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 An experiment made by a noted electrician some years ago will
illustrate this point: A frame was made of iron wire in the shape of a
barn, the wire representing the edges of the walls and roof. The
frame was connected to the ground, or “grounded,” as the
electricians say, and then artificial lightning was allowed to play upon
it from a distance of a foot or more above. This gave a model about
in proportion to the real barn and actual lightning. All the discharge
followed the wire frame, and did not ignite a dummy of gun-cotton
which was placed inside. The instant that the metal barn frame was
removed the dummy was struck and burned violently. One can draw
his own conclusions from an experiment of this sort.

Fig. 134. Proper adjustment of lightning rods on a barn.

A barn properly fitted with lightning rods is shown in Fig. 134. The
location of the points is such that there is not more than forty feet
between two adjacent ones. The rod projects about six feet above
the roof, and these projections are all connected by means of rod of
the same form as the vertical conductors. Sharp turns are avoided in
erecting the conductor, for an electric discharge would prefer to go
straight through the air rather than turn a corner.
It will now be necessary to go into some practical details of the
construction of lightning rods, and the suggestions that will be made
have been included here because good points or rods may not
always be readily obtainable. Their manufacture is easy and can be
performed with the limited facilities of a small village. If the raw
materials have to be bought at a distance, this can be easily done by
correspondence.
Parts of the system: The equipment will consist of three parts—the
conductor and its support, the points, and the ground connection.
The conductor, or so-called “rod,” first demands attention. All
metals conduct electricity to some extent, but certain ones are very
much better than others. For example, lead, platinum, brass, and
iron are poor conductors, which is equivalent to saying that they heat
up readily on the passage of an electric current. On the other hand,
silver, copper, and aluminum are good conductors. In making a
lightning rod, the best all-round conductor should be used, when cost
and conductivity are the basis for the selection. As an example, take
the metals iron, copper, and aluminum for comparison. Iron is
cheapest in price per pound, but its electrical conductivity is small,
while copper, though more expensive, has so much more
conductivity that to get rid of a certain charge of electricity requires
much less of it. So with aluminum, which has slightly less
conductivity and which costs more than copper, but which is so light
that a rod having the same conducting ability when made of this
metal actually costs less than one made of copper, and the price of
aluminum is constantly lessening, while that of copper cannot fall
much on account of the limited supply. To compare actual figures,
call the conductivity of copper 100, then that of steel or iron will be
about 18, and that of aluminum about 60. As to relative weights,
copper weighs about 550 pounds per cubic foot, iron or steel 480,
and aluminum 160. As the prices of these materials are constantly
varying, it would be impossible to say at this time what the relative
costs would be at any other time; but it can be said that on the score
of cost there is little choice among them. For a number of reasons
aside from cost, copper is at present the best material, and these
 reasons are: That it is smaller than the
others for a given conducting ability, and
thus is more sightly; that it is easier to
support on account of this small size, and
that it can be readily soldered to the ground
plate, which will be considered later.
In addition to the material of the lightning
rod, its form is a matter of considerable
importance. The cable forms have been
used extensively and successfully, but the
ribbon or flat form is better on account of the
smaller cost, and because there is a greater
area exposed for the dissipation of the heat
generated by the lightning in passing from
the points to the ground. A rectangular
section of three-quarters by one-eighth of an
inch is recommended.
In supporting the conductor from the wall
or roof, it should be separated or “insulated”
from these surfaces. There is a slight
chance that the lightning might leave the
conductor if the building were wet. A more
important reason for the use of the insulator
is that the heat which is generated on the
surface of the rod when a heavy discharge
occurs will not be able, if supported away
from the wall, to heat up any inflammable
material near it. Fig. 135 shows a method of
support in which one of the standard
Fig. 135. Supporting a rod. insulators used in running electric light and
other wires is employed. These insulators,
which are made of porcelain and iron, can be screwed into the wood
or into a plug driven into the joints between the stones very readily.
The insulator shown is manufactured by the General Electric
Company, of Schenectady, New York, and similar ones are made by
other manufacturers of electrical materials.
 In order to attract the discharge, the rods
must project some distance above the roof,
about 6 feet being the proper height. This
projection must be supported, and there are
two ways to do this. The first is to screw or
nail a piece of timber to the side of the
building, projecting about 5 feet above the
roof. Two insulators on this will provide the
necessary support for the rod. As this might
be considered unsightly in some places, a
neater but more expensive method is to use
a piece of ³⁄₄-inch copper, brass or iron rod
for the upper 9 or 10 feet of the rod. This
can be easily joined and soldered to the
copper ribbon and is strong enough to
support itself in any wind. A brace from the
vertical to the horizontal rod will provide
additional support if desired, and will give a
more substantial appearance. At the point at
which the horizontal rod passes through a
timber support, in case such plan is used, a
hole 1¹⁄₂ inches should be bored in the
timber to avoid any risk of its being burned.
In joining the horizontal to the vertical rod,
the former should be bent up at right angles
for an inch, and the surfaces should then be
well cleaned and soldered. Fig. 136. Efficient points
The points for attracting the discharge for a lightning rod.
should be made very carefully, and with a
view to accommodating the brush discharge particularly. As a rule,
the more points in the bunch at the head of the rod the better will the
brush discharge be attracted; and for the same reason these points
should be sharp and bright. These facts have been determined by
experiment, from which it has been learned that the discharge is
quieter and at a lower pressure from sharp, bright terminals than
from others. Aluminum wire fulfils the requirements for the points
better than any other metal of reasonable cost. Unfortunately this
metal is difficult to solder, but if the directions here given are carefully
followed there will be no difficulty in producing a good bunch.
The sketch (Fig. 136) shows the general construction. In the end
of a block of copper of the dimensions shown, drill a hole ⁵⁄₈ of an
inch in diameter and 1 inch deep. Cut off a number of pieces of
aluminum wire, of about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch in diameter, about 4 inches
long. This wire can be obtained from the Pittsburg Reduction
Company, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. These wires must then be filed
to sharp points on one end, the opposite ends being roughened with
coarse sandpaper. Push as many of the wires into the hole in the
block as it will hold and bend the points back so as to form a brush.
Now heat some solder in a ladle and pour in around the lower ends
of the aluminum wires, having first taken the precaution to heat the
copper block so that the solder will flow well. The conductor rod is
then soldered into a slot filed in the lower end of the block, and the
bunch of points is complete.
The ground connection is the most important part of the whole
equipment. With poor ground connections, the rods become a
menace to a building rather than a protection. Examples could be
cited where buildings were actually struck and destroyed, even
though “apparently properly rodded.” In one case the wire entered
but two inches into dry soil, while in another the lower end was
buried in concrete. It is absolutely essential that the lower end of the
rod be connected with moist earth in some way, as this is the only
method which will insure safety. If there are water pipes in the
building, they should be attached to the rod in the basement in
addition to the main ground connection.
As the charge is to be dissipated in the earth, it will be necessary
to expose a considerable area of metal under ground. If a spring is
near, the rod should be run to the vicinity of the spring and there
soldered to the ground plate, which should be below the level of the
surface of the spring. Moist soil is the only kind which will conduct
electricity, hence the insistence on a moist place for the terminal of
the rod. In case the plate must be planted some distance from water,
either it must go quite deep or it may be placed in a barrel of
charcoal or coke buried under the surface. These materials will hold
whatever water they receive, and it is a simple matter to wet the soil
above such a terminal from time to time. The plate itself should be of
copper and of an area of at least 25 square feet, including both
sides. An old copper boiler, flattened out, makes a cheap and
effective ground plate.
There is no doubt that many buildings have been saved from
destruction by means of properly installed lightning rods, and it is
plain that they are not difficult nor expensive to install.
 CHAPTER XXI
THE FIELDS

While it is the primary object of this book to discuss the lay-out of

buildings and their accessories, it would be incomplete if something
were not said of the general plan of the fields themselves.
 FENCES

Some ten years since, someone estimated that for every dollar’s
worth of live stock kept in New York another dollar was expended in
fences to restrain it. It is probable that this estimate is below rather
than above the facts. Be this as it may, the first cost of fences and
their maintenance is a serious draft on the resources of the farmer.
In the pioneer days, when even the best of fencing material was
so abundant that it was burned to clear the land, there was great
temptation to split the tender logs into great rails and construct
fences with them. Each winter a few acres of land were cleared and
each year’s clearing was surrounded by a great ten-rail fence, which
served to discourage some of the larger wild animals from destroying
the crops. It is easily seen why our ancestors in the wooded districts
fenced the farm into small fields. In some cases the surface stones
were so numerous on the land that the larger ones had to be
removed to make way for the plow. Naturally they were used for
constructing fences, for the most economical way to get rid of these
too numerous stones was to make fences of them. The haul was
short and the fences could be increased in width and height until
storage room was provided for all the rocks which the farmer cared
to remove. So here, too, the temptation was great to fence the farm
into small fields. The following diagrams show the fields and the
fences as they were on the old homestead, and also as they are at
the present time (Fig. 137).
Changed agricultural conditions imply fewer fences and the
adoption, in part at least, of the soiling system. Then, too, the
introduction of the horn-fly makes a radical change imperative in the
summering of the dairy. This worst of all dairy pests robs the cow of
flesh and the owner of profit.
Now that the silo is an assured success, except under rare
conditions, soiling, or the partial soiling system, should be adopted
on many farms, especially in the dairy districts. The object should be
to provide a continuous and full supply of food, and comfortable
conditions for the animals at all times. In May and June the pastures
 are succulent and the
grasses usually
abundant, and the
annoying flies are not
present. When the
animals are first
turned out on the
pastures the nights
may be too cold and
damp for comfort, in
which case they may
be stabled and fed a
small supplemental
ration; in fact, cows in
milk should always
receive some dry,
concentrated food for
the first few weeks
after they are turned
out to grass. Often
the early grass is
over-succulent and
deficient in food
constituents to such
an extent that the
cows cannot eat
enough to sustain life
and produce the most
profitable quantities of
milk. When the
pastures begin to fail,
the flies appear and
the days are hot,
Fig. 137. The old-time fence system on the right; the manifestly the
present condition on the left.
animals will be most
comfortable in the stables in the day time and in the pastures at
night. This system will permit of reducing the pastures nearly one-
half, and the removal of all fences except those which surround the
permanent pasture land. If it is desired occasionally to pasture a part
of the unenclosed land, a light woven wire fence, which can be easily
erected and removed, may be constructed. All changes in the
present system of summering animals should be towards smaller
areas of pasture-land, fewer fences, more comfortable conditions for
animals, economy of effort, and control of food-supplies for the
animals at all seasons of the year.
In most of the states the laws require each farmer to restrain his
own animals without the aid of the neighbors; hence the road-fence,
often the most unsightly and ill kept of all the fences, may be
discarded. How many of the inside fences would best be removed
depends upon circumstances; but certain it is that a more rational
system of restraining and feeding cattle will be adopted than the one
now almost universally in use. We cannot destroy the hornfly; we
can remove the useless fences and house the animals in stables
from which the pestiferous flesh- and milk-reducing flies are
excluded.
 ORCHARDS

In some fruit districts the farmers are cutting down their orchards,
saying that they cannot afford to bother with them, and that fruit-
raising must be carried on in a large way by specialists to be
profitable. This is tantamount to saying that they are not intelligent
and enterprising enough to manage six or eight acres of orchard
successfully, while their neighbor is competent to care for ten times
that acreage. The man who owns the smaller orchard should, other
things being equal, secure a relatively larger profit than the owner of
the large orchard, since he will be able to give it more personal
attention. The man who overcomes the difficulties of fruit-raising is
constantly adding to his education and power, while the man who is
appalled with the difficulties of orcharding, and falls back on rye,
buckwheat and oats as money-crops, sinks in intelligence and loses
courage. The orchard, when intelligently cared for, seldom fails to
give much larger profits than a like area devoted to the cereals. As a
rule, the most difficult crop to raise or the most difficult business is
the one which brings the most liberal reward after the difficulties
have been surmounted.
When convenient, the orchard might well be set to the north or
west of the buildings, in most sections of the United States, but not
so close to them as to prevent a good air passage between it and
the dwelling. Low-headed fruit trees should not be set in the house
yard or near to it. The trees in most orchards are set too close
together, and even when set appropriate distances apart it will be
found to be unprofitable, in the long run, to grow two crops on the
same land at the same time, as wheat or oats and apples. Specific
directions for the care and management of orchards can now be
found in well written books and bulletins; therefore there is no
occasion for treating orchards in detail here. Suffice it to say that the
farmer without an abundance of fruits in their season is like the lad
with empty pockets outside the circus tent: lots of fruit and fun, ready
to be enjoyed by those who have made thoughtful provision for the
gratification of desires which always come, sooner or later. Every
farmer should grow most of the fruits suited to his soil and climate,—
enough to eat and to sell and to give to the worthy poor.
 FARM GARDEN

The farm garden should be ample and contain not only enough
vegetable and small fruits for the use of the family, but a surplus to
sell or to give away. The farmer used to large areas is reluctant to
undertake anything so small as he imagines the garden to be;
hence, too often he plows it and leaves the planting and cultivation of
it to the “women folks.” If he knew how to manage a garden he would
find that the half-acre of land devoted to small fruits and vegetables
could be made the most profitable and pleasurable part of the farm.
Higher remuneration is received for the time spent in harvesting the
products of a large, well kept garden, than in harvesting the cereals
or milking the cows. It must be said, however, that there are good
reasons for the farmer’s distaste for gardening, for the gardens, as
usually laid out, necessitate the maximum of hand-culture and the
minimum of horse-culture. The result of such gardens is a minimum
of products secured by maximum of effort, and a resultant surplus of
weeds.

Fig. 138. Plan of a home garden.

The garden should be about four times as long as it is broad,

unfenced when possible, near to the house, and should be, in
miniature, a farm with the cereals, grasses, and large fruits left out
(Fig. 138). The side farthest from the dwelling should be devoted to
the perennial plants, such as grapes, currants and other bush-fruits.
Everything should be planted in straight rows, with spaces
sufficiently wide between the rows to admit of horse-hoe culture. The
grapes and blackberries might occupy one row, the raspberries and
currants a second row, rhubarb, asparagus and like plants a third
row. The spaces between these various fruits should be eight feet,
as it is poor economy to so crowd vines and bushes as to force them
to struggle the year through for plant-food and moisture. A rod or two
of land, more or less, virtually amounts to nothing on the farm;
crowding the plants is only admissible in the city or village. Here the
plants may receive unusual care, and often may be irrigated at
fruiting time from the city hydrant. The rows of ordinary vegetables
may be thirty inches apart, except in case of such plants as onions,
lettuce, and early beets. These small, slow-growing esculents should
be planted in double rows. Starting from the last row of potatoes a
thirty inch space is measured off, a row of lettuce planted, and then
one foot from this a row of beets or onions; then leave a space thirty
inches wide and again plant double rows, if more of the small
esculents are wanted. The larger spaces may be cultivated by horse-
hoe and the smaller spaces by hand-hoe. The entire garden which is
to be planted in the spring should be kept fertile and plowed early in
the spring, leaving that part of it which is not designed for immediate
planting unharrowed. It may be necessary to replow. It certainly will
be necessary to cultivate several times that part of the garden which
is used for late-growing crops, such as cabbage and celery. As a
rule, the farmer cannot afford to attempt to raise two crops on the
same land the same year, since labor is everything and the use of
land nothing; therefore, better prepare the ground by two or three
plowings for the late crops, than to attempt to raise them on land
which has parted with much of its readily available plant-food in
producing the early crop. Then, too, land which has produced one
crop is likely to be deficient in moisture, while land that has been
plowed two or three times during the summer and kept well
harrowed will be moist and contain an abundance of readily available
plant-food. Early in the spring, when the land is cold and often too
moist, it is best to leave the soil rough for a time if it is not to be
planted immediately, that it may become somewhat dry and warm.
As a rule, the garden should not be fenced, but the chickens should
be restrained by fences a part of the time; at other times they may
have free access to the garden, where they are often very beneficial
in reducing the insect enemies.
 INDEX

Abandoned lands, significance of, 31.

Agricultural statistics, 8; what they do not show, 10.
Agriculturists, what they have done, 8.
Air space required in cow stables, 281.
Anglo-Saxon, cause of superiority, 50.
Animal, necessity of exercise for, 278; voidings, how cared for in
stables, 277.
Asphalt for stable floors, 292.
Bailey, Professor L. H., quoted, 7.
Bailey, chap. xiv, 237.
Balloon frames, 129.
Barns, 288; basement, location of, 268; building the basement,
266; connected by covered way to house, 257; discussion of,
249; distance to locate from house, 257; economy in
construction, 253; excavations for, 268; high large ones
preferable, 253; location of, 255; octagonal, discussion of,
254; planning, 259; size required, 249; water supply for, 261;
why large ones are required, 250.
Barnyards, open ones objectionable, 258; paddocks are
preferable to, 259.
Basement barns, bridging for, 269; location of, 268; on level
ground, 269; floors, how to construct, 277; walls, how to
prevent dampness on, 275; wood preferable to stone, 275.
Beauty and utility should be combined, 107.
Bonanza farming, cause of decline, 36-38.
Brick used in stable floors, 278.
Building the barn, chap. xvii, 288; framing, 289; horse stables,
294; lightning rods on barns, 296; painting the barn, 296;
plank frames, 290; protecting the root-cellar, 289; repairing old
barn floors, 293; roof of barns, 296; stable floors, 292;
windows, 295.
Cattle, stanchions for, 284.
Cement, Portland, cost and mixing of, 274; proportion of, to
sand in mortar, 273.
Changes in houses, considerations, 85.
Children, city and country compared, 3.
Cisterns as a source of water supply, 263.
Cleanliness, and sanitation, water supply and sewage, chap. xii,
204; bacteria, harmful and beneficial, 204-206; bath room,
210; bath tubs, 213; cess pools, 220; closets, 210;
disinfectants, 207; dry-earth closets, 222; kitchen sink, 212;
laundry, 214; outhouses, 216; personal cleanliness, 209;
pipes, 212; sewage, 219; water closets, 214; water supply,
217.
College buildings and what they illustrate, 104.
Colleges. Land Grant, aim of, 14; endowment, 14; data of
incomes, 15.
Competence, how obtained, 20.
Concentration of barns, 84.
Counsel at the right time, 69.
Country churches, 119.
Country life, what it stands for, 74; what things have no place in
it, 74.
Country school houses, 119-122.
Cows, air space required for, 280, 281; mangers for, section of,
286.
Crops, good and poor, 27; specialized, baleful results of, 33.
Dams for artificial pools, how to construct, 262.
Decorations inside, 193.
Deeds and abstracts, 67.
Demolins, M., quoted, 50.
Economy, 224.
Educating the eye and judgment, 107.
Education, by contact with nature, 4; higher, concentration
necessary, 52; higher, in the past, 13; industrial, 14.
Evolution of high wages, 25.
External construction, principles of, 108.
Farm buildings, concentrated and distributive, 251; concentrated
system preferable, 252; examples of mistakes, 89.
Farm laborers, wages received by, 253.
Farmers’ contribution to economic status of the United States, 9.
Farms, selection of—climatic conditions, 55; cheap lands, 56;
water supply, 57.
Farms overloaded with buildings, 88.
“Farming doesn’t pay,” 6.
Fences, 336.
Fields, the, chap. xxi, 336.
Filigree work, not for farm houses, 96.
First impressions, 116.
Floors, basement, how to construct, 277; cows to stand upon,
280; stable, wooden ones preferable, 278.
Foundations for buildings, how squared, 266.
Foundation walls, properly and improperly bonded, 272.
Frost pockets, 76.
Furnishing, 193.
Garden, farm, 341; planting the, 342.
Gingerbread cornices, 130.
Ground floor unhealthy, 77.
Gypsum, use of in stables, 277.
Heating, 190.
Home education suggestions, 48.
Home, old (should be preserved), 112; suggestions for
improvement of, 113.
Home training, 46.
Homestead, improving the old, 114.
Horn-fly, reference to, 337.
House, building the, chap. viii, 132; brick and stone houses,
169; chimneys—flue linings, 140, openings for, 141; excluding
vermin from the, 135; foundations, building the, 138; mortar
for foundations, 139; protecting from frost, 136; the cellar,
133, 134; Wooden houses—the frame, 142; bridging the
joists, 143; cutting braces and rafters, 150; diagonal boarding,
144; girders for second-story joists, 145; made-up timbers,
 146; old houses, 170; roofs—kinds of, 147, pitch of, 149;
studding, size of, 143; the story-and-a-half, 155.
House furnishing and decoration, chap. xi, 193; carpets vs. rugs,
196; decorations, 200; draperies, 198; general principles, 193-
196.
House, location of, 74; extremes, 75; on elevated lands, 76, 80,
82.
House of pioneer, where located, 75.
House, old farm, an example of a good, 90-91.
House sites—old and new, 84.
House sites to be avoided, 82; near middle of estate, 83; and
highway, 83.
House with many gables, 96.
Houses, exposed and overshaded, 117, 118; planning, 94;
studying other models, 95; useless cost of, 95.
Houses, farm, not a direct source of income, 87; mistakes in
building, 87; what they are for, 87.
Houses, old farm, 85.
Houses, veneered, 168.
Household administration, economy and comfort, chap. xiii, 224;
a definite income, 225; bargain-hunting, 229; cash vs. credit,
286; economy of health, 232; keeping accounts, 230; reading
matter, 235; systematic buying, 227; the farmer’s diet, 234;
the wife’s share, 225.
Improvements on the farm, 59.
Inappropriate styles of architecture, 124.
Inside finish, heating and ventilation, chap. x, 181; baseboards,
183; facings, 186; finish, hard oil, 186; floors, 182; patent
mortars, 188; plastered walls, 186-188; picture moulding, 184;
stairs, 185; wainscoting, 185; Heating—steam recommended,
191; systems of, compared, 190; Ventilation, 191.
Land for market-gardening, 61.
Lands, cheap, 56.
Lawns, 243.
Lawyer and the farmer, 73.
Lawyer, province of the true, 72.