
nput Lcad

Slotted line
Fig. Q.7.5.Tunable probe detector

QECODE
A Guide for Eugineering Students
 Microwave Systems and.
6-15 Microwave Measurement Téchniques
Radiation and Microwave Theory

iii) Power meter: Power, meter

is used to mcasure the amount f
and microwave
power in the microwave signals. It is used at RF
shown in Fig. Q.7.6.
.

frequencies. The block diagram of power meter is

dc voltage
Measured
Signal Voltmeter dc
Transducer
power value

Fig. Q.7.6 Block diagram of power meter

power meter. The
The transducer and voltmeter are the main parts of into
signal .power is applied to the transducer which converts it
equivalent, dc voltage. Then the dc voltage applied to voltmeter which
measures and displays tie dc value. Depending on the' microwave
applications thè, power meters must measure both continuous power and
the power of pulsed signals.
The power range of the power meter is limited because a transducer can
handle "power signal from 30 to + 20 dBm. For larger signals
attenuators are used.

6.4 Frequency Meäsurement

Q.8. Explain different microwave frequency measurement techniques
for a microwave source.
Ans.: Frequency measurement:
Microwave frequency is measured by using a commercially available
spectrum analyser and cavity wavemèter. The frequency also can be
computed from measured guide wavelength in a voltage standing wave
pattern along a short circuited line. by using a slotted line.
There are two techniques to measure the microwave frequency
1. Mechanical technique 2. Electronic technique

Mechanical technique: Mechanical techniques commonly uses

elements such as slotted lines and resonant cavities. Both the techniques
depend on calibration of physical dimensions of the devices.

A] Slotted line technique:The general set-up for the measurement

of microwave frequency is shown in Fig. Q.8.1.

OECOPES A Guidefor Engineering Students

'Radiation and Microwaye Theory Microwave Systems and
6-16 Microwave Measurement Techniques

sta
d6lectot SWR
probe iolcá1o

Vanable reguenty
N9enera Slotted
- Cysta
ueauato nete atector Matched
noun fmitaon
Fig. Q.8.1 Set-up for
the measurement of frequoncy
The signal generator
is a microwave source
(Continuous wave) which provides either a CW
or square wave modulated
Irequency 1 kHz. The signal signal at a fixed
generator used the gunn diode
backward wave oscillator oscillator or
frequency.. or a reflex klystron tube
to provide the fixed
The váriable attenuators are used
microwave signal. Mostly to provide the attenuation
flap attenuator used for against
A frequency meter this purpose.
consists of cylindrical cavity
to. resonance. The frequency meter is used for which can be adjusted
frequency. The frequency the direct reading
meter coupled tó slotted line. of.
The crystal detector inserted in
contained.in crystal detector the E probe of the slotted
mount at the end line is
crystal detector is used to
detect modulated signal.
of the waveguide. The
At the end of the microwave bench, matched
produce,the standing wave pattern. the temination is used to
The standing wave indicator is
used to provide the direct reading
standing wave ratio or its equivalent of
value in decibels. Generally
indicator is a sensitive tuned voltmeter. this
When a waveguide is mismatched by a load, a standing wave is
in the waveguide, The distance between created
the two adjacent maxima or
minima is one half of the wavelength. The
frequency can be determined
fromthe measured wavelength.
Principlee
Standing waves are sèt-up in a slotted line (transmission
line) producing
minima every half wavelength apart, The distance between
be measured and guide wavelength hence frequency minima can
can be determined.

OECOD A Guide for Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6- 17 Microwave Measurement Technlgues

The detector is inserted into the slotted line and detected output is
observed on standing wave indicator. The distance between maximá and
minima is shown in Fig. Q.8.2,

/2
D2 D
Fig. Q.8.2 Maxima and minima of a wave

(D- D,)=AD (Q.8.1)

Q.8.2)

But for TE mode

2a (Q.8.3)
and

f .(Q.8.4)
Accuracies obtained by this technique are limited to 1
%. Since
dependent on guide dimensions. is
B] Cavity wavemeter technique or Resonant cavity.technique
A typical wavemeter is. a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit
termination which changes the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length. Wavemeter axis is placed
perpendicular to

QICOD
A Guide for Engineeriug Students
 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-18 MicrowaveMeasurement Technlgues

Shorting plunger
the broad wall of the
waveguide. Wavemeter axis Polytron
coupled by a hole in the block

narrowwall as shown in
Fig. Q.8.3.
A block of absorbing material
placed at the back of the
tuning plunger prevents
oscillation on the. top of it. GOup19
Cavity resonates at different
frequencies for different Vave
D.quide
plunger positions. The tuning
can be calibrated interms of
frequencies by known input
frequency sigrials. Circular cavity

This type of wavemeter is Fig. Q.8.3 Resonant cavity techniquo

called absorption type for measuring frequency
wavemeter because. the
resonance and they attenuate the
power is absorbed in wavemeter, at
signal trequency to which they are tuned.
wavemeter known as transmissive cavity
There is another type of which they are tuned.
wavemeter which pass the signal frequency to
The absorption type' wavemeters are
preferred for the laboratoy
frequency measurement.
measurement by absorption type cavity
The sef-up for frequency
wavemeter is shown in Fig. Q.8.4.

AosOrplona Power
crowave:
Atenuatort ravematar
meler
9OUrO.S

Fig. Q.8.4 Set-up for frequency measurement

Microwave source is used to generate microwave signal.

The attenuator is used to vary the microwave signal, Initially it is variedd

to get full scale reading Pma We take the reading from power meter.

Let the frequency 'of the microwave source is (G) and the knob of
wavemeter is set on frequency (). Then the wavemeter is tuned to new
frequency'until the reading on the power meter dips to the minimum

QECODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Mticrowave Theory 6-19 Microwav Meusurement Techniques

value s sliown
(min?
Pmin
in Fig. Q.8.5. Pmin
value indicates that
absorption cavity
wavemeter is now at Prmox
resonance and the new
value of frequency
read when this dip
occurs will be the
frequency 2of the
microwave SOurce Pmin
shown in Fig. Q.8.5.
For example, suppose
the f=6 GHz and Frequency
cavity wavemeter is at
the Fig. a.8.5 Characteristics of absorption
frequency
f2 =8 GHz. When the cavity
wavemeter tuned from 8 GHz to 6 GHz, then a dip is
produced as
shown in Fig. Q.8.5.
At which frequency, dip occurs it gives the frequency measurement
oof
microwave source.
C) Spectrum analyzer.
method: For the measurement .of frequency
spectrum due to, short pulse of microwave energy,
is used. The set-up of spectrum analyzer for
the spectrum analyzer
frequency measurement
shown in Fig: Q.8.6.

IMicroave
estor ampi

uenerao

Fig. Q.8.6 Set-up for spectrum analyzer

technique
Microwave input is applied to the crystal. mixer which
microwave input and the local oscillator frequency. mixes the
consists of sawtooth generator which is generally a The local oscillator
voltage on repeller. Klystron with sweep

OEcoDE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Mlcrowave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-20 Microwave Meusurement Techniques

The mixed output fed to intemediate frequency amplifier which

Benerates the IF band. To prevent the mixing of initial and final
requency, the IF pass band. should be broad enough to allow the

nt generated by one pulse of the microwave energy to decay

Deiore the next pulso arrives. The detector produces the vertical
detlection on the oscilloscope when the next pulse arrives.
DInce the local oscillator frequency change as a result of sawtooth wave
applied to Klystron repeller and at the same time oscilloscope spot
agvances, each deflection is presented
at a different place ón screen.
Therefore the horizontal deflection on the oscilloscope
screen is
calibrated interms of frequency. So we can calculate the frequency from
the osçilloscope screen.
Electronic technique:
Principle :Electronic technique is based on the comparison of
unknowh microwave frequency with a harmonic of
frequency heterodyne system.
known frequency by a

The typical block diagram is shown in Fig. Q.8.7.

Unknown
frequency ()

armoniic nfe
Output
generator frequency

Fig. Q.8.7 Electronic technique for measuring

frequency
Since the output frequency
f and frequency nf, is already known the
unknown frequency f can be calculated as
f nf-f
6.5:PowerMeasurement
Q.9Explain with neat block diagram power measurement
microwave generator using i) Bolometer ii) Calorimeter
of
SPPU: Dec.-18, Marks-10]
Ans.: Bolometer: Measurement of low power (< 10 mW)
1)

For measuring low power typically between 1 to 10 mW is performed

using bolometers.

OECODE A
Guide for Engineering Students
 Mlcrowave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theòry 6-21 Microwave Measurement Techntques

Bolometer is the most commonly used detecting clement in microwave

fequency range. Bolometer is a temperature-sensitive element, when
microwave power falls on it, its temperature rises which results in
change n resistance. The elements having Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC) is used generally. These elements are also called as
barretters.
Barretter a
consists of thin wire enclosed in a hemmatically sealed glass
tube. Fig. Q.9.1 shows simple sketch of a Bolometer (barretter)

Fig. Q.9.1 Bolometer (barretter) construction

To have optimum'resistance barretters are generally' biased. It offers

resistance at 200 2 when biased.
Bolometer mountings are used to place the bolometers in coaxial lines
or in waveguides. Typical bolometer mounting used for waveguide is
shown in Fig. Q.9.2.

A/2
Bolometer

ZZZ272777ZZZŽIZIZIZIZZ ZZZZI2271Z

ZZIZIIZIZZIIIIZIZIZZT7IITIZIIIIIIIIII
Fig. Q.9.2 Bolometer mounting in waveguide

QECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Micrownve Systems an
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-22 Microwave Measurement Techniyues

The bolometer in this circuit acts as a. load resistance. Suppose tie

initial rešistance of the bolometer is R Q. When the low microwave
power applied to bolometer load, then some resistarice is absorbed at
the bolometer, load in form of heat and there is a changc in the
resistance of bolometer load.

Microwave

w-
R
power

ww
R

Bolometer
mount VVVV
T

Fig. Q.9.3 Microwave power measurement using bolometer

is
Suppose R, is resistance. of bolometer when the microwave power
difference of two
applied. Change in resistance is given by the
resistances R and R2 Change in Resistance =R
:
- R2
The change in resistance is proportional to the microwave power which
can be measured by using the. microwave bridge circuit.

Use of bolometer in. low power measurement

1. Bolometer microwave single bridge method
basically constructed from a balanced bridge circuit
The power meter is
in which one of ams is the, bolometer as shown in Fig. Q.9.4. Initially
power. The
the bridge 'at its balanced condition under zero incident
microwave power applied to bolometer arm will change the bolometer's
resistance causing an unbalance in the bridge. (See Fig: Q.9.4 on next
page.)
The non-zero output is recorded on voltmeter which is calibrated to
read the level of the input microwave power. SuppOse under balancod
condition, the.de bias voltage of the bolomèter is101010101010101010
E and E, is the de bias voltage of bolometer when the microwave
power is applied to bolometer. The change is dc bias voltage (E, - E,)
is directly proportional to the microwave power.

OECODE A Gulde for Engineering Stulents

 Microwave Systems and
Radlation and Microwave Theory 6-23 Microwave Meusurement Techniques

1K wm R

Voltmeter
ridge calibrated to
www- amplitisr read power
1 K

Microwave power
- Bolometor

Zero set
dc bias

Fig. Q.9.4 Single bridge circult

Disadvantages of.using single bridge
1. The change of resistance due to a mismatch at the microwave input
part results in incorrect reading.
2. The thermistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature
resulting in false' reading.
Bolometer microwave double bridge
The above disadvantages of using. single bridge are overcome by using
the, microwave double bridge. The schematic diagram of microwave
double bridge is shown in Fig. Q.9.5, The upper bridge circuit measures
the microwave power. and the lower bridge circuit compensates-,the
effect of ambient temperature variation (V, V2). (See Fig. Q.9.5 on
next page.)
The added microwave power due to mismatch. is compensated
automatically through a self balancing circuit by decreasing the dc
power E, carried by' the RF sensing thermistor. The dc power
E,
decreased until the net change in the thermistor résistance is zero due to
negative dc feedback
The intial zero setting ofbridge is done.by adjusting E2 = E, = E, with
no microwave input signal applied, when R is the resistance of
the
thermistor at balance. In absence of microwave signal,is
the dc bias
voltage across the sensor at balance. In presence of microwave signal,

OECODE A Guidefor Engtneering Students

 Microwave Systems
and
Mlerowave Meusureme Techniques
Theory 6-24
Radiation and Mlcrowave

ww
K Brldge
amplifler

Vol2
RF brldge
Thermlstor
R
www*
1K
RF input
Bridge
V2 amplifier
Bolometer
dc bias

V
Intial zero DC voltmeter
set calibrated to power

R w K
Thenistor
(Temperature
Bridge
amplifier

V,2 compensation)

ww
w
1K
Fig. d.9.5 Double bridge circuit
is de bias voltage across the sensor at balance. The average input
power Pay is equal to the change in dc power
B -(Bj-E;)(E1 +E)
P 4R 4R 4R
Q.9.1)
For any change in temperature if the voltage change
by AE, the change
in RF power is given by,
E2) (E -E2 24E)
PatAP = 4R
.(Q.9.2)
Since V+ V2 > AV in practice, AP = 0. So from equation (Q.9.2) We
can directly calculate the value
of average power.

ORcODDS.
A Guide for Englneering Student
 Microwave Systems and
Radiatton and Microwave Theory 6-25 Microwave Measurement Techniques

ii) Calórimeter: High-Power Measurement (> 10 mW)

High power microwave measurements can be conveniently done by the

calorimetric method which involves conversion of microwave energy
into heat. This heat absorbed by the fluid (usually water) and then
temperature of fluid measured to culeulate the power.
in Fig. Q.9.6.
The schematic diagram of microwave calórimeter shown

Flow meter Outlot tamperature

Inlet tempsrature
Water
out

**************IE** w* **** **

Microwave Purnp
powerinput

Waveguide

Glass tube for Water in

water flow

Fig. Q.9.6 Microwave calorimeter

are two methods to
measure the heat of. fluid
There
production of heat can be
1. Direct heating method: The rate of
dissipating
measured by observing the rise in the temperature of
medium.
is transferred to
2. Indirect heating method : In this method, heat
another medium béfore measürement.
calorimeter are used.
In both methods static calorimeter and circular
which is filled by
Static calorimeter consists of 50 ohm coaxial cable
dielectric load with a high hysteresis loss. The load dissipates the
microwave power. The average power input is given by:
P
4.187 m CpT watts

Where m'.is mass of thermometric medium in gms.

Cis its specific heat in cal/gms.
."T' is temperature rise in degrees.
ris time in seconds.

OEcODED A Guide for Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Microwave Measurement Techniques
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-26
is
calorimeters: In these calorimeters, the fluid (water)
Circulating
introduced into the
water load. The' heat
constantly flowing through a temperature. The
makes outlet temperature higher than the input
fluid
average powér is given by.
P 4.187 vd C,T watts
fluid in CC/sec
where 'y' is rate of flow of calorimeter
gm/CC.
D' is specific gravity of luid in
calorimcter
high power is done by using the
The measurement of calorimeter wattmeter works on the principle of
wattmeter device. The and sensing the
microwave power in perfect absorbing load
dissipating microwave
in temperature. Fig. Q.9,7 shows the
power level by rise
calorimeter wattmeter.
Ampliffer
Watmeter

Bridge

Exitaion

ww
Microwavs
power
Input
w Comparison cowar

Sensitive
element

Pump

Heat exchanger

Fig. Q.9.7 Mircowave calorimeter wattmeter

A Guide for Engineering Students

OECODED
 **
****

Microwayve Systems and

Microwave Measurement
Techniques
Radlation and Microwave Theory 6-27
identical
A microwave calorimeter wattmeter consists of two
tCmperature sensitive gauges one in each arm, an amplifier with high
gain. Microwave power incident, on the calorimeter heats up the input
sensing resistor which imbalances the bridge. The dissipative load is
circulating stream of either oil or ammonia gas..
The imbalance. signal of bridge is amplified and applied to the
comparison resistor, and power delivered to it is used tó.rebalance the
bridge. The microwave power is recorded by the indicating meter, the
meter may suitably be calibrated.
Disadvantages of calorimeter wattmeter methód
1 In calorimeter measurements, the thermal inertia causes a lag between
the application of microwave power and final readings.
2. Unsuitable for small microwave power.
3. Low accuracy = 5 %.

6.6: Attenuation Measurement

Q.10. Explain the microwave attenuation measurement in detail.
SPPUMay-19, Marks 8; Dec.-19, Marks 8]

OR Explain' attenuation measurement

. using powerratio
measurement technique. What..is the drawback of power ratio
measurement technique for attenuation measurement ? Explain
attenuation measurement using RF substitution method.
3 SPPU: Dec.-18, Marks 8]
Aus. Attenuation Measurement:
Attenuation a in dB is defined as
= 10 logio|
where P Input power to the device
P Output power from the device
Attenuation measurement can be perfomed by two methods
i) Direct .or power ratio measuring method.
ii) RF substitution method.

OECODE A Gilde for Engineering Studens

 Microwave Systems and
Radlatton ànd Microwave Theory 6-28 Microwave Measurement Technlgues

Ower ratio measurement method: The dircct method involves

measuring power at two desired points i.e. input power and output powerT
wIth and without device of which' attenuation is to' be measured.
g Q.10.l shows the sét up for power ratio method of attenuation
measurement.
A
icrowava iuniiAHLI
POWwer en 3lgteg Matched
Ources WvegWdo erminaton
ind

Dev ndiealng
Tuned
otectOr

Fig. Q.10.1 Power ratlo. measurement

It is'measured under matched
conditions, otherwise ii is not possible to
calculate accurately. how much
is the power reduction is dúe to the
mismatch; and how.much is due attenuation
to of the network.
Power delivered to the load (DUT) is measured and then the power
measured without load (DUT), the ratio of the is
second to the first power
gives, attenuation.
RF substitution method:
If the input power is low and the device
network) has a high attenuation, then this
method is used. This
simple method in which the output power isa
from the unknown device or
network. is measured: This network is
then replaced by. a calibrated
attenuator which is adjusted until output power is
the same. Under this
condition the attenuation of the two is same and
can be readoff from the
attenuator.

ane
poWer
T erminatton

anabla
atenuator
Tuned
met

Fig. Q.10.2 Substitution method

OECODE A Guidefor Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-29 Microwave Measurement Techniques

6.7:Phase Shift Measurement.

Q.11 How to measure the phase shift introduced by a microwave
network. Explain with suitable set-up and example.
F [SPPU : June-22, Marks 6]

OR Explain the phase shift mcasurement using double minimum

method at microwave îrequency. T (SPPU: May-19, Marks ]
Ans.: Phase shift measurement: * Experimental set up for phase shift
measurement is shown in Fig. Q.11.1. The AM wave is splitted into equal
parts. The adjustable shifter is adjusted such that on CRO two demolated
sine waves are in same phase. The relative phasc shift is then equal which
.be read, from calibrated adjustable phase shifter.

Adistabie|
Isolato Phase shilnfer
Calibrated

pane Cystat
AM Rplane etectog

Network of
Which phase
shift.méašüred

Fig. Q.11.1

the matching is done by observing in the dual

mode CRO, this
After shift.
precision phase shifter give us the reading of phase
Due to Due to
nd
1st path 2 path

Output of CRO
.Fig. Q.11.2

QECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-30 Microwave Measurement Techniques

6.8: VSWR Measurement

Q.12 How VSWR of a device under test is measured using a slotted
line and VSWR meter. 3P SPPU June-22, Marks 6]
OR Explain measurement techuiques for VSWR.
DSTSPPU : Dec-18, Marks 10]
Ans. : Measurement of. VSWR
o VSWR and voltage reflection coefficient are used for the measurement
of load impedance by the slotted line. The experimental sct-up for.
measurement of load impedance is shown in Fig. Q.12.1.
Microwave source, isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, slotted
line section, tuneable probe detector, VSWR meter and matched load
are the main components used for measurement of load impedance. (See
Fig. Q.12.1 on next page.)
In perfectly matched system Z =Zz then there is no variation in the
output of travelling wave detector. When the waveguide is nót perfectly.
terminated means Z,#Z then a reflected wave exists which combines
with the incident wave to create standing waves along the length of the
waveguide. The ratio of the maximum to the minimum voltage is
called Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). VSWR vary from 1 to o
Vm.
max
VSWR
Vmin
The Vmax and Vmin. Can be measured from the standing wave pattern as
shown in Fig. Q.12.2.

-1/2
i dz cms
d cms
Fig. Q.12.2 Standing wave pattern
OECODES
A Guide for Engineering Students
 Microwave Systems and
Mlerowave Measurement Technlques
Radlatlon and Microwave Theory 6-31

Fig. Q.12.1 Experimentál set up for the measurement of load

impedance
OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students
 Microwave
Radiation and Microwave Theory Systems
6-32 Microw Meaurement and
Techniques

For measuring VSWR a slotted section is used: Slotted section

ection cn
consists
of a movable detector. Most microwave detectors have a charactesie
of square-law. istics
Square-law means the output current of detector is proportional
square of the input voltage. to th
he
iKV2
where, i Represents output current.
V Represents voltage applied.
K Represents contant introduced by detector
and coupling circuit.
VSWR is then given by
max
VsWR= max
Vmin min
Two commonly used methods for meásuring VSWR are
1. Slotted line technique.
2. Double minimum method.
Slotted Ine technique: The voltage standing wave ratio
transmission system can be measured in a
with the. help of a slotted line
coaxial line transmission system for
or wth its waveguide equivalent
guide system. The set up for for
measuring VSWR using slotted
technique is shown in Fig. Q.12.3. line

Tuned
detector
Indicatinn9
rmeter

Microwave
Variable
0owar attenuator Slotted Matched
ine termination

Fig. Q.12.3 VSWR measurement

by slotted line technique.
The probe on the slotted waveguide is moved
to get maximum reading
on voltnefer (Vma. Now the probe on
the slotted line is adjusted fo
get minimum reading on the meter (Vmi).
VSWR can be calculated as
OBCODE
AGuide for Engineering Students
 Microwave Systems and
Radiatton and Microwave Theóry 6-33 Microwave Measurement Technigues

VSWR = max
min
This method of measuring VSWR is more accurate when VSWR is
ranging from 1 to 10 because characteristic of detector is non-linear.
For VSWR> 10 double minimum method is used.
Measurement of Low VSWR (S < 20)
.Low value VSWR can be measured directly from the VSWR meter
using the experimental set-up shown in Fig. Q.12.1 as follows :
1. The microwave source is set to the required frequency. The variable
attenuator is adjusted to 10 dB. The 1 kHz.modulation is adjusted for
maximum reading on the VSWR meter in 30 dB scale.
2. The probe carriage stub is tuned for maximum detected signal in
VSWR meter. The probe carriage is sided along the non-radiating seat
from the load end until a peak reading is obtained in VSWR meter.
3. The meter's gain control is adjusted to get the meter reading
at
l or 0 dB corresponding to the position of voltage maximum.
4. The probe is moved towards the generator to give voltage minimum.
The corresponding reading in VSWR meter directly gives the
S 4. VSWR
VSWR= max on the top of SWR normal scale for
1

Vmin
measured on expanded scale for 1< S < 1.33.
5. For VSsWR between 3.2 and 10, 10 dB lower range should be selected
and reading correspoding to Vmin Position should be taken from
second VSWR normal scale from the top.
6. The above steps are repeated for the other frequencies to obtain a set
of values of VSWR Vs frequency.
Double Minimum Method
This method is also known as width of minimum or twice minimumn
power method. The width of.minimum method is demonstrated in
Fig. Q.12.4.
It is seen that the shape of the voltage standing wave on a line or
waveguide is parabolic near a minimum, if measured with a probe
a
whose response is square law, as for the detector crystal. Sharper thec
parabola, higher the SWR.

(OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwave Theory 6-34 Microwave Measurement Techniques

Indicator
**** .2 Emin

voltage 3 dB (m = v2)
(V) .-. Emin

Ad
2
Probe position
(cms)
Fig. Q.12.4

The SWR. can be calculated from the width shown in above Fig. Q.12.4
using the formula.

SWR g
TtAd m(d2 - d1)

where g Wavelength along the transmission system

Ad Distance between two 3 dB points as shown
n practical measurement the probe is inserted suficiently deep and the
minimum is found. The probe depth is then adjusted for half deflection
on the sensitive milivoltmeter connected to the detector probe:
The probe is then shifted to one side of the minimum and then to the
other, and the distance between the two points at. which
the reading is
2 times the minimum, is measured. Since the wavelength is known the.
SWR can be calculated by the above equation.

Measurement of high VSWR (S> 20)

The difference of power at voltage maximum and voltage minimum
large for high VSWR. Therefore VSWR is
measurement with a VSWR
meter calibrated on square law basis
will be inaccurate. So double
minimum method is used where the measurements
are carried out at
two positions around a voltage minimum point as
shown in Fig. Q.12.4.

OECODES
A Guide for Engineering Students
 Microwave Systems and
Rudiation and Microwave Microwave Measurcment Techniques
Theory 635

High VSWR can be nmeasured by observing the distance berween

SUCcesive minima to find wavelength of waveguide and distance X
berveen two 3 dB points on the both sides of Vm The method folloWs
the steps given below

I. The probe is moved to a voltáge minimum. The probe depth and

gain control is adjusted to read 3 dB in VSWR meter.
2. The probe is moved slightly
on either side of the minimum to read
zero dB in the meter. This position x is
noted. Then probe is
moved to other side of minimum to read
zero dB again at x2
3. By moving the probe between two successive minima,
a distance
equal to 7,2 is found. This distance is used
to determine the guide
wavelength

4. High VSWR is calculated from

SWR =Ax
T(X -X) AX2
Where Wavelength alongthetransmission
system
Ax Distance between two 3 dB points.

Measurement of VSWR using return

loss
Return loss is defined as the ratio of power incident
of wave to power
of reilected wave.

Return loss R =Incident

PReflected

Vrehled
Voltage reflection coeficient p reiected
Vinident

Vider
R incident
y2
reflected

p
Return loss in dB= 20 log

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

 Mierovave
Radiation and Microwave Theory. 6-36. Microwave MeasirenentSystems and
T'cclhniaue
1ues
Relection coefficient is given in terms of vsWR as,
vsWIR-
VSWR-
VSWR +
Return loss R+ VSWR-
Q13 TE10 wavee is transmitting inside
transmission syst
operating at 10 GHZ. Dimensions
between the.
of
twice
waveguide
minimum1
4 cm x 2E
cm. are
Distance "measured power point is
1 ma on slotted Iine. Calculate the standing wave ratio
transmissiona system. 0 [SPPU : Dec.-16, 17, 19, June-22, Marks 61
Ans. : f= 10 GHz; 4 cma b 2.5 cm
For TE,0 mode, 2 =2 a =2.* 4= 8 cm
3x1010 3 cn
10x109
I min1
3.236 cm

For double miimum method vsWR is given by

VSWRR
T(d2-d1)
3.236 10.3 Aus.
Q-14
.*(1x10-1) .

Two. identical directional coupler are used,

in waveguide to
sample incident and. reflected powers. The output of twvo couplers is
2.5 mW and 0.15 mW respectively. Find
waveguide.
the value of VSWR in
ISPPU. : Dec.-16,17, Marks. 6]
Ans. : Given : fF
=
10 GHz,. a 4 cm, b=-2.5 cma,
(d2-d)=1mm
For TE
0.1 cm
10 mode Nc 2a =2x 4 cm =8 cmn
= 8
LOx109. 3 cm
Opérating wavelength-ao

OeeDES A Guide for Engincering Studens

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Mlcrowave Theory 6-37 Microwave Measurement Techiniques

Guided wavelength Ag-

3.236 cm
VSWR using double minimum method is given by,

VSWR =
g
(da-d1)
3.230
VSWR =
T(0.1)
10.3 Ans.

6.9 : Impedance Measurement

Q.15 Explain any two methods of measuring impedance of a
terminating load in a microwave system.
SPPU : May-17, Dec.-14,15, End Sem, Marks 8]

OR Explain reflectometer method for measurement of impedance.

aSPPU Dec-16, Marks 6]
Ans. : Impedance measurement: Methods used to measure the
impedance at microwave frequency are
i) Slotted line method ii) Reflectometer method

Slotted line method of impedance measurement

.This method is the extension of the technique used to measure SWR.
Standing, waves are noted with the load in the circuit and when load is
replaced by matched termination. Fig. Q.15.l shows impedance
measurement by slotted line. (See Fig. Q.15.1 on nxt page.)

Note the position of Vmin with unknown load, with the matched
termination once again, find the position of the Vmin: If the minimum is
shifted to the left then the unknown load inpedance is inductive and if
it shifts to the right. the unknown load impedance is capacitive.
Fig. Q.15.2 shows the standing waves for inductive. and capacitive
1mpedance. (See Fig. Q,15.2 om next. page.)

OECODD A Guide for Englneering Students

 Microwave Systems and
Radiation and Microwvave Theory
6-38 Microwave Meusurement Technlques

Indicating
ctor moter

Microwaye
power Varlable Slotted Unkioun
source wattanuator line load

Matched
terninatton

Fig. Q.15.1-Impedance measurement using slotted line

Vmax

With
unknown load
impedance Vn

Inductive
impedance
(Let shift)

Capacitive
impedance
(Right shift)

V
Fig. Q.15.2 Standing waves of impedance measurement

* The amount of shift is then converted in terms of wavelength. Now

using the Smith chart the nomalized impedance can be calculated in
terms of magnitude and phase.

OECODE Guide for Engineerlng Students

 Mlcrowave Systems and
Radiation and Microvwave Theory 6-39 MicrowaveMeasurement Techniques

Reflectometer method of impedance measurement

up for measuring
Set
shown in Fig. Q.15.3.
unknowri impedance. by using reflectometer is

Uned tUned
delector deieclot

Microwave OlgWalki Reverse

pOWeg directona directional load
SOurce coupler C COupler mpedance
P
.. Fig. Q.15,3 Impedance measurement using reflectometer

Two identical directional couplers are used, one for sampling incident
power P; "and other for reflected power P, .from Load
reflection coefficient can be calculated as (Z). The
Reflected power =
P
Incident power Pi
-2,
PZ+Z
where Z Known wave impedance

6.10 Radiation Hazards and Protection

Q.16 Explain in detail the various types of Microvave radiation
hazards. How, the radiation protection can be practiced ?
D SPPU: June-22, Marks 6]
OR Write short note : Effects of Microwave
'radiation on humans
ISPPU: Dec.-19, Marks 51

OR Radiation hazards and its protection. [SPPU: May-19, Marks 5]

OECODE A Guide for Engineering Students

Radiation and Microwave Theory Microwave Systems and
6-40 Microwave Measurenment Technilques
Ans. : Radiation hazards
Microwaves are potentially hazardous because of thçir heating effect.
The effect may not be felt until.damages
have already been done
because the heating may be internal whereas our body is
designed more
to warm us about exteinally applied heat.
Such heating is more dangerous where the excess heat
is not disipated
casily as in the case of the lens of the eye and there the most
likely
effect of excessive microwave exposure is the formation
of cataracts.
From heat balance considerations of standard man in standard
conditions, 100 W/m2 (10.mW/m2) is considered to
be the safe upper
imit .even during infinite exposure because thermoregulatory systems
compensate for any power absorption.
A power level of 10 W/m can be considered give no
to
even under adverse conditions of ambient temperature
heating effect
and humidity.
However, there is aiso some evidence of a non-thermal
effect through
the nervous system. It is claimed that exposure over a
period of years
to. power levels greater than 2 -W/m lead to nervous system
disturbances.
The recommended limits of power level for safe.working environment
are different in different countries.
Country Power limit
USA 100 W/m2

Poland 1 W/m2
Russia 0.01 Wm2
Another problem is that low power levels have caused other effects in
some people such as a ringing in the ears at the pulse repetition
frequéncy of a nearby radar set.
END...B

A Guide for Engineering Students

OECOD
 JUNE-2022 (END SEM) 158711-603 Solved Paper

Course 2015

Time: 2Hours) [Maximum Marks : 70

Instructions to the candidates :

) Answer 01 or Q.2, Q.3 or 04,
.5 or Q.6, 07 or Q8.
2) Neat diagrams must be drawn wherever necessury

3) Figures to the right side indicate

full marks.
4) Use of calculator is allowed.
5) Assume suitable data, if necessary.
Q.1 a) 7wo lossless X-band (8.2-12.4 GH:) horn antennas ave
separated by a distance of l00 1. The reflection

coejficients at ihe teminals of the transmitting and

receiving antennas are 0.1 and. 0.2, respectively. The
maximum directivitiesof the transmitting and receiving
mtennas (over isotropic) are 16 dB and 20 dB,
respectively. Assuming that the input pOwer in the lossless
transmission line connected to the transmitting antenna is
2 W and the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation
between them and are polarization-matched, find the
power delivered to the load of the receiver. T61

Ans.:
P,L-T.
adP,-1-Fi=9
(4TR)2

S- 1)
Radiarion and Microwave Theory S-2 Solvcd Untverslty Questton Paper

39.81x100
lond (1.98 W) (1-|0.2/")
(4m+ 100)

10nad 4.79 mW

terms
b Compare the various radiating dipole elements in
antenna parameters. (Refer Q.266 of Chapter - 1) 16]
of
c) Explain the structural details, types and applications of
strip line. (Refer Q.31 of Chapter 2) 18
OR

Q.2 a) Explain the following terms related to antenna

i) Radiation pattern (Refer Q.5 of Chapter 1)

Chapter 1)
i) Radiation eficiency (Refer Q.8.of
Q.10 of Chapter -1) 16
il) Antenna impedance (Refer
b) Explain the construction and principle of operation of
Yagi-Uda Antenna. 6
Ans. Yagi Uda Antenna:
measuring
basie Yagi consists of two or three straight elements, each
A
appróximately1/2 clectrical wavelengths.

Reflector
Dipole Director 1 Director 2

0.25 0.13 0.26

0.55)
0.50
0.45 . 0.45

Fig. 1
OECODES A Guide for Engineering Students
 S-3 Solved Unhvetsltoy Question Paper
Theory
Radiation and Mlerowave

Dipole length = ( (wavelength))/2

Reflector length = a (wavelength) x 0.55
Directors length= 2 (wavelength) x 0.45
driven element of a Yagi is the
equivalent of,a cénter-fed,
The
half-wave dipole antenna.
approximately 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength
Parallel to the driven element, and
straight rods or wires called reflectors and
on either side of it, are,
directors.
slightly longer
reflector is placed behind the driven element amd is
A driven element
than wavelength; a director is placed in front of the
wavelength. A typical Yagi has one
and is slightly shorter than %
reflector and one or more directors.
antenna propagates electromagnetic field
energy in the direction
The
the director(s), and is most.
running from the driven element toward
energy in this same
sensitive to incoming electromagnetic field
direction.

c)With.neat diagram explain the working of a rectangular

cavity resonator. Obtain the expression for resonant
resonant
frequency of oscillation. Calculate the lowest
dimensions
frequency ofa rectangular cavity resonator of
a = 2 cm, b = 1 cm
and d = 3 cm
-
(Refer Q.24 and Q.30 of Chapter 2)
Explain the S-matrix of Magic Tee. Explain with
neat
Q.3 a)
the application of Magic Tee for unknown
.

. diagram

impedance measurement. (Rèfer Q.6 of Chapter 3) 8]

b) Explain the working principle, construction and

applications of Isolator. An isolator has an insertion loss

A Guide for Eugineering Students

ORCODE
Radiation and Microwave Theory S-4 Solved University Questlon Paper

of O.35dBand an isolation of 50 dB. Determine the

Scattering matrix of the isolator if the isolated ports are
perfectly matched. to the junction. (Refer. Q.14 of
Chapter 3 and stmilar Example Q.17 of Chapter 3)

OR
Q.4 a) Explaim. and compare the properties of E-plane and
H-plane Tee with neat diagram. Also derive scattering
matrix of E plane Tee. (Refer Q.5 of Chapter - 3) 18]

b) Explain with neat diagram the construction.and principle

of operation of a two hole directional. coupler.
Define i) Coupling coefficient i) Directivity
ii) Isolation (Refer°Q.22 and Q.24 of Chapter- 3)
8
Q.5 a) Explain the high frequency limitations
of conventional
tubes. Classify Micrawave Tubes
(Refer Q.1 of Chapter. 4)
8
b) Explain
b). the construction, working principle and
application of the following
i).Microwave Tunnel Diode (Refer Q.8 of Chapter - 5)
i) Varactor Diode (Refer Q.3 of Chapter 5) .
18
OR
Q.6 a) Explain the' concept of Velocity Modulation.
Explain the
principle of working of a Reflex Klystron rwith
an
Applegate diagram. (Refer Q.3
of Chapter 4) 181

bb) Explain the construction, workingprinciple and

application of the following

QECODB A Guide for Engineering

Students
Radiatton and Microvave Theory S-5 Solved Unlversty Questton Paper

i) PIN diode as a modulator (Refer Q.7 of.Chapter 5)

it) Schottley Barrie Diode (Refcr Q.11 of Chapter 5)
18
Q:7 a) Explain Microwave terrestrial and satellite
communication systems. Diferentiate between these two.
[61
(Refer Q.1 of Chapter 6)
b) How VSWR of a device under test is measured using a
slotted line and VSWR meter.
Refer Q.12 of Chapter-6) I61

c) Calculate the SWR of a transmission system operating at

10 GHz. Assume TE10TE10 wave transmission inside a

rectangular waveguide of. dimensions a 4 cm,

b = 2.5 cm. The distance measured between twice

minimum power points is I mm on a slotted line.
(Refer Q.13 of Chapter 6) 6
OR

Q.8 a) How to measure the phase shift introduced. by a

microwave network. Explain with suitable set-up and
example. (Refer Q.11 of Chapter - 6) 6
b) Explain,with neat diagram the mechunism of microwave
heating in microwave ovens. (Refer Q.3 of Chapter 6)
I6]

c) Explain in detail the various types of Microwave

Radiation Hazards. How the radiation protection can be
(Refer Q.16 of Chapter - 6)
practiced ?

END..E
OECODE A Guidefor Engineering Student