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Proceedings of the Twenty Third Annual Conference of
the Cognitive Science Society Johanna D. Moore Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Johanna D. Moore, Keith Stenning
ISBN(s): 9780805841527, 0805841520
Edition: Pap/Cdr
File Details: PDF, 18.54 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
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Proceedings of the
Twenty-Third Annual Conference
of the
Cognitive Science Society
Johanna D. Moore and Keith Stenning
Editors
August 1-4, 2001
Human Communication Research Centre
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Scotland
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
Mahwah, New Jersey London
2001
Copyright c 2001 by the Cognitive Science Society
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or
by any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Distributed by
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
ISBN 0-8058-4152-0
ISSN 1047-1316
Printed in the United States of America
Dedicated to the memory of Herbert A. Simon,
June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001
How It All Got Put Together
Once upon a time when the world All of its ins and outs.
was young, For that was the magic of the djinn.
Oh best beloved. And little by little, each swayed a new way,
There came to the banks of the Monongogo River, Taking the melody each its own way,
All muddy and brown, But hearing the melodies far away
Oh best beloved, From other places with separate dances,
A djinn who was one thing on the inside But the very same melody
But many things on the outside. That told the dance to be done on the inside.
And he camped by the banks of the Monongogo River, So, each started to step in the very same way,
All muddy and brown, Putting together one dance on the inside
Oh best beloved. For many dances on the outside.
And he stayed and stayed and he never went away. So the melody grew, and it drifted back
And he did his magic there. To the Monongogo River, all muddy and brown,
He had many hands, each hand with many fingers, And the river came clear and sweet.
Oh best beloved. Ah, best beloved, I must tell the truth.
More hands and fingers than you and I The river is not yet clear and sweet,
More hands than you have fingers, Not really so.
More fingers on each hand than you have toes. Because putting together is a task forever.
Each hand played a tune on a magic flute, And no one—not even a djinn with kilohands and
Oh best beloved. megafingers,
And each fluted tune floated out on a separate flight. All of which play a different-same tune—
And each was a tune for a separate dance, Can put all things together in a single breath,
And each was heard in a separate place, Not even a breath of fifty years.
And each was heard in a separate way, It is not all put together yet,
And each was merged in the dance it swayed. And it never shall be,
But it was still all the same tune, For that is the way of the world.
For that was the magic of the djinn. But even so, when the world was young,
Now, best beloved, listen near— Was the time of the need for the single tune
Each separate place, when the world was young, To guide the dance that would move together
Danced in a way that was all its own, All of the steps in all of the places.
Different from all of the others. And it happened by the banks of the Monongogo River,
But the melody told of how it could be All muddy and brown,
That creatures out of an ancient sea, Best beloved.
By dancing one dance on the inside, And the river will never be the same.
Could dance their own dance on the outside, Just so.
Because of the place where they were in—
Allen Newell
Carnegie Mellon University
Foreword
This volume contains the papers and posters selected for presentation at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive
Science Society in Edinburgh, August 1–4th 2001. This meeting is the first in the history of the society to be held out-
side North America, and reflects the increasing internationalisation of cognitive science. More than 500 submissions
were received from all over the world. The breadth of topics treated, together with the evident themes that recur are
testimony to the development of a distinctive field. We were reminded of the multidimensionality of the field when
the several papers on topics related to categorisation proved to be the hardest of all to categorise.
It is our belief that the virtue of cognitive science comes from its deep engagement with the full range of disciplines
that contribute to informational theories of mind. Cognitive science began with the realisation that several disciplines
studied what is ultimately the same subject matter using different concepts and methods. Observation and experiment
had become separated from simulation, engineering, formal analysis, historical, cultural and evolutionary study, and
philsophical speculation. It is our hope that this conference will play its small part in substantiating the vision that it
is important to put back together what the disciplines have cast asunder.
This multidimensionality of the field makes scheduling a major headache. It is impossible to ensure that clashes do not
occur. At one point in scheduling we resorted to statistical corpus analysis on the presented papers to reveal implicit
structure. (You will perhaps be relieved to hear that human analysis still appears to be ahead of LSA at this task). We
hope that you enjoy the program that has resulted.
We would like to acknowledge help from the following sources, without whom this event would certainly not have
been possible:
The Cognitive Science Society Board for inviting us to host the meeting and providing the framework, expertise and
support.
The Program Committee assigned submissions to referees, read their resulting reviews and made judgments on the
five hundred submissions.
The Reviewers (and there were more than 250 of them) reviewed the papers and gave feedback to committee and
authors. Interdisciplinary reviewing is not an easy task. Submitting interdisciplinary papers sometimes feels like
being tried by the legal systems of several cultures simultaneously. A necessarily imperfect process was carried out
with good grace and some assurance of the quality of decisions. These tasks of assigning and performing reviews are
second only to the quality of submissions in determining the calibre of the meeting.
The Tutorial Chair (Frank Ritter) who was responsible for the construction and organisation of the tutorial program.
The many volunteers who helped with the myriad local arrangements for a meeting of this size, and especially Jean
McKendree who chaired the local arrangements committee.
The meeting certainly would not have happened without Frances Swanwick who coordinated the submissions process
and Jonathan Kilgour who kept the software working, or without Mary Ellen Foster’s tireless work on the Proceedings.
Janet Forbes and her successor David Dougal, and their secretarial team: Margaret Prow, Eva Steel, and Yvonne
Corrigan for providing administrative support.
Financial support: British Academy, NSF, Erlbaum, Elsevier, Wellcome, the Glushko Foundation, and the Human
Communication Research Centre.
The plenary speakers Jon Elster, Wilfred Hodges and Dan Sperber.
And lastly, and most importantly, the authors and symposium participants who presented their work, and made the
conference what it was.
Johanna Moore and Keith Stenning
Conference Chairs, CogSci 2001
Human Communication Research Centre
Edinburgh University
Twenty-Third Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society
August 1-4 2001
Human Communication Research Centre
University of Edinburgh
Scotland
Conference Co-Chairs
Johanna D. Moore, University of Edinburgh
Keith Stenning, University of Edinburgh
Conference Program Committee
Susan Brennan, SUNY Stonybrook Michiel van Lambalgen, Amsterdam
Gordon Brown, Warwick Frank Ritter, Penn State
Nick Chater, Warwick Mike Oaksford, Cardiff
Peter Cheng, Nottingham Stellan Ohlsson, U. Illinois, Chicago
Andy Clarke, Sussex Tom Ormerod, Lancaster
Axel Cleeremans, Brussels Michael Pazzani, UC Irvine
Gary Cottrell, UCSD Christian Schunn, George Mason
Matt Crocker, Saarbrucken Steven Sloman, Brown University
Jean Decety, INSERM, Paris Niels Taatgen, Groningen
Rogers Hall, UC Berkeley Andree Tiberghien, CNRS, Lyon
Dan Jurafsky, U. Colorado, Boulder Richard Young, Hertfordshire
Irvin Katz, ETS, Princeton Jiajie Zhang, U. Texas at Houston
Ken Koedinger, CMU
Local Arrangments Committee
Jean McKendree, Chair
David Dougal
Janet Forbes
Ian Hughson
Padraic Monaghan
Peter Wiemer-Hastings
Daniel Yarlett
Submissions Coordinator Frances Swanwick
Conference Software Maintainer Jonathan Kilgour
Proceedings Mary Ellen Foster, Jonathan Kilgour
Program Coordinator Michael Ramscar
Registration Website Arthur Markman
Website John Mateer, Jonathan Kilgour, Frances Swanwick
Marr Prize 2001
Sam Scott, Department of Cognitive Science, Carleton University
Metarepresentation in Philosophy and Psychology
This conference was supported by the Cognitive Science Society, The British Academy, The Wellcome Foundation,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd, Elsevier Science, The Glushko Foundation and The Human Communication Re-
search Center.
The Cognitive Science Society
Governing Board
Lawrence W. Barsalou, Emory University
Jeffery Elman, University of California at San Diego
Susan L. Epstein, Hunter College and the City University of New York
Martha Farah, University of Pennsylvania
Kenneth D. Forbus, Northwestern University
Dedre Gentner, Northwestern University
James G. Greeno, Stanford University
Alan Lesgold, University of Pittsburgh
Douglas L. Medin, Northwestern University
Michael Mozer, University of Colorado
Vimla Patel, McGill University
Kim Plunkett, Oxford University
Colleen Seifert, University of Michigan
Keith Stenning, Edinburgh University
Paul Thagard, University of Waterloo
Chair of the Governing Board
Lawrence W. Barsalou, Emory University
Chair Elect
Susan L. Epstein, Hunter College and the City University of New York
Journal Editor
Robert L. Goldstone, Indiana University
Executive Officer
Arthur B. Markman, University of Texas
The Cognitive Science Society, Inc., was founded in 1979 to promote interchange across traditional disciplinary lines
among researchers investigating the human mind. The Society sponsors an annual meeting, and publishes the journal
Cognitive Science. Membership in the Society requires a doctoral degree in a related discipline (or equivalent research
experience); graduate and undergraduate students are eligible for a reduced rate membership; and all are welcome to
join the society as affiliate members. For more information, please contact the society office or see their web page at
http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/
Cognitive Science Society, University of Michigan, 525 East University, Ann Arbor MI, 48109-1109;
[email protected]; phone and fax (734) 429-4286
Reviewers for the Twenty-Third Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society
Agnar Aamodt Matthew Elton Thomas King
Amit Almor Randi Engle Sheldon Klein
Rick Alterman Mary Enright Guenther Knoblich
Eric Altmann Noel Enyedy Chris Koch
Richard Anderson Michael Erickson Derek Koehler
Jennifer Arnold Martha Evens Boicho Kokinov
Stephanie August John Everatt Rita Kovordanyi
Neville Austin Neil Fairley Carol Krumhansl
Thom Baguley Marte Fallshore Pat Kyllonen
Todd Bailey Vic Ferreira Aarre Laakso
Nicolas Balacheff Rodolfo Fiorini Nicki Lambell
Linden Ball Ilan Fischer Matthew Lambon-Ralph
Dale Barr Peter Flach Donald Laming
Pierre Barrouille Nancy Franklin Alex Lamont
Renate Bartsch Robert French Peter Lane
Rik Belew Ann Gallagher Maria Lapata
Bettina Berendt Simon Garrod Michal Lavidor
Rens Bod Mike Gasser John Leach
Lera Boroditsky Richard Gerrig David Leake
Heather Bortfeld David Glasspool Christian Lebiere
Brian Bowdle Fernand Gobet Jeff Lidz
Holly Branigan Laura Gonnerman Brad Love
Frances Brazier Barbara Gonzalez Will Lowe
Bruce Bridgeman Peter Gordon George Luger
Ted Briscoe Barbara Graves Jose Luis Bermudez
Paul Brna Wayne Gray Rachel McCloy
Andrew Brook Peter Grunwald Scott McDonald
Patty Brooks Prahlad Gupta Brendan McGonigle
Curtis Brown Karl Haberlandt Jim MacGregor
Marc Brysbaert Constantinos Hadjichristidis Jean McKendree
John Bullinaria Fritz Hamm Craig McKenzie
Curt Burgess James Hampton Brian MacWhinney
Bruce Burns Joy Hanna Paul Maglio
Ruth Byrne Trevor Harley Lorenzo Magnani
Antonio Caballero Cathy Harris Barbara Malt
Laura Carlson Nancy Hedberg Ken Manktelow
Mei Chen Neil Heffernan Denis Mareschal
Morten Christiansen Evan Heit Art Markman
Ed Chronicle Petra Hendriks Amy Masnick
James Chumbley Denis Hilton Santosh Mathan
Cathy Clement Eduard Hoenkamp Yoshiko Matsumoto
Charles Clifton Ulrich Hoffrage Mark Mattson
Tom Conlon Douglas Hofstadter Sven Mattys
Fred Conrad Anne Holzapfel David Medler
Rick Cooper Sid Horton Monica Meijsing
Richard Cox Eva Hudlicka Paola Merlo
Ian Cross Elizabeth Ince Craig Miller
Fernando Cuetos Heisawn Jeong Toby Mintz
Matthew Dailey Michael Kac S Mitra
Helen deHoop James Kahn Naomi Miyake
Arnaud Destrebecqz Hans Kamp Padraic Monaghan
Morag Donaldson David Kaufman Joyce Moore
Ann Dowker James Kaufman Bradley Morris
Ben du Boulay Fred Keijzer Paul Munro
Reinders Duit Frank Keller Wayne Murray
George Dunbar Gerard Kempen Srini Narayanan
J Nerbonne Jenni Rodd Virginia Teller
David Noelle Robert Roe Josh Tenebaum
Breanndan O Nuallain Christoph Scheepers Charles Tijus
Padraig O’Seaghdha Hermi Schijif Michael Tomasello
Magda Osman Friederike Schlaghecken Greg Trafton
Helen Pain Matthew Schlesinger David Traum
Leysia Palen Ute Schmid Jody Underwood
Barbara Partee Thomas Schultz Ludger van Elst
Vimla Patel Philippe Schyns Ezra van Everbroeck
Kevin Paterson Julie Sedivy Maarten van Someren
Barak Pearlmutter David Shanks Alonso Vera
David Peebles Bruce Sherin Rineke Verbrugge
Pierre Perruchet Val Shute Gregg Vesonder
Alexander Petrov Asma Siddiki Michael Waldmann
Steven Phillips Derek Sleeman Lyn Walker
Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini Peter Slezak William Wallace
Martin Pickering Vladimir Sloutsky Hongbin Wang
Julian Pine Linda Smith Pei Wang
Massimo Poesio Cristina Sorrentino Amy Weinberg
Eric Postma Jacques Sougne Mike Wheeler
Emmanuel Pothos Bobbie Spellman Bob Widner
Athanassios Protopapas Michael Spivey Cilia Witterman
Michael Ramscar Constance Steinkuehler Amanda Woodward
William Rapaport Suzanne Stevenson Lee Wurm
Stephen Read Neil Stewart Takashi Yamauchi
Bob Rehder Stephen Stich Wai Yeap
Kate Rigby Rob Stufflebeam Wayne Zachary
Steve Ritter Patrick Sturt Jeff Zacks
Bethany Rittle-Johnson Michael Tanenhaus Corrine Zimmerman
Max Roberts Heike Tappe Daniel Zizzo
Scott Robertson Adam Taylor
Tutorial Program
August 1st, 2001
How to Deal with Modularity in Formal Language Theory: An Introduction to Grammar Systems,
Grammar Ecosystems and Colonies
Carlos Martin-Vide, Rovira i Virgili University
APEX: An Architecture for Modeling Human Performance in Applied HCI Domains
Michael Matessa, NASA Ames Research Center
Michael Freed - NASA Ames Research Center
John Rehling - NASA Ames Research Center
Roger Remington - NASA Ames Research Center
Alonso Vera - NASA Ames Research Center
An Introduction to the COGENT Cognitive Modelling Environment (with special emphasis on appli-
cations in computational linguistics)
Dr. Richard Cooper, Birkbeck College
Dr. Peter Yule, Birkbeck College
Eye Tracking
Roger P.G. van Gompel, University of Dundee
Wayne S. Murray, University of Dundee
ACT-R 5.0
John R. Anderson, Carnegie Mellon University
Tutorial Co-Chairs
Frank Ritter, Penn State University
Richard Young, University of Hertfordshire
Tutorial Committee Members
Randy Jones, University of Michigan
Todd Johnson, University of Texas, Houston
Vasant Honavar Iowa State University
Kevin Korb, Monash University
Michail Lagoudakis, Duke University
Toby Mintz, University of Southern California
Josef Nerb, University of Freiberg and University of Waterloo
Gary Jones, University of Derby
Padraic Monaghan, University of Edinburgh
Speakers and Symposia
Invited Speakers
Jon Elster, Columbia University
Wilfred Hodges, Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London
Dan Sperber, CNRS, Paris
Invited Symposia
Emotion and Cognition
Chair: Keith Stenning, University of Edinburgh
Speakers:
Ziva Kunda, Waterloo University
Paul Seabright, Toulouse University
Drew Westen, Boston University
Representation and Modularity
Chair: Jon Oberlander, University of Edinburgh
Speakers:
Lawrence Hirschfeld, University of Michigan
Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Institute of Child Health, London
Dylan Evans, King’s College, London
Submitted Symposia
Computational Models of Historical Scientific Discoveries
Chairs:
Pat Langley, ISLE, Stanford
Lorenzo Magnani, University of Pavia
Presenters:
Peter Cheng, Adrian Gordon, Sakir Kocabas, Derek Sleeman
When Learning Shapes its own Environment
Chair:
James Hurford, University of Edinburgh
Presenters:
Gerd Gigerenzer, Simon Kirby, Peter Todd
The Interaction of Explicit and Implicit Learning
Chairs:
Ron Sun, University of Missouri-Columbia
Robert Matthews, Louisiana State University
Presenters:
Axel Cleermans, Zoltan Dienes
The Cognitive Basis of Science: The View from Science
Chair:
Nancy Nersessian, Georgia Institute of Technology
Presenters:
Stephen Sich, Ronald Giere, Dedre Gentner
Herb Simon Memorial Symposium
Chair: John Anderson
Presenters:
Pat Langley, ISLE, Stanford
“Computational Scientific Discovery and Human Problem Solving”
Fernand Gobet, University of Nottingham
“Is Experts’ Knowledge Modular?”
Kevin Gluck, Air Force Research Laboratory
“The Right Tool for the Job: Information Processing Analysis in Categorisation”
“For us life is, as Shakespeare and many others have described it, a play—a very serious play whose meaning lies in
living it. Like any play, in order to have meaning, it must have a beginning, a middle and an end. If an act spans about
a decade, eight acts are already a very long play, making heavy demands on the dramatist (oneself) to give it shape.
“Dot and I have had remarkably happy and lucky lives (the first requires the second), which continue to be interesting
and challenging, and we have no urge to end them. On the other hand, the realization that these lives are likely, in fact,
to end at almost any time now evokes no resentment of fate—at most, sometimes a gentle sadness. We are resigned,
not in a sense of giving up or losing, but in a sense of wanting to end our years with dignity, good memories and a
feeling that the play had a proper shape and ending, including a final curtain.”
Herb Simon
Contents
Symposia
Computational Models of Historical Scientific Discoveries
Pat Langley (Institute for the Study of Learning and Expertise),
Lorenzo Magnani (Department of Philosophy, University of Pavia),
Peter C.-H. Cheng (School of Psychology, University of Nottingham),
Adrian Gordon (Department of Computing, University of Northumbria),
Sakir Kocabas (Space Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical
University) and
Derek H. Sleeman (Department of Computing Science, University of
Aberdeen)
When Cognition Shapes its Own Environment
Peter Todd (Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition, Max Planck
Institute for Human Development),
Simon Kirby and James Hurford (Language Evolution and Computation
Research Unit, Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics,
University of Edinburgh)
The Cognitive Basis of Science: The View from Science
Nancy J. Nersessian (College of Computing, Georgia Institute of
Technology)
The Interaction of Explicit and Implicit Learning
Ron Sun (University of Missouri-Columbia),
Robert Mathews (Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge)
Papers & Posters
The Role of Language on Thought in Spatio-temporal Metaphors
Tracy Alloway, Michael Ramscar and Martin Corley (University of
Edinburgh)
Coordinating Representations in Computer-Mediated Joint Activities
Richard Alterman, Alex Feinman, Josh Introne and Seth Landsman
(Brandeis University)
An Integrative Approach to Stroop: Combining a Language Model and a Unified Cognitive Theory
Erik Altmann (Michigan State University) and
Douglas Davidson (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Age of Acquisition in Connectionist Networks
Karen Anderson and Garrison Cottrell (University of California, San
Diego)
The Processing & Recognition of Symbol Sequences
Mark Andrews (Cornell University)
Comprehension of Action Sequences: The Case of Paper, Scissors, Rock
Patric Bach, Günther Knoblich (Max Planck Institute for Psychological
Research),
Angela D. Friederici (Max Planck Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience)
and
Wolfgang Prinz (Max Planck Institute for Psychological Research)
Toward a Model of Learning Data Representations
Ryan Baker, Albert Corbett and Kenneth Koedinger (Human-Computer
Interaction Institute, Carnegie Mellon University)
Referential Form, Word Duration, and Modeling the Listener in Spoken Dialogue
Ellen Bard and Matthew Aylett (University of Edinburgh)
The Utility of Reversed Transfers in Metaphor
John Barnden (The University of Birmingham)
A model theory of deontic reasoning about social norms
Sieghard Beller (Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg,
Germany)
Cue Preference in a Multidimensional Categorization Task
Patricia Berretty (Fordham University)
A Perceptually Driven Dynamical Model of Rhythmic Limb Movement and Bimanual Coordination
Geoffrey Bingham (Psychology Department and Cognitive Science
Program, Indiana University)
Inferences About Personal Identity
Sergey Blok, George Newman , Jennifer Behr and Lance Rips
(Northwestern University)
Graded lexical activation by pseudowords in cross-modal semantic priming: Spreading of activation, backward
priming, or repair?
Jens Bölte (Psychologisches Institut II)
Understanding recognition from the use of visual information
Lizann Bonnar, Philippe Schyns and Frédéric Gosselin (University of
Glasgow)
Taxonomic relations and cognitive economy in conceptual organization
Anna Borghi (University of Bologna ) and
Nicoletta Caramelli (University of Bologna)
The Roles of Body and Mind in Abstract Thought.
Lera Boroditsky (Stanford University),
Michael Ramscar (Edinburgh University) and
Michael Frank (Stanford University)
The time-course of morphological, phonological and semantic processes in reading Modern Standard Arabic
Sami Boudelaa and William Marslen-Wilson (MRC-CBU)
Reference-point Reasoning and Comparison Asymmetries
Brian Bowdle (Indiana University) and
Douglas Medin (Northwestern University)
Deference in Categorisation: Evidence for Essentialism?
Nick Braisby (Open University)
Meaning, Communication and Theory of Mind.
Richard Breheny (RCEAL, University of Cambridge)
The Effects of Reducing Information on a Modified Prisoner’s Dilemma Game
Jay Brown and Marsha Lovett (Carnegie Mellon University)
Mice Trap: A New Explanation for Irregular Plurals in Noun-Noun Compounds
Carolyn Buck-Gengler, Lise Menn and Alice Healy (University of
Colorado, Boulder)
Simulating the Evolution of Modular Neural Systems
John Bullinaria (University of Birmingham, UK)
The Hot Hand in Basketball: Fallacy or Adaptive Thinking?
Bruce Burns (Michigan State University)
Modelling Policies for Collaboration
Mark Burton (ARM) and
Paul Brna (Computer Based Learning Unit, Leeds University)
Evaluating the Effects of Natural Language Generation Techniques on Reader Satisfaction
Charles Callaway and James Lester (North Carolina State University)
How Nouns and Verbs Differentially Affect the Behavior of Artificial Organisms
Angelo Cangelosi (PION Plymouth Institute of Neuroscience, University
of Plymouth) and
Domenico Parisi (Institute of Psychology, National Research Council)
Learning Grammatical Constructions
Nancy C. Chang (International Computer Science Institute) and
Tiago V. Maia (State University of New York at Buffalo)
A Model of Infant Causal Perception and its Development
Harold Chaput and Leslie Cohen (The University of Texas at Austin)
The Effect of Practice on Strategy Change
Suzanne Charman and Andrew Howes (School of Psychology, Cardiff
University)
A Potential Limitation of Embedded-Teaching for Formal Learning
Mei Chen (Concordia University)
Drawing out the Temporal Signature of Induced Perceptual Chunks
Peter Cheng, Jeanette McFadzean and Lucy Copeland (ESRC Centre for
Research in Development, Instruction and Training, Department of
Psychology, University of Nottingham, U.K.)
Modeling Tonality: Applications to Music Cognition
Elaine Chew (University of Southern California)
Causal Information as a Constraint on Similarity
Jessica Choplin, Patricia Cheng and Keith Holyoak (University of
California, Los Angeles)
Hemispheric Lateralisation of Length effect
Yu-Ju Chou and Richard Shillcock (Division of Informatics, University of
Edinburgh)
Integrating Distributional, Prosodic and Phonological Information in a Connectionist Model of Language Aquisition
Morten Christiansen and Rick Dale (Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale)
Using Distributional Measures to Model Typicality in Categorization
Louise Connell (University College Dublin) and
Michael Ramscar (University of Edinburgh)
Young Children’s Construction of Operational Definitions in Magnetism:the role of cognitive readiness and
scaffolding the learning environment
Constantinos Constantinou, Athanassios Raftopoulos and George
Spanoudis (University of Cyprus)
Testing a computational model of categorisation and category combination: Identifying diseases and new disease
combinations
Fintan Costello (Dublin City University)
Exploring Neuronal Plasticity: Language Development in Pediatric Hemispherectomies
Stella de Bode and Susan Curtiss (UCLA, Neurolinguistics Laboratory)
’Does pure water boil, when it’s heated to 100C?’: The Associative Strength of Disabling Conditions in Conditional
Reasoning
Wim De Neys, Walter Schaeken and Géry d’Ydewalle (KULeuven)
When Knowledge is Unconscious Because of Conscious Knowledge and Vice Versa
Zoltan Dienes (Sussex University) and
Josef Perner (University of Salzburg)
What Can Homophone Effects Tell Us About the Nature of Orthographic Representation in Visual Word
Recognition?
Jodi Edwards (Department of Linguistics, University of Calgary) and
Penny Pexman (Department of Psychology, University of Calgary)
Memory Representations of Source Information
Reza Farivar (McGill University),
Noah Silverberg and Helena Kadlec (University of Victoria)
Testing Hypotheses About Mechanical Devices
Aidan Feeney (University of Durham) and
Simon Handley (University of Plymouth)
An Influence of Spatial Language on Recognition Memory for Spatial Scenes
Michele Feist and Dedre Gentner (Northwestern University)
The Origin of Somatic Markers: a Suggestion to Damasio’s Theory Inspired by Dewey’s Ethics
Suzanne Filipic (Université de Paris III-Sorbonne Nouvelle )
Investigating Dissociations Between Perceptual Categorization and Explicit Memory
Marci Flanery, Thomas Palmeri and Brooke Schaper (Vanderbilt
University)
Development of Physics Text Corpora for Latent Semantic Analysis
Donald Franceschetti , Ashish Karnavat , Johanna Marineau , Genna
McCallie , Brent Olde, Blair Terry and Arthur Graesser (University of
Memphis)
Modeling Cognition with Software Agents
Stan Franklin and Arthur Graesser (Institute for Intelligent Systems, The
University of Memphis)
Reversing Category Exclusivities in Infant Perceptual Categorization: Simulations and Data
Robert French, Martial Mermillod (University of Liège, Belgium),
Paul Quinn (Washington and Jefferson University, U.S.A.) and
Denis Mareschal (Birkbeck College, U.K.)
Adaptive Selection of Problem Solving Strategies
Danilo Fum and Fabio Del Missier (Department of Psychology, University
of Trieste)
Self-Organising Networks for Classification Learning from Normal and Aphasic Speech
Sheila Garfield, Mark Elshaw and Stefan Wermter (University of
Sunderland)
Rational imitation of goal-directed actions in 14-month-olds
György Gergely (Institute for Psychology, Hungarian Academy of
Sciences),
Harold Bekkering (Max Planck Institute for Psychological Research) and
Ildikó Király (Institute for Psychology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences)
The Right Tool for the Job: Information-Processing Analysis in Categorization
Kevin Gluck (Air Force Research Laboratory),
James Staszewski, Howard Richman, Herb Simon and Polly Delahanty
(Carnegie Mellon University)
Is Experts’ Knowledge Modular?
Fernand Gobet (School of Psychology, University of Nottingham)
Strategies in Analogous Planning Cases
Andrew Gordon (IBM TJ Watson Research Center)
Superstitious Perceptions
Frédéric Gosselin, Philippe Schyns, Lizann Bonnar and Liza Paul
(University of Glasgow)
Words and Shape Similarity Guide 13-month-olds Inferences about Nonobvious Object Properties
Susan Graham, Cari Kilbreath and Andrea Welder (University of Calgary)
The Emergence of Semantic Categories from Distributed Featural Representations
Michael Greer (Centre for Speech and Language, Department of
Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge),
Maarten van Casteren (MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit,
Cambridge, UK),
Stuart McLellan, Helen Moss, Jennifer Rodd (Centre for Speech and
Language, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of
Cambridge),
Timothy Rogers (MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge,
UK) and
Lorraine Tyler (Centre for Speech and Language, Department of
Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge)
Belief Versus Knowledge: A Necessary Distinction for Explaining, Predicting, and Assessing Conceptual Change
Thomas Griffin and Stellan Ohlsson (University of Illinois at Chicago)
Randomness and coincidences: Reconciling intuition and probability theory
Thomas Griffiths and Joshua Tenenbaum (Department of Psychology,
Stanford University)
Judging the Probability of Representative and Unrepresentative Unpackings
Constantinos Hadjichristidis (Department of Psychology, University of
Durham),
Steven Sloman (Department of Cognitive & Linguistic Sciences, Brown
University) and
Edward Wisniewski (Department of Psychology, University of North
Carolina at Greensboro)
On the Evaluation of If p then q Conditionals
Constantinos Hadjichristidis, Rosemary Stevenson (Department of
Psychology, University of Durham),
David Over (School of Social Sciences, University of Sunderland ),
Steven Sloman (Department of Cognitive & Linguistic Sciences, Brown
University),
Jonathan Evans (Centre for Thinking and Language, Department of
Psychology, University of Plymouth) and
Aidan Feeney (Department of Psychology, University of Durham)
Very Rapid Induction of General Patterns
Robert Hadley (Simon Fraser University)
Similarity: a transformational approach
Ulrike Hahn, Lucy Richardson (Cardiff University) and
Nick Chater (University of Warwick)
A Parser for Harmonic Context-Free Grammars
John Hale and Paul Smolensky (Department of Cognitive Science, The
Johns Hopkins University)
Models of Ontogenetic Development for Autonomous Adaptive Systems
Derek Harter, Robert Kozma (University of Memphis, Institute for
Intelligent Systems, Department of Mathematical Sciences) and
Arthur Graesser (University of Memphis, Institute for Intelligent Systems,
Department of Psychology)
Representational form and communicative use
Patrick G.T. Healey (Department of Computer Science, Queen Mary,
University of London.),
Nik Swoboda (Deprtment of Computer Science, Indiana University.),
Ichiro Umata and Yasuhiro Katagiri (ATR Media Integration and
Communications Laboratories.)
Pragmatics at work: Formulation and interpretation of conditional instructions
Denis Hilton, Jean-François Bonnefon (Université Toulouse 2) and
Markus Kemmelmeier (University of Michigan)
The Influence of Recall Feedback in Information Retrieval on User Satisfaction and User Behavior
Eduard Hoenkamp and Henriette van Vugt (Nijmegen Institute for
Cognition and Information)
Modelling Language Acquisition: Grammar from the Lexicon?
Steve R. Howell and Suzanna Becker (McMaster University)
The strategic use of memory for frequency and recency in search control
Andrew Howes and Stephen J. Payne (Cardiff University)
Conceptual Combination as Theory Formation
Dietmar Janetzko (Institute of Computer Science and Social Research
Dep. of Cognitive Science, University of Freiburg)
Combining Integral and Separable Subspaces
Mikael Johannesson (Department of Computer Science, Univeristy of
Skövde, Sweden, and Lund University Cognitive Science, Lund, Sweden)
Distributed Cognition in Apes
Christine M. Johnson and Tasha M. Oswald (Department of Cognitive
Science, UC San Diego)
Cascade explains and informs the utility of fading examples to problems
Randolph Jones (Colby College and Soar Technology) and
Eric Fleischman (Colby College)
Modelling the Detailed Pattern of SRT Sequence Learning
F.W. Jones and Ian McLaren (University of Cambridge)
Where Do Probability Judgments Come From? Evidence for Similarity-Graded Probability
Peter Juslin, Håkan Nilsson and Henrik Olsson (Department of
Psychology, Umeå University)
Similarity Processing Depends on the Similarities Present
Mark Keane (University College Dublin),
Deirdre Hackett (Educational Research Centre) and
Jodi Davenport (MIT)
Constraints on Linguistic Coreference: Structural vs. Pragmatic Factors
Frank Keller (Computational Linguistics, Saarland University) and
Ash Asudeh (Department of Linguistics, Stanford University)
Training for Insight: The Case of the Nine-Dot Problem
Trina Kershaw and Stellan Ohlsson (University of Illinois at Chicago)
Theory-based reasoning in clinical psychologists
Nancy Kim (Yale University) and
Woo-kyoung Ahn (Vanderbilt University)
Effect of Exemplar Typicality on Naming Deficits in Aphasia
Swathi Kiran, Cynthia Thompson and Douglas Medin (Northwestern
University)
Visual Statistical Learning in Infants
Natasha Kirkham, Jonathan Slemmer and Scott Johnson (Cornell
University)
Episode Blending as Result of Analogical Problem Solving
Boicho Kokinov and Neda Zareva-Toncheva (New Bulgarian University)
Dissecting Common Ground: Examining an Instance of Reference Repair
Timothy Koschmann (Southern Illinois University),
Curtis LeBaron (University of Colorado at Boulder),
Charles Goodwin (UCLA) and
Paul Feltovich (Southern Illinois University)
Kinds of kinds: Sources of Category Coherence
Kenneth Kurtz and Dedre Gentner (Northwestern University)
Learning Perceptual Chunks for Problem Decomposition
Peter Lane, Peter Cheng and Fernand Gobet (University of Nottingham)
The Mechanics of Associative Change
Mike Le Pelley and Ian McLaren (Department of Experimental
Psychology, Cambridge University)
Representation and Generalisation in Associative Systems
Mike Le Pelley and Ian McLaren (Department of Experimental
Psychology, Cambridge University)
Costs of Switching Perspectives in Route and Survey Descriptions
Paul Lee and Barbara Tversky (Stanford University)
A Connectionist Investigation of Linguistic Arguments from the Poverty of the Stimulus: Learning the Unlearnable
John Lewis (McGill University) and
Jeff Elman (University of California, San Diego)
Ties That Bind: Reconciling Discrepancies Between Categorization and Naming
Kenneth Livingston, Janet Andrews and Patrick Dwyer (Vassar College)
Effects of multiple sources of information on induction in young children
Yafen Lo (Rice University) and
Vladimir Sloutsky (Ohio State University)
Activating verb semantics from the regular and irregular past tense.
Catherine Longworth, Billi Randall, Lorraine Tyler (Centre for Speech
and Language, Dept. Exp. Psychology, Cambridge, UK.) and
William Marslen-Wilson (MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit,
Cambridge, UK)
Towards a Theory of Semantic Space
Will Lowe (Center for Cognitive Studies, Tufts University)
Individual Differences in Reasoning about Broken Devices: An Eye Tracking
Shulan Lu, Brent Olde, Elisa Cooper and Arthur Graesser (The University
of Memphis)
Modeling Forms of Surprise in an Artificial Agent
Luis Macedo (Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra) and
Amilcar Cardoso (Departamento de Engenharia Informatica da
Universidade de Coimbra)
Modeling the interplay of emotions and plans in multi-agent simulations
Stacy Marsella (USC Information Sciences Institute) and
Jonathan Gratch (USC Institute for Creative Technologies)
Elementary school children’s understanding of experimental error
Amy Masnick and David Klahr (Carnegie Mellon University)
Interactive Models of Collaborative Communication
Michael Matessa (NASA Ames Research Center)
Testing the Distributional Hypothesis: The Influence of Context on Judgements of Semantic Similarity
Scott McDonald and Michael Ramscar (Institute for Communicating and
Collaborative Systems, University of Edinburgh)
Activating Verbs from Typical Agents, Patients, Instruments, and Locations via Event Schemas
Ken McRae (U. of Western Ontario),
Mary Hare (Bowling Green State University),
Todd Ferretti and Jeff Elman (U. California San Diego)
Spatial Experience, Sensory Qualities, and the Visual Field
Douglas Meehan (CUNY Graduate Center)
How Primitive is Self-consciousness?: Autonomous Nonconceptual Content and Immunity to Error through
Misidentification
Roblin Meeks (The Graduate School and University Center of The City
University of New York)
Automated Proof Planning for Instructional Design
Erica Melis (DFKI Saarbrücken),
Christoph Glasmacher (Department of Psychology; Saarland University),
Carsten Ullrich (DFKI Saarbrücken) and
Peter Gerjets (Department of Psychology; Saarland University)
Modeling an Opportunistic Strategy for Information Navigation
Craig Miller (DePaul University) and
Roger Remington (NASA Ames)
Emergence of effects of collaboration in a simple discovery task
Kazuhisa Miwa (Nagoya University)
Effects of Competing Speech on Sentence-Word Priming: Semantic, Perceptual, and Attentional Factors
Katherine Moll, Eileen Cardillo and Jennifer Utman (University of
Oxford)
The consistency of children’s responses to logical statements: Coordinating components of formal reasoning
Bradley J. Morris and David Klahr (Carnegie Mellon University)
Working-memory modularity in analogical reasoning
Robert Morrison, Keith Holyoak and Bao Truong (University of
California, Los Angeles)
Emotional Impact on Logic Deficits May Underlie Psychotic Delusions in Schizophrenia
Lilianne Mujica-Parodi, Tsafrir Greenberg (New York State Psychiatric
Institute),
Robert Bilder (Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research) and
Dolores Malaspina (New York State Psychiatric Institute)
Interactions between Frequency Effects and Age of Acquisition Effects in a Connectionist Network
Paul Munro (University of Pittsburgh) and
Garrison Cottrell (University of California, San Diego)
Modality preference and its change in the course of development
Amanda Napolitano, Vladimir Sloutsky and Sarah Boysen (Ohio State
Univeristy)
Clustering Using the Contrast Model
Daniel Navarro and Michael Lee (Department of Psychology, University
of Adelaide)
Active Inference in Concept Learning
Jonathan Nelson (Cognitive Science Department, U. of California, San
Diego),
Joshua Tenenbaum (Psychology Department, Stanford University) and
Javier Movellan (Cognitive Science Department, U of California, San
Diego)
Addition as Interactive Problem Solving
Hansjörg Neth and Stephen J. Payne (School of Psychology, Cardiff
University)
On the Normativity of Failing to Recall Valid Advice
David Noelle (Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition)
How is Abstract, Generative Knowledge Acquired? A Comparison of Three Learning Scenarios
Timothy Nokes and Stellan Ohlsson (University of Illinois at Chicago)
The Age-Complicity Hypothesis: A Cognitive Account of Some Historical Linguistic Data
Marcus O’Toole, Jon Oberlander and Richard Shillcock (University of
Edinburgh)
Singular and General Causal Arguments
Uwe Oestermeier and Friedrich Hesse (Knowledge Media Research
Center)
Roles of Shared Relations in Induction
Hitoshi Ohnishi (National Institute of Multimedia Education)
A model of embodied communications with gestures between humans and robots
Tetsuo Ono, Michita Imai (ATR Media Integration & Communications
Research Laboratories) and
Hiroshi Ishiguro (Faculty of Systems Engineering, Wakayama University)
Remembering to Forget: Modeling Inhibitory and Competitive Mechanisms in Human Memory
Mike Oram (University of St. Andrews) and
Malcolm MacLeod (University of St Andrews)
The origins of syllable systems : an operational model.
Pierre-yves Oudeyer (Sony CSL Paris)
Prototype Abstraction in Category Learning?
Thomas Palmeri and Marci Flanery (Vanderbilt University)
The role of velocity in affect discrimination
Helena M. Paterson, Frank E. Pollick and Anthony J. Sanford (Department
of Psychology, University of Glasgow)
Graph-based Reasoning: From Task Analysis to Cognitive Explanation
David Peebles and Peter Cheng (University of Nottingham)
The Impact of Feedback Semantics in Visual Word Recognition: Number of Features Effects in Lexical Decision and
Naming Tasks
Penny Pexman (Department of Psychology, University of Calgary),
Stephen Lupker (Department of Psychology, University of Western
Ontario) and
Yasushi Hino (Department of Psychology, Chukyo University)
Category learning without labels-A simplicity approach
Emmanuel Pothos (Depatment of Psychology, University of Edinburgh)
and
Nick Chater (Department of Psychology, University of Warwick)
Neural Synchrony Through Controlled Tracking
Dennis Pozega and Paul Thagard (University of Waterloo)
The Conscious-Subconscious Interface: An Emerging Metaphor in HCI
Aryn Pyke and Robert West (Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada)
Cognitive Uncertainty in Syllogistic Reasoning: An Alternative Mental Models Theory
Jeremy Quayle (University of Derby) and
Linden Ball (Lancaster University)
Using a Triad Judgment Task to Examine the Effect of Experience on Problem Representation in Statistics
Mitchell Rabinowitz and Tracy Hogan (Fordham University)
Perceptual Learning Meets Philosophy: Cognitive Penetrability of Perception and its Philosophical
Implicationseption
Athanassios Raftopoulos (Department of Educational Sciences, University
of Cyprus)
The influence of semantics on past-tense inflection
Michael Ramscar (University of Edinburgh)
The Emergence of Words
Terry Regier, Bryce Corrigan, Rachael Cabasaan, Amanda Woodward
(University of Chicago) and
Michael Gasser and Linda Smith (Indiana University)
A Knowledge-Resonance (KRES) Model of Category Learning
Bob Rehder (New York University) and
Gregory Murphy (University of Illinois)
Regularity and Irregularity in an Inflectionally Complex Language: Evidence from Polish
Agnieszka Reid and William Marslen-Wilson (MRC Cognition and Brain
Sciences Unit)
Cats could be Dogs, but Dogs could not be Cats: What if they Bark and Mew? A Connectionist Account of Early
Infant Memory and Categorization
Robert A.P. Reuter (Cognitive Science Research Unit, Free University of
Brussels (ULB))
Motor Representations in Memory and Mental Models: Embodiment in Cognition
Daniel Richardson, Michael Spivey and Jamie Cheung (Cornell
University)
Language is Spatial : Experimental Evidence for Image Schemas of Concrete and Abstract Verbs
Daniel Richardson, Michael Spivey, Shimon Edelman and Adam Naples
(Cornell University)
Efficacious Logic Instruction: People Are Not Irremediably Poor Deductive Reasoners
Kelsey Rinella, Selmer Bringsjord and Yingrui Yang (Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute)
Using cognitive models to guide instructional design: The case of fraction division
Bethany Rittle-Johnson and Kenneth Koedinger (Carnegie Mellon
University)
For Better or Worse: Modelling Effects of Semantic Ambiguity
Jennifer Rodd (Centre for Speech and Language, Department of
Experimental Psychology, Cambridge University ),
Gareth Gaskell (Department of Psychology, University of York) and
William Marslen-Wilson (MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit,
Cambridge)
A Comparative Evaluation of Socratic Versus Didactic Tutoring
Carolyn Rosé (Learning Research and Development Center, University of
Pittsburgh),
Johanna Moore (HCRC, University of Edinburgh),
Kurt VanLehn (Learning Research and Development Center, University of
Pittsburgh) and
David Allbritton (Deptartment of Psychology, DePaul University)
Mental Models and the Meaning of Connectives: A Study on Children, Adolescents and Adults
Katiuscia Sacco, Monica Bucciarelli and Mauro Adenzato (Centro di
Scienza Cognitiva, Universita’ di Torino)
A Selective Attention Based Method for Visual Pattern Recognition
Albert Ali Salah, Ethem Alpaydın and Lale Akarun (Bogazici University -
Computer Engineering Department)
Solving arithmetic operations: a semantic approach
Emmanuel Sander (University Paris 8 - ESA CNRS 7021)
Do Perceptual Complexity and Object Familiarity Matter for Novel Word Extension?
Catherine Sandhofer and Linda Smith (Indiana University)
Decomposing interactive behavior
Michael Schoelles and Wayne Gray (George Mason University)
The Influence of Causal Interpretation on Memory for System States
Wolfgang Schoppek (University of Bayreuth)
Metarepresentation in Philosophy and Psychology
Sam Scott (Carleton University)
Connectionist modelling of surface dyslexia based on foveal splitting: Impaired pronunciation after only two half
pints
Richard Shillcock and Padraic Monaghan (University of Edinburgh)
Assessing Generalization in Connectionist and Rule-based Models Under the Learning Constraint
Thomas Shultz (McGill University)
Clinging to Beliefs: A Constraint-satisfaction Model
Thomas Shultz (McGilll University),
Jacques Katz (Carnegie Mellon University) and
Mark Lepper (Stanford University)
Semantic Effect on Episodic Associations
Yaron Silberman (Interdisciplinary Center for Neural Computation, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem),
Risto Miikkulainen (Department of Computer Science, The University of
Texas at Austin) and
Shlomo Bentin (Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem)
Representation: Where Philosophy Goes When It Dies
Peter Slezak (University of New South Wales)
Effects of linguistic and perceptual information on categorization in young children
Vladimir Sloutsky and Anna Fisher (Ohio State University)
The Interaction of Explicit and Implicit Learning: An Integrated Model
Paul Slusarz and Ron Sun (University of Missouri-Columbia)
Preserved Implicit Learning on both the Serial Reaction Time Task and Artificial Grammar in Patients with
Parkinson’s Disease
Jared Smith, Richard Siegert, John McDowall (Victoria University of
Wellington, New Zealand) and
David Abernethy (Wellington School of Medicine, University of Otago,
New Zealand)
On choosing the parse with the scene: The role of visual context and verb bias in ambiguity resolution
Jesse Snedeker, Kirsten Thorpe and John Trueswell (Institute for Research
in Cognitive Science/University of Pennsylvania)
Synfire chains and catastrophic interference
Jacques Sougné and Robert French (University of LIEGE)
Human Sequence Learning: Can Associations Explain Everything?
Rainer Spiegel and Ian McLaren (University of Cambridge, Department of
Experimental Psychology)
Effect of Choice Set on Valuation of Risky Prospects
Neil Stewart, Nick Chater and Henry Stott (University of Warwick)
The Fate of Irrelevant Information in Analogical Mapping
Christiopher Stilwell and Arthur Markman (University of Texas, Austin)
Visual Expertise is a General Skill
Maki Sugimoto (HNC Software, Inc.) and
Garrison Cottrell (University of California, San Diego, Department of
Computer Science and Engineering)
The Role of Feedback in Categorisation
Mark Suret and Ian McLaren (Department of Experimental Psychology,
University of Cambridge, UK)
An Analogue of The Phillips Effect
Mark Suret and Ian McLaren (Department of Experimental Psychology,
University of Cambridge, UK)
Cue-Readiness in Insight Problem-Solving
Hiroaki Suzuki, Keiga Abe (Department of Education, Aoyama Gakuin
University),
Kazuo Hiraki (Department of Systems Science, The University of Tokyo)
and
Michiko Miyazaki (Department of Human System Science, Tokyo Institute
of Technology)
Extending the Past-tense Debate: a Model of the German Plural
Niels Taatgen (University of Groningen, department of artificial
intelligence)
The Modality Effect in Multimedia Instructions
Huib Tabbers, Rob Martens and Jeroen van Merriënboer (Open
University of the Netherlands, Educational Technology Expertise Centre )
Real World Constraints on the Mental Lexicon: Assimilation, the Speech Lexicon and the Information Structure of
Spanish Words
Monica Tamariz (Department of Linguistics, University of Edinburgh) and
Richard Shillcock (Department of Cognitive Science, University of
Edinburgh)
The rational basis of representativeness
Joshua Tenenbaum and Thomas Griffiths (Stanford University)
A connectionist account of the emergence of the literal-metaphorical-anomalous distinction in young children
Michael Thomas (Neurocognitive Development Unit, Institute of Child
Health),
Denis Mareschal (Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck
College) and
Andrew Hinds (Department of Psychology, King Alfreds College,
Winchester)
A new model of graph and visualization usage
Greg Trafton (NRL) and
Susan Trickett (George Mason University)
That’s odd! How scientists respond to anomalous data
Susan Trickett (George Mason University),
Greg Trafton (Naval Research Lab),
Christian Schunn and Anthony Harrison (George Mason University)
Spoken Language Comprehension Improves the Efficiency of Visual Search
Melinda Tyler and Michael Spivey (Cornell University)
“Two” Many Optimalities
Òscar Vilarroya (Centre de Recerca en Cincia Cognitiva)
Generalization in simple recurrent networks
Marius Vilcu and Robert Hadley (School of Computing Science, Simon
Fraser University)
A Computational Model of Counterfactual Thinking: The Temporal Order Effect
Clare R. Walsh and Ruth M.J. Byrne (University of Dublin, Trinity
College)
The Semantic Modulation of Deductive Premises
Clare R. Walsh (University of Dublin, Trinity College) and
P.N. Johnson-Laird (Princeton University)
The Appearance of Unity: A Higher-Order Interpretation of the Unity of Consciousness
Josh Weisberg (CUNY Graduate Center)
How to Solve the Problem of Compositionality by Oscillatory Networks
Markus Werning (Erfurt University)
A Model of Perceptual Change by Domain Integration
Gert Westermann (Sony Computer Science Lab)
Imagery, Context Availability, Contextual Constraint and Abstractness
Katja Wiemer-Hastings, Jan Krug and Xu Xu (Northern Illinois
University)
Rules for Syntax, Vectors for Semantics
Peter Wiemer-Hastings and Iraide Zipitria (University of Edinburgh)
Did Language Give Us Numbers? Symbolic Thinking and the Emergence of Systematic Numerical Cognition.
Heike Wiese (Humboldt University Berlin)
Selection Procedures for Module Discovery: Exploring Evolutionary Algorithms for Cognitive Science
Janet Wiles, Ruth Schulz, Scott Bolland, Bradley Tonkes and Jennifer
Hallinan (University of Queensland)
How learning can guide evolution in hierarchical modular tasks
Janet Wiles, Bradley Tonkes and James Watson (University of Queensland)
Supporting Understanding through Task and Browser Design
Jennifer Wiley (Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at
Chicago)
Access to Relational Knowledge: a Comparison of Two Models
William Wilson, Nadine Marcus (University of New South Wales, Sydney,
Australia) and
Graeme Halford (University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia)
What does he mean?
Maria Wolters (Rhetorical Systems Ltd. ) and
David Beaver (Department of Linguistics, Stanford University)
Structural Determinants of Counterfactual Reasoning
Daniel Yarlett and Michael Ramscar (School of Cognitive Science,
University of Edinburgh)
Competition between linguistic cues and perceptual cues in children’s categorization: English- and
Japanese-speaking children
Hanako Yoshida, Linda Smith, Cindy Drake, Joy Swanson and Leanna
Gudel (Indiana University)
Base-Rate Neglect in Pigeons: Implications for Memory Mechanisms
Thomas Zentall and Tricia Clement (University of Kentucky)
Member Abstracts
Explanations of words and natural contexts: An experiment with childrens limericks
Greg Aist (Carnegie Mellon University)
Understanding death as the cessation of intentional action: A cross-cultural developmental study
H. Clark Barrett (Max Planck Institute for Human Development)
Working Memory Processes During Abductive Reasoning
Martin Baumann and Josef F. Krems (Department of Psychology,
Chemnitz University of Technology)
Organizing Features into Attribute Values
Dorrit Billman, Carl Blunt and Jeff Lindsay (School of Psychology,
Georgia Institute of Technology)
Attention Shift and Verb Labels in Event Memory
Dorrit Billman (School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology)
and
Michael Firment (Department of Psychology, Kennesaw State University)
The semantics of temporal prepositions: the case of IN
David Brée (University of Manchester)
Thoughts on the Prospective MML-TP: A Mental MetaLogic-Based Theorem Prover
Selmer Bringsjord and Yingrui Yang (RPI)
Hemispheric Effects of Concreteness in Pictures and Words
Daniel Casasanto, John Kounios and John Detre (University of
Pennsylvania)
Learning Statistics: The Use of Conceptual Equations and Overviews to Aid Transfer
Richard Catrambone (Georgia Institute of Technology) and
Robert Atkinson (Mississippi State University)
Infants? Associations of Words and Sounds to Animals and Vehicles
Eliana Colunga and Linda Smith (Indiana University)
A Connectionist Model of Semantic Memory: Superordinate structure without hierarchies
George Cree and Ken McRae (University of Western Ontario)
Concept Generalization in Separable and Integral Stimulus Spaces
Nicolas Davidenko and Joshua Tenenbaum (Stanford University)
Linguistic Resources and “Ontologies” across Sense Modalities: A Comparison between Color, Odor, and Noise and
Sound
Daniele Dubois (LCPE/ CNRS) and
Caroline Cance (Université de Paris 3 & LCPE)
What was the Cause? Children’s Ability to Catgeorize Inferences
Michelle Ellefson (Southern Illinois University)
Structural Alignment in Similarity and Difference of Simple Visual Stimuli
Zachary Estes and Uri Hasson (Princeton University)
Music Evolution: The Memory Modulation Theory
Steven Flinn (ManyWorlds, Inc.)
Language affects memory, but does it affect perception?
Michael Frank and Lera Boroditsky (Stanford University)
Pragmatic Knowledge and Bridging Inferences
Raymond, W. Gibbs (University of California, Santa Cruz) and
Tomoko Matsui (International Christian University)
The AMBR Model Comparison Project: Multi-tasking, the Icarus Federation, and Concept Learning
Kevin Gluck and Michael Young (Air Force Research Laboratory)
Does Adult Category Verification Reflect Child-like Concepts?
Robert Goldberg (University of Pittsburgh)
Imagining the Impossible
James Hampton, Alan Green (City University, London) and
Zachary Estes (Princeton University)
Understanding Negation - The Case of Negated Metaphors
Uri Hasson and Sam Glucksberg (Princeton University)
Neural Networks as Fitness Evaluators in Genetic Algorithms: Simulating Human Creativity
Vera Kempe (University of Stirling),
Robert Levy and Craig Graci (State University of New York at Oswego)
Modeling the Effect of Category Use on Learning and Representation
Kenneth Kurtz, John Cochener and Douglas Medin (Northwestern
University)
Towards a Multiple Component Model of Human Memory:A Hippocampal-Cortical Memory Model of Encoding
Specificity
Kenneth Kwok and James McClelland (Carnegie Mellon University and
Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition)
Categorical Perception as Adaptive Processing of Complex Visuo-spatial Configurations in High-level Basket-ball
Players
Eric Laurent (University of the Mediterranean),
Thierry Ripoll (University of Provence) and
Hubert Ripoll (University of the Mediterranean)
Configural and Elemental Approaches to Causal Learning
Mike Le Pelley, S. E. Forwood and Ian McLaren (Department of
Experimental Psychology, Cambridge University)
Levels of Processing and Picture Memory: An Eye movement Analysis
Yuh-shiow Lee (Dept. of Psychology, National Chung-Cheng University)
An Alternative Method of Problem Solving: The Goal-Induced Attractor
William Levy and Xiangbao Wu (University of Virginia)
Sub Space: Describing Distant Psychological Space
Eliza Littleton (Aptima, Inc.),
Christian Schunn (George Mason University) and
Susan Kirschenbaum (Naval Undersea Warfare Center)
A Criticism of the Conception of Ecological Rationality
Daniel Hsi-wen Liu (Providence University)
Thnking through Doing: Manipulative Abduction?
Lorenzo Magnani (University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy and Georgia Institute
of Technology, Atlanta, USA)
Spatial priming of recognition in a virtual space
Gareth Miles and Andrew Howes (Cardiff University)
The frequency of connectives in preschool children’s language environment
Bradley J. Morris (Carnegie Mellon University)
A Soar model of human video-game players
Hidemi Ogasawara (School of Computer and Cognitive Science, Chukyo
University) and
Takehiko Ohno (Communication Science Laboratories, NTT)
Practical Cognition in the Assessment of Goals
Luis Angel Pérez-Miranda (The University of the Basque Country
(UPV-EHU))
Exceptional and temporal effects in counterfactual thinking
Susana Segura (University of Malaga) and
Rachel McCloy (University of Dublin)
Children’s Algorithmic Sense-making through Verbalization
Hajime Shirouzu (School of Computer and Cognitive Sciences, Chukyo
University)
Prosodic Guidance: Evidence for the Early Use of A Capricious Parsing Constraint
Jesse Snedeker and John Trueswell(Institute for Research in Cognitive
Sciene/University of Pennsylvania)
Learning and Memory: A Cognitive Approach About The Role of Memory in Text Comprehension
Adriana Soares and Carla Corrêa (Universidade Estadual do Norte
Fluminense)
SARAH: Modeling the Results of Spiegel and McLaren (2001)
Rainer Spiegel and Ian McLaren (University of Cambridge, Department of
Experimental Psychology)
The Relationship between Learned Categories and Structural Alignment
Daisuke Tanaka (Department of Psychology, University of Tokyo)
Timing and Rhythm in Multimodal Communication for Conversational Agents
Ipke Wachsmuth (University of Bielefeld)
Training Task-Switching Skill in Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Holly White (University of Memphis) and
Priti Shah (University of Michigan)
Advantages of a Visual Representation for Computer Programming
Kirsten Whitley, Laura Novick and Doug Fisher (Vanderbilt University)
Mass and Count in Language and Cognition: Some Evidence from Language Comprehension
Heike Wiese (Humboldt-University Berlin) and
Maria Piñango (Yale University)
Inhibition mechanism of phonological short-term memory in foreign language processing
Takashi Yagyu (Department of psychology, University of Tokyo)
Odd-Even effect in multiplication revisited: The role of equation presentation format
Michael Yip (School of Arts & Social Sciences, The Open University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR)
Symposium
Abstracts
Computational Models of Historical Scientific Discoveries
Pat Langley, Institute for the Study of Learning and Expertise
Lorenzo Magnani, Department of Philosophy, University of Pavia
Peter C.-H. Cheng, School of Psychology, University of Nottingham
Adrian Gordon, Department of Computing, University of Northumbria
Sakir Kocabas, Space Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University
Derek H. Sleeman, Department of Computing Science, University of Aberdeen
The discovery of scientific knowledge is one of the and posits new particles to maintain consistency, and in-
most challenging tasks that confront humans, yet cogni- troduces new properties to maintain completeness. BR-4
tive science has made considerable progress toward ex- models, in abstract terms, major developments in par-
plaining this activity in terms of familiar cognitive pro- ticle physics over two decades, including the proposal
cesses like heuristic search (e.g., Langley et al., 1987). A of baryon and lepton numbers, postulation of the neu-
main research theme relies on selecting historical discov- trino, and prediction of numerous reactions. Background
eries from some discipline, identifying data and knowl- knowledge about symmetry and conservation combine
edge available at the time, and implementing a computer with data to constrain the search for an improved the-
program that models the processes that led to the scien- ory in a manner consistent with the incremental nature
tists’ insights. The literature on computational scientific of historical discovery.
discovery includes many examples of such studies, but We hope this symposium will encourage additional re-
initial work in this tradition had some significant draw- search that extends our ability to model historical scien-
backs, which we address in this symposium. tific discoveries in computational terms.
One such limitation was that early research in law dis-
covery ignored the influence of domain knowledge in References
guiding search. For example, Gordon et al. (1994) noted Cheng, P. C.-H. and Simon, H. A. (1992). The right rep-
that attempts to fit data from solution chemistry in the resentation for discovery: Finding the conservation of
late 1700s took into account informal qualitative models momentum. In Proceedings of the Ninth International
like polymerization and dissociation. They have devel- Conference on Machine Learning, pages 62–71, San
oped Hume, a discovery system that draws on such qual- Mateo, CA. Morgan Kaufmann.
itative knowledge to direct its search for numeric laws. Gordon, A., Edwards, P., Sleeman, D., and Kodratoff, Y.
Hume utilizes this knowledge not only to rediscover laws (1994). Scientific discovery in a space of structural
found early in the history of solution chemistry, but also models. In Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Con-
to explain, at an abstract level, the origins of other rela- ference of the Cognitive Science Society, pages 381–
tions that scientists proposed and later rejected. 386, Atlanta. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Early discovery research also downplayed the role of
diagrams, which occupy a central place in many aspects Kocabas, S. and Langley, P. (1995). Integration of
of science. For example, Huygens’ and Wren’s first pre- research tasks for modeling discoveries in particle
sentations of momentum conservation took the form of physics. In Proceedings of the AAAI Spring Sympo-
diagrams, suggesting they may have been instrumental sium on Systematic Methods of Scientific Discovery,
in the discovery process. In response, Cheng and Simon pages 87–92, Stanford, CA. AAAI Press.
(1992) have developed Huygens, a computational model Langley, P., Simon, H. A., Bradshaw, G. L., and Zytkow,
for inductive discovery of this law that uses a psycho- J. M. (1987). Scientific discovery: Computational ex-
logically plausible diagrammatic approach. The system plorations of the creative processes. MIT Press, Cam-
replicates the discovery by manipulating geometric dia- bridge, MA.
grams that encode particle collisions and searching for
patterns common to those diagrams. The quantitative
data given to the system are equivalent to those available
at the time of the original discovery.
Another challenge concerns the computational model-
ing of extended periods in the history of science, rather
than isolated events. To this end, Kocabas and Langley
(1995) have developed BR4, an account of theory revi-
sion in particle physics that checks if the current theory
is consistent (explains observed reactions) and complete
(forbids unobserved reactions), revises quantum values
Symposium: When Cognition Shapes its Own Environment
Peter Todd ([email protected])
Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition,
Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany.
Language Evolution and Computation Research Unit,
Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, University of Edinburgh,
40 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9LL, UK.
Introduction 2. Simon Kirby, “The Iterated Learning Model of
Cognitive mechanisms are shaped by their environments, Language Evolution”,
both through evolutionary selection across generations
and through learning and development within lifetimes. The past decade has seen a shift in the focus of re-
But by making decisions that guide actions which in turn search on language evolution away from approaches
alter the surrounding world, cognitive mechanisms can that rely solely on natural selection as an explanatory
also shape their environments in turn. This mutual shap- mechanism. Instead, there has been a growing ap-
ing interaction between cognitive structure and environ- preciation of languages (as opposed to the language
ment structure can even result in coevolution between the acquisition device) as complex adaptive systems in
two over extended periods of time. In this symposium, their own right. In this talk we will present an ap-
we explore how simple decision heuristics can exploit proach that explores the relationship between biolog-
the information structure of the environment to make ically given language learning biases and the cultural
good decisions, how simple language-learning mecha- evolution of language. We introduce a computation-
nisms can capitalize on the structure of the ”spoken” ally implemented model of the transmission of linguis-
environment to develop useful grammars, and how both tic behaviour over time: the Iterated Learning Model
sorts of cognitive mechanisms can actually help build the (ILM). In this model there is no biological evolution,
very environment structure that they rely on to perform natural selection, nor any measurement of the suc-
well. cess of communication. Nonetheless, there is signifi-
cant evolution. We show that fully syntactic languages
Programme emerge from primitive communication systems in the
ILM under two conditions specific to Hominids: (i) a
There will be three talks, as follows:
complex meaning space structure, and (ii) the poverty
1. Peter Todd, “Simple Heuristics that exploit environ- of the stimulus.
ment structure”, 3. Peter Todd, Simon Kirby and Jim Hurford, “Putting
the Models Together: how the environment is shaped
Traditional views of rational decision making assume by the action of the recognition heuristic”,
that individuals gather, evaluate, and combine all the
available evidence to come up with the best choice To explore how cognitive mechanisms can exert a
possible. But given that human and animal minds shaping force on their environment and thus affect
are designed to work in environments where informa- their own performance, we begin by considering the
tion is often costly and difficult to obtain, we should actions of a very simple cognitive mechanism, the
instead expect many decisions to be made with sim- recognition heuristic for making choices. This heuris-
ple ”fast and frugal” heuristics that limit information tic specifies that when choosing between two options,
use. In our study of ecological rationality, we have one of which is recognized and one not, the recognized
been exploring just how well such simple decision- option should be selected. The recognition heuristic
making heuristics can do when they are able to exploit makes good choices, in environments where recogni-
the structure of information in specific environments. tion is correlated with the choice criterion. Many natu-
This talk will outline the research program pursued by ral environments have this structure, but such structure
the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition as de- can also be “built”: By using the recognition heuris-
veloped in the book, Simple Heuristics That Make Us tic, agents can create an environment in which some
Smart (Oxford, 1999), and highlight how the match objects are much more often and “talked about” and
between cognitive mechanism structure and environ- recognized than others. An agent-based simulation is
ment structure allows the Recognition heuristic and used to show what behavioral factors affect the emer-
Take The Best heuristic to perform on par with tra- gence of this environmental structure.
ditionally rational decision mechanisms.
The Cognitive Basis of Science: The View from Science
Session Organizer: Nancy J. Nersessian (
[email protected])
College of Computing, 801 Atlantic Drive
Atlanta, GA 30332 USA
two people cooperate in acquiring some knowledge that is not
The issue of the nature of the processes or “mechanisms” that directly acquired by either one alone. It is even possible that
underlie scientific cognition is a fundamental problem for neither person could physically perform the task alone. This
cognitive science. A rich and nuanced understanding of is an example of what has been called “socially shared
scientific knowledge and practice must take into account how cognition” (Resnick) or “collective cognition” (Knorr). The
human cognitive abilities and limitations afford and constrain most elaborate example is the case of experimental high-
the practices and products of the scientific enterprise. energy physics at CERN, as described by the sociologist,
Reflexively, investigating scientific cognition opens the Karin Knorr in her recent book, Epistemic Cultures. I go
possibility that aspects of cognition previously not observed beyond Knorr’s analysis to include the particle accelerator
or considered will emerge and require enriching or even and related equipment as part of a distributed cognitive
altering significantly current understandings of cognitive system. So here the cognition is distributed both among both
processes. people and artifacts. Such artifacts as diagrams and graphics
and even abstract mathematical constructions are also
The Baby in the Lab Coat: Why child included as components of distributed cognitive systems.
This makes it possible to understand the increasing power of
development is an inadequate model for science since the seventeenth century as in large measure due
understanding the development of science to the creation of increasing powerful cognitive systems, both
Stephen P. Stich, Department of Philosophy, Rutgers instrumental and representational.
University
In two recent books and a number of articles, Alison Gopnik The Cognitive Basis of Model-based
and her collaborators have proposed a bold and intriguing
hypothesis about the relationship between scientific cognition
Reasoning in Science
and cognitive development in childhood. According to this Nancy J. Nersessian, Program in Cognitive Science, Georgia
view, the processes underlying cognitive development infants Institute of Technology
and children and the processes underlying scientific cognition
are identical. One of the attractions of the hypothesis is that, if Although scientific practice is inherently “socially shared
it is correct, it will unify two fields of investigation – the cognition,” the nature of individual cognitive abilities and
study of early cognitive development and the study of how these constrain and facilitate practices still needs to be
scientific cognition – that have hitherto been thought quite figured into the account of scientific cognition. This
distinct, with the result that advances in either domain will presentation will focus on the issue of the cognitive basis of
further our understanding of the other. In this talk we argue the model-based reasoning practices employed in creative
that Gopnik’s bold hypothesis is untenable. More reasoning leading to conceptual change across the sciences. I
specifically, we will argue that if Gopnik and her will first locate the analysis of model-based reasoning within
collaborators are right about cognitive development in early the mental modeling framework in cognitive science and then
childhood then they are wrong about science. The minds of discuss the roles of analogy, visual representation, and
normal adults and of older children, we will argue, are more thought experimenting in constructing new conceptual
complex than the minds of young children, as Gopnik structures. A brief indication of the lines along which a fuller
portrays them. And some of the mechanisms that play no role account of how the cognitive, social, and material are fused in
in Gopnik’s account of cognitive development in childhood the scientist’s representations of the world will be developed.
play an essential role in scientific cognition. That the account needs to be rooted in the interplay between
the individual and the communal in the model-based
reasoning that takes place in concept formation and change.
Modeling is a principal means through which a scientist
Scientific Cognition as Distributed transports conceptual resources drawn from her wider cultural
Cognition milieu into science and transmits novel representations
Ronald N. Giere, Center for Philosophy of Science, through her community. Scientific modeling always takes
University of Minnesota place in a material environment that includes the natural
world, socio-cultural artifacts (stemming from both outside of
I argue that most important cases of cognition in science and within it), and instruments devised by scientists
contemporary science are best understood as examples of and communities to probe and represent that world.
distributed cognition. Here I focus exclusively on the
acquisition of new knowledge as the paradigm of scientific Symposium Discussant: Dedre Gentner, Department of
cognition. Scientific cognition, then, does not reduce to mere Psychology, Northwestern
distributed computation. The simplest case is that in which
The Interaction of Explicit and Implicit Learning
Ron Sun ([email protected])
University of Missouri-Columbia
Columbia, MO 65203
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
Baton Rouge, LA
The Focus of the Symposium edge and then explicit knowledge, or learning both in
parallel) has been largely ignored, paralleling and reflect-
The role of implicit learning in skill acquisition and the
ing the related neglect of the interaction of explicit and
distinction between implicit and explicit learning have
implicit processes in the skill learning literature. How-
been widely recognized in recent years (see, e.g., Re-
ever, there are a few scattered pieces of work that did
ber 1989, Stanley et al 1989, Willingham et al 1989,
demonstrate the parallel development of the two types of
Anderson 1993), Although implicit learning has been
knowledge or the extraction of explicit knowledge from
actively investigated, the complex and multifaceted in-
implicit knowledge (e.g, Willingham et al 1989, Stanley
teraction between the implicit and the explicit and the
et al 1989, Sun et al 2000), contrary to usual top-down
importance of this interaction have not been universally
approaches in developing cognitive architectures.
recognized; to a large extent, such interaction has been
Many issues arise with regard to the interaction be-
downplayed or ignored, with only a few notable excep-
tween implicit and explicit processes, which we need to
tions. 1 Research has been focused on showing the lack
look into if we want to better understand this interaction:
of explicit learning in various learning settings (see espe-
cially Lewicki et al 1987) and on the controversies stem- How can we best capture implicit processes computa-
ming from such claims. Similar oversight is also evident tionally? How can we best capture explicit processes
in computational simulation models of implicit learning computationally?
(with few exceptions such as Cleeremans 1994 and Sun
et al 2000). How do the two types of knowledge develop along
Despite the lack of studies of interaction, it has been side each other and influence each other’s develop-
gaining recognition that it is difficult, if not impossible, ment?
to find a situation in which only one type of learning is
engaged (Reber 1989, Seger 1994, but see Lewicki et Is bottom-up learning (or parallel learning) possible,
al 1987). Our review of existing data has indicated that, besides top-down learning? How can they (bottom-up
while one can manipulate conditions to emphasize one or learning, top-down learning, and parallel learning) be
the other type, in most situations, both types of learning realized computationally?
are involved, with varying amounts of contributions from How do the two types of acquired knowledge interact
each (see, e.g., Sun et al 2000; see also Stanley et al 1989, during skilled performance? What is the impact of that
Willingham et al 1989). interaction on performance? How do we capture such
Likewise, in the development of cognitive architec- impact computationally?
tures (e.g., Rosenbloom et al 1993, Anderson 1993), the
distinction between procedural and declarative knowl- Titles of the Talks
edge has been proposed for a long time, and advocated
or adopted by many in the field (see especially Ander- Axel Cleeremans: “Behavioral, neural, and computa-
son 1993). The distinction maps roughly onto the dis- tional correlates of implicit and explicit learning”
tinction between the explicit and implicit knowledge,
because procedural knowledge is generally inaccessible Zoltan Dienes: “The effect of prior knowledge on im-
while declarative knowledge is generally accessible and plicit learning”
thus explicit. However, in work on cognitive architec- Bob Mathews: “Finding the optimal mix of implicit and
tures, focus has been almost exclusively on “top-down” explicit learning”
models (that is, learning first explicit knowledge and
then implicit knowledge on the basis of the former), the Ron Sun: “The synergy of the implciit and the explicit”
bottom-up direction (that is, learning first implicit knowl-
1 By the explicit, we mean processes involving some form
of generalized (or generalizable) knowledge that is consciously
accessible.
Papers and
Posters
The Roles of Thought and Experience in the Understanding of
Spatio-temporal Metaphors
Tracy Packiam Alloway ([email protected])
Department of Psychology
University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
School of Cognitive Science, Division of Informatics
University of Edinburgh, 2 Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh, EH8 9LW
Department of Psychology
University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
Abstract There is evidence for this relationship between
motion in space and time in the structure of language.
Spatial and temporal metaphors are often used We can talk of putting things forward in time, as well
interchangeably, and thus, offer a unique way of as moving forward through space (see Lakoff &
exploring the relationship between language and thought.
Johnson, 1999; 1980). According to Lakoff and
Both spatial and temporal speaking incorporates two
systems of motion. The first is an ego-moving system,
Johnson’s (1980; 1999) Conceptual Metaphor
when the individual moves from one point to another, hypothesis, metaphors are not justa manner of speaking
spatially, or from the past to the future, temporally. The but a deeper reflection of human thought processes.
second is the object- (or time-) moving system, when the Metaphoric speaking is reflective, say Lakoff and
individual is stationary and observes objects, or time, Johnson, of deeper conceptual mappings that occur in
moving towards him/her. This study explored the effect our thinking and is depicted as an over-arching and
of a spatial environment on the ambiguous temporal general metaphor termed asthe Conceptual Metaphor.
question: Next Wednesday’s meeting has been moved Consider the following statements:
forward two days--What day is the meeting now?
Your claims are indefensible.
Results reveal that when participants are immersed in an
ego-moving spatial environment, such as a virtual reality
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
game, and receive a prime that causes them to think in an He shot down all of my arguments.
object-moving way, they are more likely to perform a According to the Conceptual Metaphor (metaphoric
target task in a way consistent with the way they have representation) hypothesis when we use statements such
been primed to think, although it contradicts the spatial as these we are making use of a larger conglomerate
motion they subsequently experience in the testing metaphor, in this instance, ARGUMENT IS WAR.1
environment. The thrust of the Conceptual Metaphor argument is as
follows: arguments are similar to wars in that there are
winners and losers, positions are attacked and defended,
Introduction and one can gain or lose ground. The theory of
What is the relationship between language and sensory Conceptual Metaphor suggests that we process
experience? According to one recent claim (Lakoff and metaphors by mapping from a base domain to a target
Johnson, 1999), abstract concepts, such as time, are domain. In this particular example, the base domain is
substrated in concrete concepts like space that can be ARGUMENT IS WAR and the target domain is
experienced directly. The representations of these asubordinate metaphor such as Your claims are
concrete concepts are formed directly, by experience. indefensible.
Thus, our spatial experiences form "a neural structure
that is actually part of, or makes use of, the Motion in Space and Time
sensorimotor system of our brains. Much of conceptual Lakoff and Johnson extend the idea of Conceptual
inference is, therefore, sensorimotor inference" (Lakoff Metaphor to spatio-temporal metaphors by invoking the
and Johnson, 1999, p. 20). On this view, our
understanding of concepts such as time is predicated on 1
Following Lakoff and Johnson’s convention (1980), all
our spatial experiences, and thus the idea of motion in Conceptual Metaphors are typed in the uppercase to
time relies on our understanding of motion in space. distinguish them from the subordinate metaphors
locative terms of FRONT/BACK to represent how we 1) Time Moving metaphor (TM)
view time and space. FRONT is assigned on the The motion of time provides the framework in which
assumption of motion (Fillmore, 1978). According to temporal metaphors are comprehended. In this schema,
this theory, in the ego-moving system, FRONT is used front, or ahead is determined by thefuture moving to
to designate a future event because the ego is moving the past. For example, in the month of February,
forward and encounters the future event in front of him. Christmas is now in the future. In time it will move to
In the time-moving system, the FRONT term denotes a the present and then to the past (e.g. Christmas is
past event where the ego or the individual is stationary coming). The individual is a stationary observer as
but the events are moving. Thus it is possible to define times "flows" past. This schema is the temporal
(at least) two schemas of motion in space. equivalent of the OM metaphor in the domain of space.
1) Object-Moving Metaphor (OM) 2) Ego-Moving metaphor (EM)
In this schema of motion,the individual is seen as The ego or the individual moves from the past to the
stationary and objects seem to come towards him/her. future such as the sentence His vacation to the beach
For an example of this schema, consider an individual lay ahead of him. In this metaphor, the observer is
waiting at a bus stop and observing vehicles coming seen as moving forward through time, passing temporal
towards him/her. In this schema of motion, the events that are seen as stationary points. It is thus the
individual assigns the term FRONT to the object closest temporal equivalent of the spatial EM system, where
towards him. In the diagram below, the term FRONT the observer moves forward through space
would be assigned to the white rock. When discussing motion in time, temporal events are
viewed as points or locations in space, and a similar
rationale is used when assigning deictic terms such as
front and back. For example, in the EM system,
FRONT is used to designate a future event because the
ego is moving forward and encounters the future event
in front of him, while in the TM system the FRONT
term denotes a past event where the ego or the
individual is stationary but the events are moving.
Figure 1
Studies of Spatio-temporal Metaphors
2) Ego-Moving Metaphor (EM)
Gentner and Imai (1992), and McGlone and Harding
Inthis schema of motion, the objects are stationary and
(1998) confirmed the idea that the different schemas of
it is the individual that is in motion. Here, the term
motion (EM and TM in the domain of time) are indeed
FRONT would be assigned to the object furthest away
psychologically real systems.Gentner and Imai found
from the individual. In the picture below, it is the black
that participants responded faster to questions that were
rock that would be labeled as FRONT.
schema consistent with regards to temporal schemas in
priming than to questions that were inconsistent with
their primes. Gentner and Imai argue that this supports
the theory that metaphors are mapped in distinct
schemas: the shift from one schema to another causes a
disruption in the processing, reflected in increased
processing time. They argue that their study indicates
that the relations between space and time are reflective
of a psychologically real conceptual system as opposed
to an etymological relic.2
Figure 2
A study by McGlone and Harding (1998) involved
participants answering questions about days of the week
Thus in the EM system, front is used to designate an
- relative to Wednesday - which were posed in either
object furthest away from the individual, as the
the ego-moving or the time-moving metaphor. Ego-
trajectory of motion is in that direction. While in the
moving metaphor trials comprised statements such as
OM system, the term front is assigned to the object
We passed the deadline two days ago, whilst time-
closest to the individual.
moving metaphor trials involved statements such as
The deadline passed us two days ago; in each case,
Motion in Time
The schemas of motion represented in the domain of 2
Although McGlone and Harding (1998) criticised some
time reflect the representation of motion in the domain aspects of Gentner and Imais methodology, their corrected
of space. replication of the original study confirms its findings.
participants read the statements and were then asked to Participants
indicate the day of the week that a given event had 61 University of Edinburgh students volunteered to take
occurred or was going to occur. At the end of each part in this experiment.
block of such priming statements, participants read an
ambiguous statement, such as The reception scheduled Materials
for next Wednesday has been moved forward two
days 3 and then were asked to indicate the day of the In order to create a particularly convincing Ego Moving
week on which this event was now going to occur. environment, participants played a slightly modified
Participants who had answered blocks of priming version of a pre-existing section of the virtual reality
questions about statements phrased in a way consistent computer game, U n R e a l . This is a first person
with theego-moving metaphor tended to disambiguate perspective game and involves the participant
moved forward in a manner consistent with the ego- walking through a courtyard environment to complete
moving system (they assigned forward - the front - to a task. All monsters and other artifacts of the game that
the future, and hence thought the meeting had been re- were not relevant to the experiment were removed from
scheduled for Friday), whereas participants who had this section of the game. The objects in the target task
answered blocks of questions about statements phrased appeared upon completion of the game. These were
a way consistent with the time-moving metaphor tended two chests, with no discernible front or back (unlike
to disambiguate moved forward in a manner other objects, such as a car, or a TV), one of which was
consistent with the time-moving system (they assigned closer to the player than the other. The game was
forward - the front - to the past, and hence thought the projected onto a 368cm by 282cm size screen in order
meeting had been re-scheduled for Monday). to magnify the virtual effects of the game.
This work has been further developed in a recent set
of experiments by Boroditsky (2000) which explicitly
Procedure
explored the relationship between the domains of space Pre-Test
and time. Boroditsky found that temporal priming 25 participants were tested individually seated in front
significantly influenced temporal reasoning in a cross- of the projector screen. The game was set at the point
domain extension of the paradigm used in earlier in front of the two chests. Participants did not play the
experiments. Spatially priming participants with the ego game and were only instructed to Move to the front
moving schema led them to infer that an ambiguous chest . In this condition, the target task was performed
meeting ("Next Wednesday’s meeting has been moved in isolation, and the results provided a baseline for how
forwards two days") had been moved to Friday, the term front in this task is interpreted.
whereas spatially priming participants with the object Out of the twenty-five subjects, twelve of them
moving schema led them to assign the meeting to interpreted the term front to refer to the chest closest
Monday. This study provides good evidence to support to them, while the rest assigned front to the chest
the notion that our representation of motion in space is furthest from them, confirming the ambiguity of the
mapped on to our understanding of motion in time, assignment of front in the target task.
although it leaves open the question of what is directing Experimental Conditions
this representational mapping spatial representations 36 participants were tested individually. They were
that are contiguous with our embodied experience, or asked to fill in a brief questionnaire requesting
functionally separable, abstract conceptual demographic information, as well as familiarity with
representations of space and time. video games and computers. At the end of the
questionnaire were the following instructions:Your
Experiment 1 task is to find the location of a young woman. Try your
best to navigate around the environment in order to find
This experiment directly explores the claim that our
her. During this game, it is important to try to
embodied experiences in space direct our conceptual
remember some key landmarks, such as a pair of
understanding of time. Participants were immersed in
brightly coloured pillars as you enter a path, as well
an embodied environment, a virtual reality game, and
as the doors on the buildings. After you have been
were presented with an ambiguous spatial task, either
playing for some time, you will hear a question
after either a purely embodied prime, or after embodied
requiring a true or false answer. This question will be
priming during which a linguistic prime had cued them
about the game. Try to answer it correctly and speak
to think in terms of a contrary spatial schema. The
your answer loudly."
experiment was designed to explore the role of
The participants were then shown how to use the
experience and thought between the two schemas of
arrow keys on the keyboard when navigating through
motion in the domain of space.
the environment and then left alone to play the game.
3 (The experimenter was on hand, should the volunteers
All trials were conducted on a Wednesday.
have any difficulty maneuvering around the UnReal directory of furniture to maintain continuity in
environment; however, all volunteers seemed the environment. Upon completion of the target task,
adequately proficient at navigating around the participants were given a short debriefing.
environment.)
There were two experimental conditions. In the first Results
condition, volunteers received a pre-recorded true/false Participants responses for the target task are shown in
question specific to the assignment of the term front Figure 3. Out of the total 36 participants, two (5%) did
approximately four minutes into playing the game. The not answer the prime question consistently (i.e., to the
question they were posed -- During the game, the OM prime: During the game, the green pillar is in
green pillar is in front of the red pillar — prompted front of the red pillar, they answered false when the
them to think in an Object Moving manner about space correct answer was true). Their data were not used in
(the green pillar was closer to the participants than the the following analyses.
red pillar in the game environment, thus this question is Analysis showed that when participants received the
true from an OM perspective).4 We were interested to OM prime, requiring them to specifically think in a way
see if the thinking in an OM way in answering the that represented a particular schema of motion, 75% of
question would result in a different assignment of front them interpreted the front chest in an OM consistent
from the EM perspective that was embodied in the manner, despite playing the EM game for a further 2-3
game. minutes after answering the prime question. However,
The order of the pillars in the question was reversed when participants were simply immersed in a game
for half of the participants to counter-act an affirmative which embodied EM motion, and were not required to
response bias. Thus, half the participants answered the specifically (or explicitly) think about that motion
true/false question:During the game, the red pillar is in (instead, they were required to think about doors),
front of the green pillar. The answer to this question 83%of them were influenced by the nature of motion in
was false from an OM perspective. the game and interpreted the front chest command in an
In the second condition, volunteers received a pre- EM schema consistent manner.
recorded non-spatial question rather than a spatial prime A chi-square analysis revealed a significant effect of
approximately four minutes into playing the game. the type of prime participants received on how they
They had to provide a true or false answer to the interpreted the term front to apply to an ambiguous
following question: During the game, most of the target task: 2(1)=11.691; p<0.001.
doors are open". The correct answer to this question
was true, however, the amount of doors the volunteer Primed by Question
16 Embodied Prime
saw depended on the route he or she chose in 14
navigating around the environment to complete the 12
task. However, the question was also presented in the 10
inverse to avoid any particular response bias, and half 8
of the participants in this condition answered the 6
following question: During the game, most of the 4
doors are closed". The question in this condition served 2
0
as a control to ensure that simply answering a question
Target Furthest Target Closest
would not cause people to re-represent their perspective away
of front or back (but that rather a question must cause
people to specifically think in a way that involves a Figure 3: Target responses in each prime condition
representation of front/back for this to occur).
Playing the EM game served as the embodied prime
in this condition. Discussion
Once the participants had completed the task, the This experiment seems to suggest that thinking about
virtual young woman they sought congratulated them space can override the role of spatial experience in our
and they were asked to complete the target task: "Move understanding of spatial concepts. Participants who
to the front chest". The two chests were located on the were cued to think using a particular schema of motion
left of the virtual woman and were added from the (OM), overcame the schema of motion they were
experiencing (EM), and responded ina consistent
4
manner with the way they had been cued to think about
Pre-testing had shown that this question, which is true from space. Participants who received a random question,
an OM perspective, was unambiguous and ordinarily unrelated to any system of motion, were influenced by
answered from the OM perspective. Out of 20 participants,
the schema of motion in the game (EM) and responded
90% allocated the term front in an OM perspective. A
binomial test confirmed this as significant; p<.001. to the spatial task consistently with their experience.
Although the video prime in this experiment involved Participants
the participant in an EM schema of motion, there might Thirty-nine Edinburgh University students volunteered
be some criticism against the embodied prime as to take part in this experiment.
participants only perceived the visual environment,
rather than physically experienced it. Such criticism Materials
seems unjustified in this case. As Lishman and Lee
(1973) argue, perception is powerful enough to direct The participants played the same video game as
kinaesthesis or movement. They claim that a person described in Experiment 1.
relies heavily on visual kinaesthesis,in many
situations, for example, driving, and swimming in a
Procedure
current, a person is dependent on vision to sense how he All trials were conducted on a Wednesday. Participants
is moving relative to the static environment (p. 288, were tested individually in the virtual reality lab and
emphasis theirs). They also argue that individuals were asked to fill in a brief questionnaire containing the
experience a sensation of motion when visual scenes same instructions given in Experiment 1. They were
change, but they are stationary. They conducted a series also informed that they would be required to return next
of experiments where individuals were placed in a Wednesday if they were successful in accomplishing
stationary trolley in a moving room. The room was the task in the game. This information provided a
moved independently from the trolley located in it, so connection between the target question (see below) and
the participants saw the room move, although thetrolley the experiment, as the participants would interpret
they were standing in was completely stationary. Next Wednesdays meeting in the target question as a
Lishman and Lee record participants as perceiving the further experiment, rather than an unrelated question.
trolley to move as well, eventhough they were Participants were then shown the game and began
stationary. The participant also swayed together with playing. There were two conditions. Approximately
the room in an apparent attempt to keep himself stable four minutes into playing the game, the participants in
with respect to his static environment (p.292). the first condition received the linguistic prime cueing
Participants felt the experience was like being on a them to think the in an OM perspective. Again, they
boat, and several felt quite nauseated afterwards. had to respond with either true or false to the
In this virtual reality experiment, several participants questionDuring the game, the green pillar is in front of
had similar experiences and even commented on feeling the red pillar. (Once again, half of the participants in
rather ill after playing the video game for a few this condition received the inverse question.)
minutes. One participant asked if she could leave In the second condition, instead of receiving a prime
because she felt so nauseated. Often, participants that cued spatial thinking, the participants received the
shoulders were seen to move in sync with a right or left non-spatial question approximately four minutes into
turn they made in the virtual environment, and many playing the game During this game, most of the doors
participants remarked on feeling dizzy after completing are open. (Again, half of the participants in this
the experiment. This confirms the importance of condition received the question in the inverse.)
perception in directing our sense of motion, and Once participants had successfully completed the
suggests that visually experiencing motion in virtual game task (finding a virtual young woman; all
reality provides a similar sensation to a physical participants were successful), the experimenter
experience of motion. congratulated them and then informed them that "Next
Wednesday’s meeting has been moved forward two
days and asked What day is the meeting now that is
Experiment Two has been rescheduled?" (the ambiguous temporal
question used in McGlone and Harding, 1988, and
While the first experiment examined the influence of
Boroditsky, 2000). After participants had given their
simple experience versus explicit thought in our
answer, they were given a short debriefing.
understanding of motion in space, this experiment
explored whether simple spatial experience or thinking Results
about space would be more influential in mapping
information about motion from the domain of space to Out of the total 39 participants, three of the participants
time. Participants were immersed in an embodied (8%) did not answer the prime question consistently
environment and were presented with an ambiguous (i.e., to the OM prime: During the game, the green
target temporal task after receiving either a purely pillar is in front of the red pillar, they answered false
embodied priming, or embodied priming during which when the correct answer was true). Data from those
a linguistic prime had cued them to think in terms of a participants who provided incorrect answers to the
contrary spatial schema. prime were eliminated from the analyses.
Participants responses to the ambiguous target functionally separable from their embodied experiences
question were examined, and once again, the results of space and time (see also Boroditsky, Ramscar, &
revealed that the type of prime participants were Frank, this volume).
presented with significantly affected their
disambiguation of the target temporal question. The General Discussion
participants who received the cued OM prime during In two experiments, we have shown that explicitly
the game (which required them to adopt an OM schema thinking about space — in order to provide answers to
for thinking of motion in answering the question) were questions cueing the object-moving metaphoric system -
more likely to interpret the term f o r w a r d from could significantly reverse a task bias to assign
Wednesday as Monday (65%) rather than Friday. In FORWARD in an ego-moving manner.
comparison, 74% of the participants who were If, as Lakoff and Johnson (1999) suggest, language
influenced by the embodied EM game, but did not have is ultimately the slave of our (universal) embodied
to explicitly think about schemas of motion in thought, then we would have expected pure embodied
answering the in-game question considered the new priming to have at least as much an influence as
meeting day to beFriday rather than Monday (see figure abstract thought. However, this was not the case (see
4). also Boroditsky et al, this volume).
A chi-square revealed that the type of prime the These results suggest that a proper characterization
participants received significantly affected how they of conceptual thought will need to look beyond the
disambiguated forward in the temporal target task: information that comes from physical experience, and
2
(1)=5.355; p<0.05 (one-tailed). consider as well the ways in which languages and
cultures affect thought.
16 Primed By Question
14 Embodied Prime Acknowledgements
12 We thank Lera Boroditsky for many insightful
10
8
discussions, and Jon Sykes for his assistance in
6 programming the virtual environment.
4
2 References
0
Target Friday Target Monday Alloway, T.P., Ramscar, M., & Corley, M. (1999).
Figure 4: Target responses in each prime condition Verbal and Embodied priming in schema mapping
tasks. In Proceedings of the Twenty First Annual
Discussion Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. New
Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Pub.
These results suggest that our concepts of motion in the
Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric structuring:
domain of space can influence how we understand
Understanding time through spatial metaphors.
motion in the domain of time. However, while the Cognition, 75(1), 1-28.
embodied position suggests that it is our experiences in Boroditsky, L., Ramscar, M. & Frank, M. (2001). The
space that ultimately affect how we think of time, this roles of body and mind in abstract thought. This
experiment reveals that how you think about motion — volume.
even in abstract terms, such as in response to a question Gentner, D., & Imai, M. (1992). Is the future always
— also plays a significant role in influencing our concept ahead? Evidence for system mappings in
of time. Although they participants continued to play a understanding space-time metaphors. In Proceedings
game which embodied an EM spatial perspective after of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive
they answered their question, participants who Science Society, Bloomington, Indiana, 510-515.
answered questions which required them to think in an
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live
OM manner answered an ambiguous temporal question
by. Chicago: Univeristy of Chicago Press.
in a TM (and thus OM, see Boroditsky, 2000) Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the
consistent manner, whereas participants who had played Flesh. New York: Harper Collins Publisher.
the EM game but not been required to explicitly think McGlone, M., & Harding, J. (1998). Back (or
about time answered the ambiguous temporal question Forward?) to the Future: The Role of Perspective in
in an EM consistent manner. This indicates that Temporal Language Comprehension. Journal of
although spatial experience can influence temporal Experimental Psychology, 24, 1211-1223.
thought, this influence can be over-ridden by explicitly McTaggart, J. (1908). The unreality of time. Mind, 17,
thinking about space, suggesting that peoples 457-474.
conceptual representations of space and time are
Coordinating Representations in Computer-Mediated Joint Activities
Richard Alterman, Alex Feinman, Josh Introne, Seth Landsman
Department of Computer Science
Brandeis University
Waltham, MA 02454 USA
Abstract
The Problem of Coordination
This paper develops, in the context of the
interdisciplinary literature on coordination, the concept Whether it is greeting someone, or planning a potluck
of a coordinating representation as an everyday method dinner party, or moving through a doorway, or forming
for structuring the coordination of actors engaged in a a queue at the coffee shop - there are always problems
non face-to-face joint activity. Evidence is provided by of coordination. When you greet someone, depending
applying the idea of coordinating representation to the on the circumstance, you may say “hi", shake hands,
development of a computer-mediated cooperative slap hands, hug, kiss, or ignore. Each form of greeting
activity. (except the last) requires coordination (and cooperation)
among the participants. For a potluck dinner party, the
Introduction meal must be coordinated for taste, balance, and
A critical reasoning problem confronted by actors as variety. The meal can include appetizers, main courses,
they engage in their everyday activities is the desserts, and beverages; a preponderance of one or the
maintenance of coordination (Clark, 1996). Within a other detracts from the meal. For many doorways,
community of actors, designs that organize (structure) there is not enough room for two people (say, in
behavior in recurrent situations of cooperation develop conversation) to pass through the doorway shoulder-to-
over time. Once developed, the expectation that a shoulder. To effectively move through the doorway the
given sort of structure might be in place for a given participants must coordinate on an order as to which
kind of situation simplifies the interaction among the one passes through the doorway first, second, ... and
participants while reducing mental effort, physical who is to hold the doorway open. The queue at the
work, and errors (Alterman & Garland, 1998). In non coffee shop begins and ends at a certain place; people
face-to-face interactions, structures that simplify the line up in the order they arrive.
coordination of a conventional behavior are coded into Some examples of coordination problems are the
a coordinating representation. The coordinating assignment of roles, the establishment of location,
representation helps the participants to jointly make manner, and structure, and issues of sequencing; timing
sense of the situation in the absence of a face-to-face and co-reference.
interaction. Suppose Tipper and Al are re-arranging furniture in the
An everyday example of a coordinating representation house. Each of the above kinds of coordination problem
is the "stop sign". The stop sign is a representation may come into play as they move the old couch from
shared among the participants at a traffic setting. The the living room, down the stairs, around the corner,
stop sign presents a structure for organizing the through a doorway into the basement. Al's role may be
collective behavior of drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists to back down the stairs holding the front of the couch;
at a busy intersection. The interpretation of the structure Tipper walks forward holding the backend of the couch.
imposed by the stop sign is negotiated during the Initially they meet in the living room. Their path as
activity. Things may run smoothly at the intersection - they carry the couch begins in the living room and ends
but there will also be interruptions. An impatient driver at the basement. Their manner may be slow and
piggybacks on the driver in front of him. A pedestrian cautious, so as to avoid bumping into walls and
decides to ignore the stop sign altogether. doorways. At certain points they are tilting the couch at
The first part of this paper will develop the notion of a an angle so they can move down the stairwell without
coordinating representation in the context of the bumping the couch into the ceiling. Coordination at the
interdisciplinary literature on coordination. The second boundaries between phases of the activity (Clark,
part focuses on the cognitive engineering task of 1996), must be jointly engineered by Tipper and Al as
building coordinating representations for computer- they shift from moving down the stairs to moving
mediated joint activities. The last part of the paper through the doorway. In order to move the couch down
presents an experimental evaluation of the utility and the stairs, Tipper and Al need to establish co-references
function of the coordinating representation. for features of the stairwell (e.g., the low ceiling) or the
situation (e.g., an unexpected problems they encounter).
Some of the coordination problems are 'solved' before
action begins (e.g., Al walks backwards and Tipper relevant to design, plan, and commitment. For
walks forwards); others are resolved as the action computer-mediated tasks, the trick will be to convert
proceeds (e.g., the coordination problems entailed by structures (designs) that are naturally produced in
the low ceiling in the stairwell). conversation by the users into external representations
The term structure for behavior is used here to refer to that can mediate similar sorts of cooperative activities
the kinds of information exchanged between Tipper and in the future. The design of the external representations
Al in order to achieve their joint task and maintain that are developed will focus on simplifying the most
coordination - examples of which are the assignment of difficult coordination problems that typically confront
roles, the path, the manner… Not all the information users.
exchanged is a structure for the current behavior. For
example, Tipper and Al are also socializing as they The Coordinating Representation
proceed with their activity. Nor are all structures for A coordinating representation is an external
joint behavior exchanged at runtime: both Tipper and representation shared among participants in a joint
Al are likely to have prior experience at moving a activity. It is designed for the activity-at-hand and
couch through a doorway. Using both the social reduces the complexity of the coordination task. It
exchanges of information about structure and the mediates and structures the activity. It has the
recollection of prior related experiences, the designated purpose of helping participants to achieve
participants must jointly reason out and construct a coordination in non face-to-face cooperative activities.
behavior which achieves their shared goal of moving Its meaning is based on conventional interpretation. It
the old couch from the living room to the basement. signals to the participants - without dictating action -
The structures relevant to a given act in the current that a convention of behavior is in place.
activity that are available before the act may be either Consider the scene at the airport. For the passenger, the
recalled, planned, the result of an explanation, or printed itinerary that her travel agent sent her helps her
designed. Both Tipper and Al may remember previous to stay coordinated. The itinerary identifies her flight
occasions when they moved furniture. For the difficult destination and number. When she arrives at the
portions of their task, they may explicitly create a airport, she uses the listed flight number to select
shared plan (Grosz & Sidner, 1990), an agreed to among the flights and gates listed on the departure
structure - you do this and I'll do that - for the monitor for American Airlines. The design of the
behavior. If the structure for behavior is produced after destination monitor (first listed in alphabetical order of
a given behavior is completed, it is called an destinations and then by time of departure) reduces her
explanation (Mitchell, et. al., 1986), which can become cognitive load in finding the departure gate for her
realized in future related episodes of joint activity. Over flight. When it comes to finding her departure gate, the
time, for joint activities that Tipper and Al regularly do, itinerary and the departure monitor are two
behaviors become conventionalized and designs for the coordinating representations that help to replace a face-
structure of those behaviors will begin to emerge to-face interaction with a mediated one.
(Alterman & Garland, 1998). Alternately, suppose the passenger needs to "check in"
As Tipper and Al perform their activity, the fact that some luggage before proceeding to her gate. What
they are co-present allows them to monitor the progress coordinating representations are used to insure her bag
of their joint activity. Because they can see one makes the trip? Now, upon arrival at the airport, the
another, they can use body position to communicate passenger looks for the check-in counter for the airline
information. Throughout their activity they can speak from which she purchased her ticket. Large signs
to one another in order to co-develop, for example, a displaying airline logos indicate where each airline is
procedure for moving the couch down the stairway. located. Smaller signs divide the queue into first class
Their comments to one another are exchanged without and regular passengers. As the passenger puts her bag
delay, in the course of their joint behavior. The actions on the scale, the clerk attaches a tag indicating airline,
that form their conversation and activity occur flight destination, and flight number. Later, a bagger
sequentially.1 must transport in a truck the bags to the cargo space of
Other kinds of joint activity do not allow for a face-to- the plane. A complex sheet that links flights to
face interaction, so other methods or mediums must be destinations and unique aircraft identification numbers
introduced to support the exchange of structural is used by the bagger to achieve his goal (Goodwin &
information. Performance depends on the participants Goodwin, 1996). The organization of the complex sheet
communicating - by these altered means - information makes the access of information more efficient.
Each of the coordinating representations used to get
1
This list is adapted from an analysis developed by Clark & both the passenger and her luggage on the correct plane
Brennan (1991) to explicate differences among various kinds has both a social and an individual function. From the
of mediated communication. perspective of the social, the coordinating
representation preserves a set of references for objects participant. A second window of information is used for
shared among the participants. From the perspective of planning. A third window allows a user to access more
the individual, the coordinating representations simplify detailed information about visible objects. A chat
access to the information that is being exchanged. window allows participants to communicate with one
There are many other examples of coordinating another using an electronic chat.
representations in everyday life. An appointment slip In a base version of the VesselWorld system,
helps a patient to return to the dentist's office on the participants can only coordinate by electronic chatting.
right day at the right time. A mail order catalogue helps Most of the participant dialogue is centered on the
the customer and the sales office reach agreement on barrels, and how effort can be coordinated in removing
purchase items, sizes, and prices. Tax forms help to the barrels from the harbor and transporting them to a
coordinate citizens and IRS personnel in their efforts to large barge. During a problem solving session, the flow
exchange information.... of information between participants using the base
system is continuous. It is the responsibility of each
Experimental Platform: VesselWorld actor to add information conveyed to him by another
For the last several years we have been building a same actor to his or her private representation (either by
time/different place groupware system (VesselWorld) taking notes, marking the map, or remembering), or be
as an experimental platform for analyzing real time prepared to examine the history of chatting at some
computer-mediated collaborations. A demo of the appropriate future time. Any information that is lost,
system was run at CSCW 2000 (Landsman et. al., misunderstood, never recorded, or never transmitted in
2000). the first place, can lead to discrepancies between the
There are several important characteristics of the joint participants’ individual assessments of the situation.
activity of participants in a VesselWorld problem- An analysis of participant dialogue determines a set of
solving session. Participants have different roles (both problem areas in organizing behavior in relation to a
predefined and emergent). Cooperation and shared domain object. So, for example, a large volume
collaboration are needed to succeed. Participants must of information must be exchanged over the naming,
develop a shared understanding of an unfolding status, location, and properties of the toxic wastes. In a
situation to improve their performance. Uncertainty at second version of the system, coordinating
the outset makes pre-planning inefficient in many representations are introduced that basically structure
circumstances. There are numerous problems of and simplify the exchange of information in the
coordination. problem areas of coordination.
In VesselWorld, there are three users engaged in a set
of cooperative tasks that require the coordination of Analysis of Electronic Chatting
behavior in a simulated environment. In the simulated The electronic chatting amongst participants is used as
world, each participant is a captain of a ship, and their a basis for developing some coordinating
joint task is to find and remove barrels of toxic waste representations. As the analyst reviews the discourse,
from a harbor. Two of the users operate cranes that can she needs to look closely at using coordinating
be used to lift toxic waste from the floor of the harbor. representations to simplify the most common
The third user is captain of a tugboat. The cranes are interactions, fix repeated errors in coordination, and
able to individually lift and carry small or medium toxic replace conventions developed by users during the
waste barrels, jointly lift large barrels, and jointly lift course of a problem-solving session. The goal is not to
(but not carry) extra large barrels. The tugboat cannot entirely replace other forms of communication with
lift barrels, but can attach to, and move, small barges. coordinating representations. Rather the analyst wants
Small barges may hold multiple barrels. Each captain to use coordinating representations to improve
has a small radius of perception. Many barrels require performance - thereby simplifying the interaction - at
the use of other equipment in addition to the cranes. critical points in the ongoing cooperation among
The tugboat captain is the only one who can examine participants.
barrels to determine equipment needs. Barrels can be The analysis was framed by cognitive work on the
leaking - or will begin to leak if they are dropped - in problem of coordination that was presented at the
which case the leak must be contained by the tug. beginning of the paper. Figure 1 shows a list of the
The VesselWorld interface provides to each user kinds of methods that were used by participants to
several different windows of information. The World coordinate their joint activities. The participants did
View (not shown) depicts the harbor from the point of some planning by assigning roles or agreeing to sets of
view of a participant, who can only see a limited region actions. During the activity, a fair amount of chatting
at one time. The World View graphically represents was used to initiate joint actions that were tightly
several kinds of information about the location and coupled; for example, to lift an extra large waste, the
status of objects from the perspective of an individual cranes have to begin lifting during the same time
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Drug Plants
Under Cultivation
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Drug Plants Under Cultivation
Author: W. W. Stockberger
Release date: July 20, 2020 [eBook #62715]
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Tom Cosmas
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRUG PLANTS
UNDER CULTIVATION ***
FARMERS' BULLETIN 663
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DRUG PLANTS UNDER CULTIVATION
T HIS BULLETIN gives general suggestions
relative to the culture, harvesting, distillation,
yield, marketing, and commercial prospects for
drug plants. Specific information is also given
concerning the cultivation, handling, and yield of
individual species and the demand and prices paid
for the product.
The market demand for many cultivated plant
drugs is not large enough to justify growing them
except as small minor crops.
The haphazard production of crude drugs in
small lots of a few pounds usually means a
dissatisfied producer.
A special knowledge of trade requirements is
necessary in collecting, curing, preserving, and
packing drugs for market.
Most farm products find a ready local market;
a special market must be sought for plant drugs.
High prices for plant drugs do not insure large
profits in producing them. Not the price received,
but the difference between the cost of production
and the selling price is the important point.
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Issued, June, 1915
Washington, D. C. Revised, August, 1920
Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies
may be obtained
free from the Division of Publications, United
States Department of
Agriculture.
DRUG PLANTS UNDER
CULTIVATION.
W. W. Stockbebger, Physiologist in
Charge, Drug, Poisonous, and Oil
Plant Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Production of crude drugs 3
Some drug plants suitable for cultivation in the United States 4
General cultural suggestions 5
Harvesting 8
Distillation 9
Yield 11
Marketing 11
Commercial prospects 12
The cultivation and handling of drug plants 14
PRODUCTION OF CRUDE DRUGS.
I
NTEREST in the possibility of deriving profit from the growing of
drug plants is increasing yearly. The clearing of forests, the
extension of the areas of land under tillage, and the activities of
drug collectors threaten the extermination of a number of valuable
native drug plants. Annually, large sums of money are expended for
crude drugs imported from countries where they are grown under
conditions of soil and climate resembling those of many localities in
the United States. As a means of guaranteeing the future supply of
crude drugs and of lessening the dependence on importations,
attention is now being turned to the cultivation of drug plants with a
view to increasing domestic production.
The problems presented by the cultivation of drug plants are not
less difficult than those encountered in the production of many other
crops. Drug plants are subject to the same diseases and risks as
other crops and are similarly affected by variations in soil and
climatic conditions. They require a considerable outlay of labor, the
same as other crops, and likewise require intelligent care and
handling. They are subject to the same laws of supply and demand,
and, like other products, must conform to the consumer's fancy and
to definite trade requirements.
A number of common medicinal plants have long been cultivated
in gardens in this country, either as ornamentals or as a source of
herbs used in cookery and as domestic remedies. A few of these
plants, such as goldenseal, wormwood, wormseed, and peppermint,
have been grown commercially for sale as crude drugs; but the
acreage devoted to their production has been relatively small and for
the most part restricted to certain localities. Other drug plants which
occur as common weeds in many places may prove to respond to
cultivation; experiments should then be undertaken to determine
whether it is profitable to grow them. In this connection it should be
remembered that the soil type very often is an important limiting
factor in propagating different kinds of plants. Some plants grow
best in well-drained loam, some prefer a marsh, some require soils
rich in lime, while others thrive only in acid soil. The soil
requirements of all plants are not understood; in fact it is not
improbable that better comprehension of the soil, climatic, and
cultural conditions adapted to the different kinds of plants will enable
the successful propagation of species now regarded as unsuited to
cultivation. In undertaking the growing of medicinal plants,
therefore, it is essential to know that the species selected for
cultivation will do well under the conditions of soil and climate
existing where the planting is to be made. When necessary, this
should be determined on small experimental plats before
undertaking commercial plantings.
Assuming that the soil and climate of the situation selected are
suitable for the growing of drug plants, it does not necessarily follow
that they can be produced at a profit. The cost of production and
marketing may be greater than the amount received for the crop
when it is sold. Some drug plants not well suited for cultivation on a
large scale may be found profitable when grown on small areas as a
side line. On the other hand, some may be produced more cheaply
when cultivated on a scale large enough to warrant the use of labor-
saving devices than when grown on small areas with the aid of hand
labor alone. The value of land, the cost and availability of labor, and
the possible returns from other crops are all factors to be considered
carefully. On account of the variation in these factors according to
locality, the same crop might prove to be profitable in one location
and unprofitable in another. It is for these reasons that unqualified
statements concerning the ease and profitableness of drug plant
growing should not be taken too seriously.
SOME DRUG PLANTS SUITABLE FOR
CULTIVATION IN THE UNITED
STATES.
The number of drug plants which may be grown in the United
States is large, although the same plants are not equally adapted to
the conditions of soil and climate prevailing in different sections.
Often the most suitable plants for a particular locality can not be
foretold, especially in those situations where no attempts have yet
been made to grow them. In such cases it is well to select for
cultivation plants which thrive elsewhere under conditions most
closely resembling those of the new situation in which it is proposed
to grow them. The success with which ordinary field or garden crops
can be grown will in general indicate the possible suitability of a
given location for growing many medicinal plants. Since a number of
native medicinal plants which in their wild state are restricted to
certain localities have been successfully cultivated in situations far
beyond their natural range, there are good reasons for believing that
many such plants will thrive in sections where they are not now
grown. However, good results can scarcely be expected unless the
plants are placed under conditions similar to those in which they
normally thrive.
In suitable soil and under favorable weather conditions the
following drug plants have been found to thrive well under
cultivation in numerous places in the Central and Eastern States and
will probably be found suitable for cultivation in many other
situations if the difference in climatic conditions is not too great:
Anise. Conium. Elecampane. Sage.
Belladonna. Coriander. Fennel. Stramonium.
Camomile. Digitalis. Henbane. Tansy.
Caraway. Dill. Horehound. Thyme.
Some perennials, such as belladonna and digitalis, are only partly
hardy and would be subject to winterkilling in the colder sections.
Such plants as aconite, arnica, lovage, poppy, seneca, valerian, and
wormwood seem to thrive best in the northern half of the United
States in situations where the rainfall is well distributed throughout
the growing season. On the other hand, cannabis, licorice, and
wormseed are better suited to the warmer climate of the southern
half of the United States. Aletris, althaea, angelica, calamus, orris,
pinkroot, peppermint, serpentaria, and spearmint are adapted
generally for situations in which the soil is rich and moist, but
lavender and larkspur are partial to well-drained sandy soil. Ginseng
and goldenseal occur naturally on rich soil in the partial shade of
forest trees and can be cultivated successfully only when planted in
woodlands or in specially prepared soil under artificial shade (fig. 1).
Fig. 1.—Lath shed affording partial shade, especially well
suited for growing woodland plants.
GENERAL CULTURAL SUGGESTIONS.
The special details of cultivation for each of the medicinal plants
mentioned are given under the discussion of the individual species.
Suggestions which are of general application, however, are here
brought together, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication.
Propagation.—A number of the species considered later can be
grown easily from seed, but others are best propagated from
cuttings or by division. Many wild medicinal plants are much more
difficult to propagate from seeds than the species commonly grown
in gardens. Likewise, some of the species now grown abroad and
suitable for cultivation in this country are not easily propagated and
require special conditions if good results are to be realized.
Seeds of the better-known varieties of medicinal plants are
regularly listed in the catalogues of numerous seed houses, and
those which are less common can usually be obtained from dealers
who make a specialty of one or more of these species. Plants can
frequently be obtained from nurseries or from dealers in hardy
ornamentals. The catalogues of a number of dealers should be
consulted and the varieties for propagation carefully selected. In
ordering, the medicinal variety should always be called for, since
many of the related ornamental forms which are listed are of
doubtful, if any, medicinal value.
Sowing the seed.—A relatively small number of medicinal plants
can be satisfactorily grown from seed sown in the field. In many
cases this method is quite uncertain and with some plants wholly
inadvisable. In order to insure a good stand of thrifty plants it is
frequently necessary to make the sowings in a greenhouse, hotbed,
or coldframe and at a suitable time transplant the seedlings to the
field. Much information on seed germination, hotbeds, and
coldframes can be gained by consulting Farmers' Bulletins 934, 937,
and 1044, entitled, respectively, "Home Gardening in the South,"
"The Farm Garden, in the North," and "The City Home Garden."[1]
[1] These publications can be obtained free of charge upon
application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
The preparation of the soil is of prime importance, whether the
sowing of the seed is made in the open or under cover. Many seeds,
especially those which are very small, do not germinate well in
heavy soils or in those which are cloddy and coarse in texture. A
seed bed prepared by thoroughly mixing equal parts of garden soil,
leaf mold, well-rotted manure, and clean sand will be suitable for the
germination of most seeds.
The depth of sowing is largely governed by the size of the seeds
and the character of the soil. In general, the smaller the seed the
less the depth of sowing. Seed should be covered more deeply in
light sandy soil than in heavy clay soil. Fall-sown seeds also require a
greater depth of covering than those sown in the spring. The exact
quantity of seed which should be used for sowing a given area can
not be definitely stated. The same kind of seed will be found to vary
widely in its power to germinate; hence, the percentage of
germination should be ascertained in advance of sowing and the
quantity regulated accordingly. In general, the heavier the soil the
larger the quantity of seed required. If the plants are to be thinned
out or transplanted, or if they are especially subject to the attacks of
insects, the free use of seed is usually advisable.
When plantings are made in open ground it is preferable to sow
the seed in rows or drills, in order that cultivation of the soil may be
possible. A shallow furrow may be opened with a rake or hand hoe
and the seed sown by hand. The rake or hoe may then be used to
cover the seed with the required depth of soil. It is much more
satisfactory to use seed drills, such as are commonly used by market
gardeners, than to sow by hand, since with the drill the depth of
sowing is more uniform and the soil is compacted over the seeds,
thus favoring good germination. The distance between the rows is
determined in part by the size which the plants attain at maturity,
but depends chiefly upon the method of cultivation to be used. A
spacing of 9 to 16 inches between the rows will readily permit hand
cultivation, but the rows should be about 3 feet apart if horse-drawn
implements are employed.
Cultivation.—There are no set rules for the cultivation of
medicinal plants, and the grower's experience with other plants must
be relied upon as a guide in many of the details of cultivation. As a
general rule, the soil should be worked with the hoe or cultivator at
frequent intervals and kept free from weeds. It is a good practice to
cultivate after a hard rain as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry.
During dry, hot weather loss of moisture from the soil will be
diminished by frequent shallow cultivations.
HARVESTING.
Drug roots are usually harvested in the fall or at the end of the
growing season of the plant, but they may also be harvested early in
the spring while still dormant. Roots collected during the growing
season often shrink excessively in drying and so do not form the
most desirable product. On small areas either a spade or a potato
fork is a suitable tool for digging most roots; but if the area is large,
labor will be saved by using a plow to turn out the roots, especially
with such crops as belladonna or burdock. Most roots require
thorough washing, and when the quantity is large this may be easily
done if the roots are placed on a frame covered with wire mesh and
water is applied by means of a garden hose.
All roots must be thoroughly dried. Large or fleshy roots are
usually split or sliced, spread in thin layers on clean floors, and
stirred or turned frequently. Good ventilation is essential, as several
weeks usually elapse before the roots are dry enough to be stored
with safety. The proper point of dryness is indicated when the roots
break readily on being bent. The time of drying may be reduced to a
few days by the use of artificial heat. For this purpose the walls of a
well-inclosed room are fitted with racks or shelves to receive the
roots, or large trays with bottoms made of slats or wire screen are
suspended one above the other from the ceiling. The room is heated
by a stove, and the temperature maintained between 125° and 150°
F. Ventilators must be provided at the top of the room to carry away
the moisture which is driven off from the roots. Ordinary fruit driers
have been used successfully in drying roots on, a small scale, but
special drying houses or kilns will be necessary for successfully
handling crops grown on an acreage basis.
Leaves and herbs are usually harvested when the plants are in
flower. Picking the leaves by hand in the field is a slow process, and
time may be saved by cutting the entire plant and stripping the
leaves after the plants have been brought in from the field. If the
entire herb is wanted, it is preferable to top the plants, for if they
are cut too close to the ground the herb will have to be picked over
by hand and all the coarse stems removed. As a rule, leaves and
herbs may be dried in the same manner as roots, but almost without
exception they are dried without exposure to the sun, in order that
the green color may be retained so far as possible.
Some flowers are gathered while scarcely open and others as
soon after opening as possible, and in general they should be
carefully dried in the shade to prevent discoloration. Hand picking is
very laborious, and mechanical devices similar to a cranberry scoop
(fig. 2) or seed stripper (fig. 3) may often be used to good
advantage. A homemade picker may be constructed as follows: From
a stout wooden box, about 10 inches wide, 14 inches long, and 6
inches deep, remove one end and connect the opposite remaining
sides at the top with a stout strip, which will serve as a handle. Drive
long, slender wire nails through an inch strip of wood at quarter-inch
intervals, thus forming a "comb" the teeth of which should be about
2 inches long. This comb is fastened to the bottom of the box in
such a manner that the teeth will project outward through the
opening left by the removed end. On swinging this device, teeth
forward, through the flowers, the heads will be snapped off by the
comb and will fall into the box, from which they may be emptied into
suitable containers.
Fig. 2.—A berry scoop suitable for Fig. 3.—A seed stripper which
harvesting flower heads of large may be used for gathering
size. flower heads.
Seeds are harvested as soon as most of them have ripened and
before the pods or seed capsules have opened. Seedlike fruits, such
as anise, coriander, fennel, and wormseed r are harvested a little
before they are fully ripe, in order that they may retain a bright,
fresh appearance, which adds to their market value. The machinery
used for thrashing and cleaning ordinary seed crops will frequently
serve a similar purpose for seeds of medicinal plants, provided the
proper adjustments have been made. Most seeds must be spread
out to dry and turned at intervals until thoroughly dried before they
can be stored in quantity.
DISTILLATION.
The volatile oil obtained from many aromatic plants by steam
distillation is often their most valuable product. The equipment
necessary for distilling volatile oils consists essentially of a steam
boiler, a retort, and a condenser. A constant supply of cold water
must also be available. A common type of retort consists of a circular
wooden vat, about 6 feet in diameter and 8 to 10 feet deep (fig. 4),
fitted with a removable cover, which can be made steam tight. Metal
retorts made of boiler iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick and
jacketed with wood to prevent the radiation of heat are also used. A
pipe leads from the steam boiler to the bottom of the retort and
another from the top of the retort to the condenser, one form of
which consists of a coil of tin-lined or galvanized-iron pipe inclosed in
a jacket through which cold water is kept flowing when the still is in
operation.
Fig. 4.—A still used in the production of
wormwood oil.
When the retort is filled with aromatic plants and steam is
admitted through the pipe from the boiler, the volatile oil is extracted
in the form of a vapor, which is carried over with the steam to the
condenser, where both are condensed to liquid form. The oil and
water together flow from the condenser into the receiver, one type
of which is constructed like an ordinary milk can and is fitted with a
siphon leading from the bottom, through which the water is drawn
off to prevent the receiver from overflowing.
Many volatile oils will float on the water and may be drawn off
from the top of the receiver at will. Other oils, such as sassafras and
wintergreen, are heavier than water, and should be collected in a
receiver provided at the bottom with an outlet tap through which the
oil may be drawn off.
The cost of setting up a still will depend upon what facilities are
already at hand and upon the size and efficiency of the apparatus
installed. It may easily range from a small sum to several thousand
dollars.
YIELD.
The yield that can be obtained from drug plants in different
localities will naturally vary according to the suitability of the
situation for the plants selected for cultivation. Even in the same
locality wide variations in yield will result from differences in the lay
of the land and in soil, drainage, and seasonal conditions. The skill of
the grower and the degree of care and attention which he bestows
upon his crop are also factors affecting yield.
Many of the drug plants mentioned in this bulletin have not been
grown on a scale large enough to give a very satisfactory basis for
calculating yields. Acreage yields calculated from the product of
small garden plats are generally untrustworthy, since in such plats
the plants are usually more favorably situated with respect to soil
and are given better culture than when under field conditions.
Moreover, as the area increases, it becomes more difficult to
maintain an approximately perfect stand and to protect the crop
from the ravages of insects or other destructive agencies. The
returns from small experimental areas can at most be regarded as
only an indication of the yield that may be expected under favorable
conditions, and the prospective grower will do well to proceed
cautiously until he has determined for himself the possibilities of
yield in his particular location.
MARKETING.
The commercial grower of drug plants can not give too much
attention to the problem of securing a satisfactory market for his
product. Growers who live near the cities in which dealers in crude
drugs are located or in sections where wild medicinal plants are
collected may be able to find a local market, but in many situations
the local marketing of crude drugs in quantity will not be possible. In
such cases the grower should send samples of his product to dealers
in crude drugs or to manufacturers of pharmaceutical preparations
and request them to name a price at which they would purchase his
crop. The material for the samples should not be specially selected
or so prepared as to represent a quality higher than that of the
whole lot, since this would give the purchaser just cause for making
a reduction in price on delivery or for rejecting the whole shipment.
It is well to send samples to a number of dealers, since their prices
will be found to vary with the stock on hand and trade prospects.
Before selling, the state of the wholesale drug market should be
learned. The prices to producers are, of course, always lower than
the wholesale price; nevertheless, the grower who is informed in
respect to the wholesale market will be in a position to judge of the
fairness of the prices offered for his crop by dealers.
Under special conditions some crude drugs can be sold at a
material advance over the prevailing market price. By always
supplying a well-prepared, carefully selected drug of high quality
some growers have built up a trade in their particular product for
which they secure extra good prices. Dealers and manufacturers also
sometimes make contracts with reliable growers to take the entire
crop of a particular drug, thus insuring to the grower a definite
market and good prices for the product.
COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS.
At the close of the year 1919 there existed a general and
widespread shortage in botanical crude drugs, and prices in
consequence had reached unusually high levels. The demand in
other lines for unskilled labor at high wages has attracted elsewhere
many persons who were formerly engaged in the collection or
production of botanic drugs in this country. It is therefore probable
that prices for most crude drugs will remain at a high level until the
prices of other commodities undergo a general reduction and the
present supply of labor greatly increases.
Although the average value of crude drugs, expressed in terms of
money, has more than doubled since 1913, it does not follow that
their production offers a corresponding increase in profit to the
producer. The prices of food and clothing, labor, and supplies of all
kinds have for the most part more than doubled in the same time
and the prospective producer of crude drugs will do well to consider
carefully the comparative prices of the necessities of life which he
must purchase before he engages in this enterprise. The unusually
high prices now offered for many crude drugs are due to the
underproduction, which has resulted largely from labor conditions
and do not necessarily indicate any large increase in the demand for
consumption. In view of the present disturbed economic conditions
and the uncertainty as to the future course of prices, the general
stimulation of drug growing in this country does not appear to be
the best policy at this time.
However desirable it may be to increase the available supply of
crude drugs or to diminish the amount of money now sent to foreign
countries for these products, the most important consideration for
the American farmer who would grow drug plants is the probable
profit to be derived from such an enterprise. Many statements to the
contrary notwithstanding, the commercial production of crude drugs
does not normally present unusual opportunities for quick returns
and large profits. Knowledge respecting the cultivation and handling
of medicinal-plant crops is far less widespread than in the case of
such generally distributed crops as fruits, vegetables, and cereals,
and certain individuals have taken advantage of this lack of
information to lead the public to believe that extraordinary profits
may be realized from growing medicinal plants, even in a situation
no more promising than the average city back yard. Such persons
are interested usually only in the sale of the plants and seeds for
propagation or the questionable directions for their cultivation, and
the extravagant claims often set forth in their alluring
advertisements are not only misleading, but frequently have little
basis in fact.
The market demand for any given crude drug is naturally a large
factor in determining the prospects for its commercial production
under cultivation. The demand for a number of drugs is quite
variable or exceedingly limited, and hence insufficient to make it
advisable to raise them on a large scale. In the case of other drugs,
although the demand is fairly constant and steady, it could probably
be fully satisfied by the product of a very few acres of good land. It
is evident that the cultivation of any considerable acreage might
easily result in overproduction, with a consequent decline in market
price to a point where production would not be profitable.
The cultivation of drug plants, to be successful in this country,
will probably require the introduction of improved methods and the
extensive use of machinery to replace hand labor so far as possible.
Growers of mints and numerous other plants yielding essential oils
will find it desirable to equip themselves with a suitable distilling
plant, although the latter can not be operated most economically
when only a small quantity of material is available for distillation.
The natural tendency will be to increase the acreage in the interest
of more efficient operation, but here again there is danger of
overproduction, and prospective growers should thoroughly acquaint
themselves with market conditions before bringing very large areas
under cultivation.
Very few, if any, drug plants are used in quantities sufficient to
make them a promising crop for general cultivation. Many of the
common ones, which can be grown and prepared for market with
little difficulty, bring but a few cents a pound, and their cultivation
offers little prospect of profit. A number of the high-priced drug
plants must be given care for two or more years before a crop can
be harvested, and, since expensive equipment is usually required for
their successful culture, the production of such crops offers little
encouragement to inexperienced growers who are looking for quick
returns and large profits from a small investment. The production of
drugs of high quality requires skilled management, experience in
special methods of plant culture, acquaintance with trade
requirements, and a knowledge of the influence of time of collection
and manner of preparation on the constituents of the drug which
determine its value. Small quantities of drugs produced without
regard to these conditions are apt to be poor in quality and so
unattractive to dealers and manufacturers that the product will not
be salable at a price sufficient to make their production profitable. In
general, the conditions in this country seem far more favorable to
the growing of drug plants as a special industry for well-equipped
cultivators than as a side crop for general farmers or those whose
chief interest lies in the production of other crops.
Although a number of plants which yield products used as crude
drugs are common farm weeds, they usually occur in scattered
situations and in such small quantities that their collection would
scarcely prove profitable for the farmer. Even when relatively
abundant it is a matter for careful consideration whether the time
and labor necessary for their collection might not be otherwise
employed to better advantage. Moreover, it is not always easy to
distinguish medicinal plants from others of similar appearance, and
collectors not infrequently find that they have spent their time in
gathering plants practically worthless as crude drugs. In proportion
to the labor required in their collection, relatively low prices are paid
for most crude drugs obtained from wild plants, and the farmer who
turns to drug collecting as a source of additional revenue will
probably meet with disappointment.
THE CULTIVATION AND HANDLING
OF DRUG PLANTS.
The following cultural directions and suggestions regarding the
handling of a number of drug plants have been compiled in part
from the records of the Office of Drug, Poisonous, and Oil Plant
Investigations and include data secured by various members of the
staff of that office connected with testing gardens in several widely
separated localities. The probable yields per acre are in many cases
estimates calculated from smaller areas, and considerable variation
from the figures given must be expected in actual practice. The
prices mentioned are given merely to indicate the comparative value
of the products concerned and not to fix the actual price which the
grower of drug plants may expect to receive. This will depend very
largely upon the state of the market at the time the crop is offered
for sale.
The plants mentioned in the following pages were selected for
discussion because information regarding their cultivation is in
constant demand. The purpose of this bulletin is not to recommend
these plants for cultivation, but to give information concerning their
culture which may be helpful to persons who are considering the
production of drug plants on a commercial scale.[2]
[2] For information in regard to weeds used in medicine not
herein considered, see Farmers' Bulletin No. 188, which may be
obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, for 5 cents.
ALETRIS.
Aletris, star-grass, or true unicorn root (Aletris farinosa, fig. 5) is
a native perennial herb of the lily family, found occasionally on sandy
soil throughout the eastern half of the United States; also frequently
occurring in the pine and oak barrens of Alabama and Tennessee
and elsewhere in the South. The root is used medicinally.
Aletris is a slow-growing plant which
seems to thrive best on a moist and
sandy soil. It may be propagated either
by division of the root stocks or from
seeds. The seeds mature late in the
summer, and should be sown soon after
ripening, in a well-prepared and
protected seed bed. In the following
spring the seedlings may be transplanted
to their permanent situation and set
about a foot apart in rows 20 inches or
more apart. The soil about the plants
should be stirred frequently and kept free
from weeds. Fig. 5.—Aletris (Aletris
farinosa).
The root, consisting of a short
horizontal rootstock bearing numerous
small rootlets, may be harvested in the fall of the second or third
year. In preparing the root for market the stem and leaves are
broken off and the dirt is removed by shaking (or washing, if
necessary), after which it is well dried. There are no available data
on the probable yield. The prewar prices paid to collectors for aletris
usually ranged from 12 to 25 cents a pound. The prices in June,
1920, were about 70 cents a pound.