Draft version December 2, 2024

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SIRIUS: Identifying Metal-poor Stars Enriched by a Single Supernova in a Star-by-star Cosmological

Zoom-in Simulation of a Dwarf Galaxy
Yutaka Hirai ,1, 2, 3, ∗ Takayuki R. Saitoh ,4 Michiko S. Fujii ,5 Katsuhiro Kaneko,5 and
Timothy C. Beers 1, 3
1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Notre Dame, 225 Nieuwland Science Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
arXiv:2411.18680v1 [astro-ph.GA] 27 Nov 2024

2 Astronomical Institute, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
3 Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, Center for the Evolution of the Elements (JINA-CEE), East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
4 Department of Planetology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan
5 Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan

ABSTRACT
Metal-poor stars enriched by a single supernova (mono-enriched stars) are direct proof (and provide
valuable probes) of supernova nucleosynthesis. Photometric and spectroscopic observations have shown
that metal-poor stars have a wide variety of chemical compositions; the star’s chemical composition
reflects the nucleosynthesis process(es) that occurred before the star’s formation. While the identifica-
tion of mono-enriched stars enables us to study the ejecta properties of a single supernova, the fraction
of mono-enriched stars among metal-poor stars remains unknown. Here we identify mono-enriched
stars in a star-by-star cosmological zoom-in simulation of a dwarf galaxy. We find that the fraction
of mono-enriched stars is higher for lower metallicity, stars with [Fe/H] < −2.5. The percentages
of mono-enriched stars are 11% at [Fe/H] = −5.0 and 1% at [Fe/H] = −2.5, suggesting that most
metal-poor stars are affected by multiple supernovae. We also find that mono-enriched stars tend to
be located near the center of the simulated dwarf. Such regions will be explored in detail in upcoming
surveys such as the Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS) on the Subaru telescope.

Keywords: Galaxy formation (595) — Dwarf galaxies (416) — Population III stars (1285) — Population
II stars (1284) — Nucleosynthesis (1131)

1. INTRODUCTION dances of MP stars (e.g., Beers et al. 1985, 1992; Beers

Chemical abundances of metal-poor (MP) stars reflect & Christlieb 2005; Tolstoy et al. 2009; Frebel & Nor-
the nucleosynthesis process(es) that took place prior to ris 2015). Beers & Christlieb (2005) classified MP stars
their formation. The nucleosynthetic yields of super- according to their [Fe/H]1 : MP for [Fe/H] < −1, very
novae (SNe) depend on a number of variables, includ- metal poor (VMP) for [Fe/H] < −2, extremely metal
ing stellar mass, stellar evolution, rotation, and explo- poor (EMP) for [Fe/H] < −3, ultra metal poor (UMP)
sion mechanisms (e.g., Heger & Woosley 2010; Nomoto for [Fe/H] < −4, and hyper metal-poor (HMP) for
et al. 2013; Tsiatsiou et al. 2024). We can observa- [Fe/H] < −5. The HK objective-prism survey reported
tionally constrain SNe nucleosynthesis using the chem- spectroscopy of 1044 stars, 446 of which were classified
ical abundances of MP stars enriched by a single SN as VMP (Beers et al. 1985, 1992); The Hamburg-ESO
(mono-enriched stars). Thus, the identification of mono- Survey (HES; Christlieb et al. 2008) carried out similar
enriched stars is critical for acquiring this information. objective-prism observations, and supplied targets for
In the past few decades, photometric and spectro- high-resolution studies of additional VMP stars. High-
scopic observations have measured the chemical abun- resolution spectroscopic follow-up of stars from the HK
survey and the HES have been reported by a number

Corresponding author: Yutaka Hirai

1 [Fe/H]=log(NFe /NH ) − log(NFe /NH )⊙ , where NFe and NH are
[email protected]
the number densities of Fe and H, respectively.
∗ JSPS Research Fellow
2 Hirai et al.

of previous authors (see, e.g., Roederer et al. 2014, and large uncertainties. Numerical simulations with detailed
references therein). Other high-resolution follow-up ef- treatment of metal dilution provide a complimentary
forts continue to expand the list of VMP stars with approach, and can estimate the mono-enriched fraction
detailed abundance information, based on stars iden- more directly.
tified from massive spectroscopic surveys, such as the Galaxy simulations that can resolve individual stars
SDSS (York et al. 2000), RAVE (Steinmetz et al. 2006), (star-by-star simulations) could be used for this purpose
SDSS/SEGUE survey (Yanny et al. 2009; Rockosi et al. (e.g., Emerick et al. 2018; Hu 2019; Lahén et al. 2020;
2022), the LAMOST survey (Deng et al. 2012), the Gutcke et al. 2021; Hirai et al. 2021; Deng et al. 2024;
GALAH survey (De Silva et al. 2015), SDSS/APOGEE Brauer et al. 2024; Hirashima et al. 2024). Contrary
(Majewski et al. 2017), the Gaia-ESO survey (Gilmore to the simple stellar population (SSP) approximation
et al. 2022), and DESI (Cooper et al. 2023). Recent that is often used, which adopts the initial mass func-
massive photometric surveys, in particular those that tion (IMF) integrated yields (e.g., Revaz et al. 2009;
include narrow-band filters, such as Pristine (Starken- Okamoto et al. 2010; Hirai et al. 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019;
burg et al. 2017), J-PLUS (Cenarro et al. 2019), S-PLUS Escala et al. 2018; Agertz et al. 2020), star-by-star sim-
(Mendes de Oliveira et al. 2019), SkyMapper (Onken ulations can trace the ejecta of individual SNe. For ex-
et al. 2019), and SAGES (Fan et al. 2023), hold the ample, Brauer et al. (2024) identified that the metal-
promise to enormously expand the list of VMP targets licity floor enriched by Population III SNe is, on aver-
for future follow-up at high spectral resolution. It is im- age, [O/H] = −4.0, using their star-by-star simulation
portant to identify mono-enriched stars based on these of high-z galaxies.
observations. The purpose of this Letter is to estimate the mono-
The chemical abundances of some MP stars indicate enriched fraction of stars using our star-by-star cosmo-
that the stars are mono-enriched (e.g., Ishigaki et al. logical zoom-in simulation of a dwarf galaxy. As an ini-
2018; Aoki et al. 2014; Jeong et al. 2023; Ji et al. tial step to estimate this fraction, we focus on a dwarf
2024). Aoki et al. (2014) found that the VMP star SDSS galaxy with a simple chemical-enrichment history. The
J001820.5-093939.2 has a low [α/Fe] ratio and an odd- simulation adopts the model developed for Simulations
even abundance pattern, suggesting that it was formed Resolving Individual Stars (SIRIUS) project (Hirai et al.
from the ejecta of SNe of stars more massive than 140 2021; Fujii et al. 2021a,b, 2022a,b, 2024). This Letter
M⊙ . Ji et al. (2024) reported the lowest known ra- is arranged as follows. Section 2 describes an updated
tios of [N/Fe], [Na/Fe], [K/Fe], [Sc/Fe], [Ba/Fe], and stellar mass-assignment model. Section 3 shows the dis-
a clear contrast between odd and even elements for this tributions and fractions of stars enriched by a single SN
star. Although none of the models can fully explain the (mono-enriched) and those that are enriched by multi-
chemical abundance pattern, they prefer the existence of ple SNe (multi-enriched). Section 4 compares our results
a SN progenitor of >50 M⊙ . Carbon-enhanced metal- with those from Hartwig et al. (2023).
poor (CEMP) stars could also be mono-enriched (e.g.,
Beers et al. 2007; Lee et al. 2013; Yoon et al. 2016, 2019,
and references therein). The small abundance disper- 2. METHODS
sions (particularly for C) reported in chemo-dynamically 2.1. Code
tagged groups (CDTGs) by Zepeda et al. (2023) for
We performed a cosmological zoom-in simulation of
CEMP stars classified as Group II stars in the Yoon-
a dwarf galaxy with the N -body/smoothed particle hy-
Beers diagram (Yoon et al. 2016) could be signatures of
drodynamics (SPH) code asura+bridge (Fujii et al.
enrichment by rotating massive stars (e.g., Meynet et al.
2021b). Gravity was computed with a tree-based
2006) or faint SNe (e.g., Ishigaki et al. 2014).
method (Barnes & Hut 1986). Since we did not follow
Estimates of the fractions of mono-enriched stars as
star cluster formation and evolution in this work, we
a function of the metallicity could help us identify such
turned off the BRIDGE scheme, which adopts the 6th-
stars. Hartwig et al. (2023) applied machine learning to
order Hermite integrator for short-range forces (Fujii
estimate the number of SNe contributed to the chemi-
et al. 2007). Hydrodynamics and models for galaxy for-
cal abundances of previously observed EMP stars. They
mation were implemented with the asura code (Saitoh
found that 31.8% of 462 EMP stars are mono-enriched,
et al. 2008, 2009; Hirai et al. 2022, 2024a,b). We adopted
and that the mono-enriched fraction decreases toward
the density-independent SPH method (Saitoh & Makino
higher metallicity. However, the machine-learning ap-
2013) to compute hydrodynamics and cloudy version
proach relies on the predicted nucleosynthetic yields
13.05 (Ferland et al. 2013) for gas cooling and heating.
as well as the observed data, both of which can carry
We also implemented the ultra-violet background heat-
 Mono-enriched Stars 3

ing (Haardt & Madau 2012) and self-shielding models in initial condition was 6.1 × 107 . We set the gravita-
(Rahmati et al. 2013). tional softening length as 20.2 pc for dark matter and
Gas particles were allowed to form stars when the 9.2 pc for gas particles. Dark matter and gas-particle
number density of hydrogen was higher than 100 cm−3 , masses in the zoom-in region were 102.3 M⊙ and 18.9
the temperature was lower than 1000 K, and there was M⊙ , respectively. We computed this simulation over the
converging flow (Hirai et al. 2021). The code stochasti- redshift range z = 100 to 6.5. At z = 6.5, the dark mat-
cally assigns the stellar mass to newly formed star par- ter halo mass, the stellar mass, and the median [Fe/H]
ticles (see Section 2.2). Once SNe occur, they distribute were 1.5×108 M⊙ , 7.3×105 M⊙ , and −2.2, respectively.
thermal energy and elements to the nearest neighbor In total, 651,977 stars were formed.
gas particles. Nucleosynthesis yields of core-collapse
SNe (CCSNe, Nomoto et al. 2013), type Ia SNe (SNe
Ia, Seitenzahl et al. 2013), and asymptotic giant branch 3. RESULTS
(AGB) stars (Cristallo et al. 2009, 2011, 2015) were com-
We identify mono-enriched stars using [C/Fe] ratios,
piled from the chemical-evolution library (celib, Saitoh
motivated by Hartwig et al. (2023) and other work (e.g.,
2017). Ejected elements were diluted by the interstel-
Vanni et al. 2023, and references therein) that identified
lar medium (ISM) following the diffusion equation. We
carbon as an indicator of mono-enriched stars. Since
adopt a scaling factor for the metal diffusion equation of
each CCSN has its own [C/Fe] ratio associated with
0.01, which is determined from the chemical abundances
its ejecta, mono-enriched stars should have the same
of MP stars in dwarf galaxies (Hirai & Saitoh 2017).
[C/Fe] ratio as the yields of CCSNe, but the metallic-
ity could differ depending on the degree of dilution. We
2.2. Stellar Mass Assignments
regard a star as mono-enriched if the star has the same
We updated the stellar mass-assignment model for [C/Fe] ratio, within the numerical error (±10−6 in this
newly formed star particles in Hirai et al. (2021) to sam- case), with the yields from previously occurring CCSNe.
ple the IMF in a simulation with ∼10 M⊙ resolution. In this simulation, the contributions of AGB stars and
In this model, three kinds of star particles represent- SNe Ia are negligible. Figure 1 shows the simulated
ing different ranges of the IMF were formed, adopting [C/Fe], as a function of [Fe/H], at z = 6.5. As shown
the Kroupa IMF (Kroupa 2001) from 0.1 to 120 M⊙ . in this figure, mono-enriched stars have smaller disper-
Stars with < 6 M⊙ were treated as SSP particles. We sions than multi-enriched stars. Because not all CC-
divided SSP particles into two mass ranges. The first SNe form stars directly from their ejecta, some multi-
type of SSP particles (SSP1) comprise stars with 0.1 enriched stars have higher or lower [C/Fe] ratios than
≤ m∗ /M⊙ < 1.3, where m∗ is the stellar mass. We mono-enriched stars.
regarded SSP1 particles as purely chemically inert par-
ticles, i.e., these particles did not produce any stellar
feedback. The second type of SSP particles (SSP2) com-
prises stars with 1.3 ≤ m∗ /M⊙ < 6.0. We assumed 2.0
these particles contribute to the feedback by AGB stars 0.4 2.5
and SNe Ia. The IMF integrated yields of AGB stars
and SNe Ia were produced from these particles. We 3.0
0.2 Log mass fraction
treated stars with m∗ /M⊙ ≥ 6.0 as star-by-star (SbS) 3.5
particles, and assigned masses to them following Hirai
[C/Fe]

et al. (2021). At the end of their lifetimes, these par- 0.0 4.0
ticles exploded as CCSNe and formed neutron stars, or 4.5
collapsed as white dwarfs or black holes. 0.2
5.0
2.3. Initial Conditions 0.4 5.5
A halo was selected from a cosmological simulation 6.0
with a box size of (4 Mpc)3 performed by gadget-2 4 3 2 1 0
[Fe/H]
(Springel 2005). We adopted the cosmological parame-
ters of H0 = 67.3 km s−1 Mpc−1 , Ωm = 0.32, ΩΛ = 0.68, Figure 1. [C/Fe], as a function of [Fe/H], at z = 6.5. The
and Ωb = 0.049 (Planck Collaboration et al. 2020). A color bar to the right encodes the mass fraction of stars con-
zoom-in initial condition was created by music (Hahn & tained in each metallicity bin, with a size of 0.02 × 0.004
dex2 . Orange dots show the mono-enriched stars.
Abel 2011). The total number of particles in the zoom-
4 Hirai et al.

Figure 2 highlights our main result. Using our star-by-

star approach, we can compute the mono-enriched frac-
tion as a function of [Fe/H]. As expected, the fraction Multi-enriched stars
0.25 Mono-enriched stars
exhibits an increasing trend toward lower metallicity for
stars with [Fe/H] < −2.5. At [Fe/H] = −5.0, 11% of
0.20
the stars are mono-enriched. This result indicates that

df/d[Fe/H]
the ISM is less likely to be multiply enriched by CCSNe
0.15
as metallicity decreases. For [Fe/H] > −2.5, the per-
centage of mono-enriched stars is 1%. These relatively
0.10
high-metallicity mono-enriched stars are directly formed
from the ejecta of a CCSN without significant dilution
0.05
into the ISM. Assuming a CCSN ejects 0.1 M⊙ of Fe and
the ejecta are mixed in a swept-up gas mass of 104 M⊙
0.00
(Cioffi et al. 1988), the value of [Fe/H] is −2.2, indicating −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
[Fe/H]
that stars with [Fe/H] > −2.5 can also be formed from a
single SN ejecta. The slightly increased mono-enriched Figure 3. The metallicity distribution functions of multi-
fraction for [Fe/H] > −1.5 is a numerical artifact due to enriched (blue-dashed line) and mono-enriched (orange-solid
the small number of stars in this metallicity range. line) stars at z = 6.5.

trated than multi-enriched stars. This is because the

largest fraction of mono-enriched stars are formed in the
earliest phases of galaxy formation (Figure 5). In the
0.10 early phase, stars are mainly formed in the galactic cen-
ter, where the gas density is the highest. In later phases,
Mono-enriched Fraction

0.08 the star-formation region extends to the surrounding re-

gion, but the ISM tends to be mixed with multiple SNe.
0.06 From inspection of Figure 5, mono-enriched stars are
continuously formed after the initial burst at 0.4 Gyr.
0.04 These stars are also formed near the galactic center,
where high-density gas allows spontaneous star forma-
0.02 tion following a SN explosion.

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
[Fe/H]

Figure 2. The number fraction of mono-enriched stars, as

0.25
Multi-enriched
a function of [Fe/H].
0.50 Mono-enriched

Figure 3 shows metallicity distribution functions 0.75

(MDFs) of mono- and multi-enriched stars. From 1.00
inspection, the mono-enriched MDF exhibits an en-
y (kpc)

hanced low-metallicity tail, while the multi-enriched 1.25

MDF smoothly decreases as [Fe/H] decreases. This fea-
ture reflects the increasing trend of the mono-enriched 1.50
fraction towards lower metallicity for [Fe/H] < −2.5 1.75
(Figure 2). For higher metallicity, the MDFs are indis-
tinguishable. The median [Fe/H] for mono- and multi- 2.00
enriched stars are −2.5 and −2.2, respectively.
The spatial distribution and formation times of mono- 2.25
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
enriched stars reflect the inside-out formation of the x (kpc)
simulated dwarf galaxy. Figure 4 depicts the spatial
Figure 4. The spatial distribution of multi-enriched (blue
distribution of mono-enriched stars. As shown in this
dots) and mono-enriched (orange dots) stars at z = 6.5.
figure, mono-enriched stars are more centrally concen-
 Mono-enriched Stars 5

Star-formation histories could also affect the estimates

of mono-enriched fraction. Due to the limitations of
0.175 Multi-enriched stars computational resources, we only computed a single cos-
Mono-enriched stars
0.150 mological zoom-in simulation. Future simulations with
different initial conditions will show how star-formation
0.125
histories affect a galaxy’s mono-enriched fractions. The
0.100 adopted metal-diffusion coefficient could also affect our
df/dt

estimate. However, this parameter does not affect the

0.075 predicted increasing trend towards lower metallicity of
0.050
the mono-enriched fraction, because the metallicity does
not affect the value of the diffusion coefficient.
0.025 From the discussion above, our simulation suggests
that the mono-enriched fraction is larger at lower metal-
0.000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 licity for stars with [Fe/H] < −2.5. This result is the
Formation Time (Gyr) first quantitative estimate of the mono-enriched fraction
Figure 5. The formation times of multi-enriched (blue- from a galaxy simulation. Our work indicates that we
dashed line) and mono-enriched (orange-solid line) stars. could clearly benefit from increasing the number of EMP
stars with measured chemical abundances. Huang et al.
(2024) reported photometric chemical abundances of five
million stars. Assuming the average mono-enriched frac-
4. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY tion of 1.5% in this work, the data contain at least 75,000
mono-enriched stars. Spectroscopic follow-up of such a
For the first time, this study has computed the mono-
large sample is crucial to identify mono-enriched stars.
enriched fraction, as a function of [Fe/H], directly from
Recently, there have been a number of massive obser-
a simulation. We have shown an increasing trend in this
vational projects for the discovery of MP stars, as de-
fraction towards lower metallicity for [Fe/H] < −2.5.
scribed in the Introduction. The soon-to-begin Subaru
At [Fe/H] = −5, 11% of the stars are mono-enriched. In
Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS) (Takada et al. 2014)
this simulated dwarf galaxy, 1.5% of the stars are mono-
will also be able to identify large numbers of poten-
enriched, suggesting that MP stars are mainly formed
tially mono-enriched stars, as a portion of this effort
from gas enriched by multiple SNe.
is directed at spectroscopic observations of individual
The increasing mono-enriched fraction towards lower
dwarf galaxy satellites of the Milky Way. These sur-
metallicity is also seen in the observation-based machine
veys should contain at least 5% of EMP stars that are
learning estimate (Hartwig et al. 2023). They pointed
mono-enriched. From inspection of Figure 4, we can effi-
out that not all stars were mono-enriched at [Fe/H]
ciently find mono-enriched stars by targeting EMP stars
∼ −4.5. Since our star-by-star simulation approach is
near the center of dwarf galaxies. Comparison with star-
completely different from their method, Figure 2 is an
by-star simulations and these survey data will greatly
independent confirmation of the increasing trend of the
improve our understanding of SNe nucleosynthesis oc-
mono-enriched fraction towards lower metallicity.
curing in the earliest phase of galaxy formation.
The major difference between these studies is the
predicted fraction of mono-enriched stars. For EMP
stars, the mono-enriched fraction in this study is 5.0%,
while for those in Hartwig et al. (2023) it is 31.8%.
Since this study adopts the strict condition that stel-
lar [C/Fe] ratios must be the same as the yields of CC-
SNe within ±10−6 , our estimate is expected to be lower
than observation-based estimates. Typical observational
uncertainties for [C/Fe] ratios are ±0.2 dex. Observa-
tionally, the chemical abundances of many of the multi-
enriched stars found in this study are indistinguishable
from those of mono-enriched stars. Because of the ob-
servational uncertainties that would increase the mono-
enriched fraction, the difference between our study and
Hartwig et al. (2023) appears reasonable.
6 Hirai et al.

Software: ASURA+BRIDGE (Fujii et al. 2021b),

This work was supported in part by JSPS KAK- CELib (Saitoh 2017), Cloudy (Ferland et al. 2013),
ENHI Grant Numbers JP22KJ0157, JP21H04499, Gadget-2 (Springel 2005), MUSIC (Hahn & Abel 2011)
JP21K03614, JP22H01259, JP21H05448, MEXT as
“Program for Promoting Researches on the Supercom-
puter Fugaku” (Structure and Evolution of the Uni-
verse Unraveled by Fusion of Simulation and AI; Grant
Number JPMXP1020230406), JICFuS, grants PHY 14-
30152; Physics Frontier Center/JINA Center for the
Evolution of the Elements (JINA-CEE), and OISE-
1927130: The International Research Network for Nu-
clear Astrophysics (IReNA), awarded by the US Na-
tional Science Foundation. Numerical computations and
analysis were carried out on Cray XC50 and computers
at the Center for Computational Astrophysics, National
Astronomical Observatory of Japan and the Yukawa In-
stitute Computer Facility. This research has made use
of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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