Airport Engineering

Aviation:
 Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.

Advantages of Air transportation:

Improves accessibility to inaccessible areas
Provides continuous connectivity over land and water (no change of equipment)
Saves productive time spent on journey
Increase the demand of specialized technical skill workforce.
Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
Speed: Modern jet can travel at 3600 km/h
Promotion of trade and commerce
Military use
Relief and rescue operations
Aerial photography
Agricultural spraying Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Dis-advantages of air transport
2

Heavy funds are required, not only initially

but also during operation.
Operations are highly dependent upon
weather conditions.
It needs highly sophisticated machinery
Noise pollution
Safety provisions are not adequate
High energy consumption
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 History of Air-transportation in Nepal
3

1949: Formal beginning of aviation in Nepal with the

landing of a 4 seated Bonanza aircraft of Indian
ambassador Mr. Sarjit Singh at Gauchar.
1950:The first Charter flight By Himalayan Aviation From
Goucher to Kolkata.
1955: King Mahendra inaugurated Gauchar Airport and
renamed it as Tribhuwan Airport.
1957: Grassy runway transformed into a concrete one.
1957: Department of civil Aviation Founded.
1958: Royal Nepal Airlines Corporation (RNAC) started
scheduled service domestically and externally.
1960: Nepal Attained ICAO membership.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 History of Air-transportation in Nepal…
4

1964:Tribhuvan Airport renamed as Tribhuvan International

Airport.
1967:The 3750 feet long runway extended to 6600 feet.
1975:TIA runway extended to 10000 feet from the previous 6600
feet.
1976: FIC (Flight information Center) established.
 1977: Nepal imprinted in the World Aeronautical Chart.
 1989: Completion of international Terminal Building.
 1990: New International terminal Building Of TIA
inaugurated by king Birendra.
 1993: National Civil Aviation Policy Promulgated.
 1995: Domestic terminal Building of TIA and Apron
expanded at TIA.
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 History of Air-transportation in Nepal…
5

 2015: Gautam Buddha International

Airport foundation stone laid down by Late
Honorable PM Sushil Korala.
 2016: Pokhara Regional/Intl’ Airport
Construction Foundation Stone Laid down
by Honorable PM K.P. Sharma Oli.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Classification of Airport
6

 There are different classifications by the related organizations such

as ICAO, FAA etc.

1. Based on take-off and landing (FAA)

Conventional take-off and landing airport (runway length > 1500 m.)

Reduced take-off and landing airport (runway length 1000 to 1500m)

Short take-off and landing airport (runway length 500 to 1000m)

Vertical take-off and landing airport (operational area 25 to 50 sq. m.)

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Runway Length and Width of some
7
Airports of Nepal

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

8
Classification of Airport…
(2) Based on the Geometric design (ICAO)
 It employs aerodrome reference code, it consists of length

of runway available
Classified using code number 1 to 4
◦ Based on Airport reference field length.

Classified using code letters A to F

o Based on wing span and outer main gear wheel span

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

9 Er. Sabin Pokhrel
10
Classification of Airport…
(3) Based on function:
Domestic airports
International airports
Combination of international and domestic
Military aviation airports

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Based on runway Length
11

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Extra Informations of Airports of Nepal
12

 Total number of International Airport in Nepal = 1 (TIA)

 Total number of constructed airport in Nepal = 55
 Total number of airport operation in Nepal = 43
 Highest Airport of Nepal = Syangboche Airport (3780m
above msl)
 Lowest Airport in Nepal = Biratnagar Airport (72 m above
msl)
 Dangerous airport of Nepal = Lukla Airport (Tenzing Hillary
Airport)
 Highest number of Airport having district in Nepal =
Solukhumbhu (5 numbers)
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Information of Tribhuwan International
13
Airport:
 Location = Kathmandu
 Length of Runway = 3350 meter (10990 feet)
 Width of runway = 150 feet (45 m)
 Runway System = One-way
 Altitude = 1339 m amsl (4392 feet)
 Runway numbering (North & South) = 20 & 02
 Runway bearing (North & South) = 20° & 200°

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Information of Tribhuwan International Airport…
14

 One-way Capacity = 905 passengers/hour with 21

hours of operation
 Surface runway strength = 54 F/A/W/T
 Glider path angle = 3°
 Reference Temperature = 27.8 °C
 Apron Capacity International = 9 medium and wide
body Aircraft
 Apron Capacity Domestic = 17 small aircrafts
 Helipad = 13 Helicopters

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15

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Typical Layout of Airport
16

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 Some Terminology
17

(I) Apron:
 The Airport Apron is the area of an Airport where

Aircrafts are parked, unloaded or loaded,

refueled, etc.
 Aprons are also sometimes called ramps.

(II) Hanger:
 A hanger is a closed building structure to hold

aircrafts, space-crafts in protective structure.

 Maintenance activities are done in Hanger.

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18
Some Terminology…
(III) Taxiway:
 A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport

connecting runways with Aprons, Hangers, terminals

and other facilities.
(IV) Turf:
 The upper layer of ground that is made up of grass.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Declared Distances
19

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20
Declared distances…
(1) Take-off run available (TORA): the length of runway
declared available and suitable for the ground run off
an aero plane taking off.
(2) Take off distance available (TODA): the length of
takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if
provided.
(3) Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA): the length
of the take-off run available plus the length of the
stopway, if provided.
(4) Landing distance available (LDA): the length of
runway which is declared available and suitable
for ground run of an aeroplane landing
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Wind
21

(1) Head wind:

 Direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing

is known as Head wind.

(2) Cross wind Component:

 As per ICAO, cross wind component should not

exceed 35 kmph.
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Wind Coverage
22

 The percentage of time in year during which the

Cross Wind Component (CWC) remains within the
limit is called wind coverage.
 FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind coverage
should be 95% within the limit of 25 kmph CWC.
 For busy airport, Wind Coverage may be (98-
100)%

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Wind Rose method
23

 Typically wind rose is applied for the orientation

of runway.
Wind Rose type I:
 It is the graphical representation of wind data:

direction and intensity.

 Data should be collected for the period of 5 to 10

years.
 Wind data average of 8 years period is taken.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

24 Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Basic length of runway
25
characteristics
It is the length of runway under the following
conditions:
 Airport altitude is at sea level

 Airport temperature is 15 0 Celsius

 Runway level in longitudinal direction

 No wind is blowing on runway

 Aircraft is loaded to its full capacity.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Airport Reference Temperature
26

Where,
tr = airport reference temperature
ta = Average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year
tm = maximum daily temperature for the same month of the year..

Q. If average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year is 30 degree celcius and
maximum daily temperature for the same month of the year is 39 degree celcius then what
is the value of airport reference temperature ?

(a) 30° C (c) 36° C

(b) 33° C (d) 39° C

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Runway Length Correction
27

 Basic length of runway is for mean sea level having

standard atmospheric conditions.
 It is necessary to carry out corrections for elevation,
temperature and gradient.
Step I:
 From aeroplane reference manual, select a basic
runway length (L) required for take off or landing
at standard atmospheric conditions (sea level, zero
wind, zero runway slope and temperature 15
degree Celsius)
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
28
Runway Length Correction…
Step II: Correction for elevation (h)
 The basic length selected for the runway should be
increased at the rate of 7 % per 300 meter
elevation above mean sea level.
 The elevation correction factor

L(h) = F(h) * L
Where,

h = elevation (m)

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29
Runway Length Correction…
Step III: Correction for temperature (t)
 The runway length corrected for the elevation should be
further increased at the rate of 1 % for every 1 degree
celsius rise in temperature.
 The temperature gradient of the standard atmospheric from
the mean sea level to the altitude at which temperature
becomes 15 degree celsius is -0.0065 degree Celsius per
meter
 The elevation and temperature correction factor,

 L(h,t) = L(h) * F (t)

Where,
Temp. correction factor F(t) = 0.01 [ t – (15-0.0065*h)] +1

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30
Runway Length Correction…
t = aerodrome reference temperature (monthly mean
of daily maximum temperature at the hottest month
of the year) in degree Celsius
 Check for total correction for elevation and

temperature:
 If the total correction (elevation and temperature)

exceeds 35 % of the basic runway length, these

correction should then be checked up by conducting
specific studies.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

31
Runway Length Correction…
Step IV: Correction for runway slope (g):
 The runway length corrected for elevation and
temperature should be further increased at the rate
of 20 % for each 1 % of the runway slope.
(effective gradient)
 Total correction factor L (h,t&g) = L (h,t) * F(g)

Where,
Slope correction factor, F(g) = [(0.20 *g) +1]
g = runway longitudinal slope

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 ICAO
32

 ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation

Organization.
 ICAO is a UN specialized agency, established in 1944
A.D.
 ICAO works with 191 member states

 ICAO Annex-14 contains the standards and

recommended practices (specifications).
Annex 14 Volume I = Aerodrome Design and Operations
Annex 14 Volume II = Heliports
 The Headquarter of ICAO is at Montreal, Canada.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 CAAN
33

 CAAN stands for Civil Aviation Authority of

Nepal.
 CAAN was established on 31st December,1998
A.D. under Civil Aviation Act,1996 A.D.
 CAAN is located at Babarmahal, Kathmandu

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per
34
ICAO:
(I) Longitudinal and Effective Gradient
 In general, minimum gradient should not be less
than 0.5 %

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Longitudinal Gradient
35

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
36

(II) Safety Area

 The runway safety is an area which is cleared,

drained and graded.

 As per ICAO, the minimum width of safety area

should be as follows:

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Safety Area
37

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
38

(III) Transverse Gradient

 The transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5

% for satisfactory drainage.

 It is provided for quick disposal of surface water.

 Maximum transverse gradient:

- 1.5 % (For A,B & C types of Airport)

- 2 % ( For D & E types of Airport)

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
39

(IV) Width of taxiway:

 Width of taxiway varies from 7.5 meter to 22.5

meter.
Types of Airport Width (m)
A 22.5 m
B 22.5 m
C 15 m
D 9.9 m
E 7.5 m

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Taxiway Width
40

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
41

(V) Transverse Gradient of Shoulder:

 Maximum gradient = 2.5% (Within a distance of

75 m from the centre line of runway)

 Maximum gradient = 5 % (Beyond the shoulder)

(VI) Marking of Airport:

(a) Apron Marking = Yellow Color

(b) Shoulder Marking= Yellow (Width of 90 cm)

(c) Taxiway Marking = Yellow (Width of 15 cm)

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
42

(d) Runway Marking = White Colour

 Centre-line = 90 cm wide broken strip line

 Side Strip = 90 cm wide solid line

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Runway Marking
43

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
44

(VII) Threshold Marking:

 The runway threshold is indicated by series of
parallel lines spaced at 1 m between adjacent,
starting from a distance of 6m from the runway
end
 The width and length of threshold should be 4m
and 45 m for A aswell as B types of runway
respectively
 It is spaced symmetrically on either side of the
runway centre-line.
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
 Threshold Marking
45

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
46

(VIII) Wind Direction Indicator:

 Represented by segmented circle.

 Inside diameter = 30 cm

 Larger end diameter = 90 cm

 Length of wind direction indicator = 3.6 m

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Wind Direction Indicator
47

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
48

(IX) Airport Beacon:

 A beacon is a strong beam of light which is used to

indicate geographical locations.

 It consists of two 500 watts bulbs

 The rotating airport beacon gives out white and

green flashes in the horizontal directions of 180

degree apart.
 It rotates six(6) revolutions per minute

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Airport Beacon
49

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
50

(X) Approach lighting:

 Before runway starts, there is a sequence of high

intensity lighting arrangements for a length of 900

m used by pilot for correct location of aircraft
during landing.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Approach Lighting
51

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
52

(XI) Apron and Hanger Lighting:

 It is recommended that the lighting arrangements

should be placed at the height of not less than 12 m

from the pavement.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Apron Lighting
53

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
54

(XII) Boundary Lighting:

 The entire boundary of the airfield is provided with

lights at a centre to centre spacing of above 90 m

with a height of about 75 cm above the ground.
 Incase of fencing, these lights are placed at a

distance of about 3 m inside the fence.

 The color of boundary light is red indicating

hazardous approach.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Boundary Lighting
55

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
56

(XIII) Runway Lighting

 Flash type or they do not protrude more than 1 cm

above the surface of the pavement.

 Runway lights are white.

 The spacing of lights are generally less than 60 m

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Design Criteria for Runway as per ICAO…
57

(XIV) Taxiway Lighting:

 The taxiway edge lights are blue and the centre

line lights are green.

(XV) Threshold Lighting:
 Threshold lighting in the direction of landing are

green and in the opposite direction they are red to

indicate the end of runway.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Threshold Lighting
58

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Some Terminology
59

(I) Airport Capacity:

 The number of aircraft movement which an airport

can process or handle within a specified period of

time, usually an hour is called the airport capacity.
(II) Airport Reference Point:
 Approximate geometric centre of landing area is

called airport reference point which is used to

locate the location of airport on the map.

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60
Some Terminology…
(III) Aircraft Speed:
 There are mainly two types of aircraft speed: Air-

speed and ground speed.

 The speed of aircraft relative to wind is called

airspeed while speed of aircraft relative to the

ground is called ground speed (Cruising Speed)
 The indicated speed (via air speed indicator) is

found slightly less than by about 2 % than the true

air speed.
Er. Sabin Pokhrel
61
Some Terminology…
(IV) Beaufort Scale:
 It is the scale showing the strength of air.

 It consists of 13 numerical number 0 to 12.

 Higher values are indicative of higher speed.

 Numeral 0 indicates the calm wind while 12

indicates hurricane.
(V) Calm Period:
 The absence of applicable wind generally
considered as 6 kmph or less is called calm period.

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62
Some Terminology…
(VI) Black Box:
 It is flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder.

 From black box, crash investigators find out what

happened just before the crash.
(VII) Zero Fuel Weight:
 The weight of aircraft without fuel assuming that
passenger and cargo are loaded as per maximum
capacity.
 Zero Fuel Weight = Emptying operating weight +
Maximum Payload

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63
Some Terminology…
(VIII) Location Of Engine:
 The aeroplane may have one,two,three or four

engines.
 The engine is placed in the nose of the aircraft for a

single engine aircraft.

 If engines are two or four in numbers, they are

placed symmetrically about the nose of the aircraft.

 Incase of aircraft with three engines, one is placed

in the nose and one on each side of the wings.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel
64
Some Terminology…
(IX) Wing Loading:
 In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded weight

of the aircraft divided by the area of the wing.

(X) Heliport:
 Space for the helicopter parking, building, servicing

facilities and vehicular parking.

 The area from which the helicopter actually takes

place or on which it lands is known as landing area.

Er. Sabin Pokhrel

 Extra Information
65

 For air-transportation, the period of traffic forecast is

taken as (15-20) years .
 The noise is measured by an instrument known as sound-
level meter which is indicated in decibels(dB).
 Minimum Circling radius is used to decide the
distance between two airports.
 Minimum turning radius is used to decide the radius of
taxiway.
 Minimum area for International Airport = 40 km²

(But 80 km² is preferable)

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66
Extra Information…
 If the visibility of Environment is less than 5 km
then use IFR (Instrumental Flight Rule) otherwise
use VFR (Visual Flight Rule).

Er. Sabin Pokhrel