A history textbook

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 Publisher’s
Publisher’sNote
Note

Education in India is undergoing a paradigm shift with the implementation of the

National Education Policy, 2020. The aim of education, now, is not only the cognitive
development of the child but also of building his/her character. The aim then is
of building a nation with holistically developed, well rounded individuals that are
equipped with the key 21st Century Skills.

This book approaches curriculum in accordance with the guidelines in the National
Curriculum Framework for School Education, 2023. The content, in line with
the learning outcomes specified by the NCERT, focuses on key concepts, ideas,
applications, and problem solving. The teaching learning is based on pedagogies that
incorporate inquiry-based, discovery-based, discussion-based and analysis-based
modern methods, rather than the traditional methods of rote learning.

Rich with a plethora of hands-on activities that provide opportunities of integration

with art and sports, along with cross curricular connections, make learning engaging
for the student.

Utmost care has been taken to ensure that the book is free from any bias and presents
information as accurately as possible. Yet, we welcome valuable suggestions for
improvement of this book.

Mumbai Publisher

01 January 2024
 THE PEDAGOGY

Welcome to the fascinating world of civics and history! This textbook is specifically designed to help you
explore and understand the past and the present of our world, as well as the systems that have shaped our
societies.
Our goal is to help you develop a deeper understanding of how people have lived and worked together
throughout history, from ancient civilizations to modern governments. By learning about the decisions
made in the past and how they influence the present, we hope to inspire you to become an active and
informed citizen of your community and the world.
We will begin by exploring the origins of human civilization and the early humans who laid the foundation
for the society we live in today. Learn about the Indus Valley civilization and the Vedic period, and how
they paved the way for the rise of great empires such as the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties. Delve into the
cultural and scientific developments of ancient India, and the impact that Jainism and Buddhism had on
shaping the society of the time.
Moving on to civics, we will explore the structure and functions of the government, including how it is
formed and operates, and the role of citizens in shaping its decisions. You will also learn about the various
forms of administration, from village to municipal and district levels.
Our purpose is to make learning history and civics engaging, informative, and inspiring. With interactive
exercises, thought-provoking discussions, and vivid illustrations, we aim to bring the past and present to
life and inspire you to become an active participant in shaping the future of our world.

creativity
communication
leadership
initiative

flexibility
learning Life skills
collaboration
skills productivity

21st
social skills
critical thinking Century
skills
problem solving

literacy
skills
information literacy
technology literacy
media literacy
 Key Elements
Journey Through Time

Tune In: to recall what you already know and Let Us Learn: the main concepts and principles
generate curiosity about the topic that you will learn in the chapter

Rapid Round: some rapid-fire questions to challenge your understanding and test your critical
thinking skills, while providing you the opportunity to apply what you’ve learnt

Word Galaxy: new words related to the topic Did You Know: interesting and surprising
and their meanings facts related to the topic

Tickle Your Brain: thought-provoking questions, designed to challenge your thinking and expand
your knowledge

Concept Map: a useful tool for studying and retaining information as you visualize connections
between the different ideas and concepts related to the topic

Global Connection: to explore what was happening in other parts of the world during the same
period to help you gain a broader perspective and understand how events in one part of the world
have an impact on others.

Case studies: real-life examples related to the topic to help you develop critical thinking and
problem-solving skills

Let Us Exercise: to apply your knowledge and skills by answering multiple-choice questions, short
answer questions, reasoning questions, higher-order thinking questions (HOTS), picture-based ques-
tions, source-based questions, and map work.

Do It to Know It! activities designed to develop 21st-century skills

People Who Made History: information about individuals of historical importance, who have made
a significant positive impact on the world through their work and achievements
 CONTENTS

HISTORY
1. Reconstructing History ........................................................................01

2. The Early Humans .................................................................................14

3. Indus Valley Civilization .......................................................................28

4. The Vedic Age .......................................................................................42

5. From Janas to Mahajanapadas ...........................................................55

6. Villages and Towns in Ancient India ..................................................67

7. Jainism and Buddhism .........................................................................78

8. The Rise and Decline of the Mauryan Empire...................................91

9. The Deccan and the South Indian Kingdoms ��������������������������������� 103

10. India and the Ancient World ������������������������������������������������������������ 115

11. The Rise and the Decline of the Guptas������������������������������������������� 126

12. Cultural and Scientific Development in Ancient India������������������� 138

CIVICS
13. India – A Kaleidoscope of Cultures��������������������������������������������������� 147
14. Deciphering the Stereotypical Society��������������������������������������������� 159
15. The Government and its Formation�������������������������������������������������� 165
16. Village Administration������������������������������������������������������������������������ 172
17. District Administration�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������180
18. Municipal Administration�����������������������������������������������������������������������������188
19. Rural Livelihoods����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������198
20. Urban Livelihoods��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������206
 1. Reconstructing History

Let Us Learn

 What is History?  Tracing India’s History

 Why do We Study History?  Influence of Geography on India’s History
 Periodisation of History  Sources of Indian History
 Calculating Time

Tune In

The skeletal remains of a female hominid,

nicknamed ‘Ardi’, was discovered from
southwestern Ethiopia. These remains are about
4.4 million years old and considered the earliest
hominid remains in the world.

Ž Have you ever wondered how these discoveries

help historians? Discuss in class.

What is History?
The word ‘history’ originates from the Greek word historia meaning ‘learning or knowing by
inquiry’. History refers to accounts of events of the world, recorded in a chronological order.
Historians study and reconstruct the past in a systematic manner.

Why do We Study History?

It is important to study history as it helps us understand our present. Society, as we know it
today, was not the same thousands of years ago. The things we take for granted – fire,
food crops, the railways – were all `discovered’ by our ancestors. History tells us their
story – their food, clothes, habitation, society, economy, faiths, beliefs, arts, and crafts.

1
 Tickle Your Brain
Can you think of how the study of our past influences our present and shapes our future?

The study of history explains how changes in the past took place. These changes took time, and their
impact may not even have been noticed by the people at that point in time. It is only when we study
the history of these changes that we understand their impact. History is not merely about kings,
queens, or their conquests and policies. History is also about the everyday lives of ordinary people.

Periodisation of History
To make the study of history easier, it is studied chronologically. The periodisation of history
simply means the division of the past into distinct time periods for the purpose of discussion and
treatment. Historians have divided the past into prehistory, protohistory, and history.

Prehistory

The prehistoric period is the time before the invention of writing. No written records are available
for this period. For example, the Stone Age. Archaeologists reconstruct the prehistoric period
by excavating and studying its cultural remains, such as bones, tools, coins, jewellery, ruins of
buildings, etc.

Protohistory

The protohistoric period is a time of transition between prehistory and recorded history. The
Indus Valley Civilisation of the Chalcolithic Age is an example of protohistory. The Indus Valley
people certainly knew the art of writing, as can be seen from the inscriptions and seals discovered
by archaeologists. However, historians have not been able to decipher this script.

History

History is the period after writing was invented, for example the Vedic Age. Historians have
been able to decipher the writing of this period.
Word Galaxy
Written records of this period are important for
cultural remains – any remains with archaeological,
reconstructing history. Many of these records are
cultural, historical, religious, or traditional value
found on rocks, stone walls, pillars, copper plates, decipher – to understand, interpret, or identify
clay tablets, bark of the birch, etc.

2
The entire historical period is often sub-divided into three periods by historians. They are Ancient,
Medieval, and Modern periods. This year we shall be studying about the ancient history of India.

Calculating Time
Dionysius Exiguus, a canonist, devised the AD/BC system in the early 6th century when the Pope
commissioned him to ascertain the correct date for Easter. His counting method determined
Christ’s birth to be year 1 AD.

The years before the birth of Jesus Christ were articulated in BC, that is, Before Christ; whereas, the
years after the birth of Jesus Christ were articulated in AD or Anno Domini, Latin for ‘in the year
of our Lord.’ However, modern historians use BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) to
make History secular and impartial. When an exact date of an event is unknown, then the word
‘circa’ (Latin for ‘approximately’) is used along with the date. Historians use a timeline to show the
sequence in which events happen.

Word Galaxy
canonist– A canonist is someone who specializes in or studies the rules, laws, and regulations of a particular
system, often referring to religious or legal systems.
timeline – a chronological arrangement of events in the order of their occurrence

Did You Know

46 BCE was called ‘the year of confusion’ because, in order to get his new calendar on
track, Julius Caesar proclaimed the year 46 BCE to have 445 days.

Neolithic Age Vedic Civilisation Gupta Age

2,500,000 BCE- 8,000 BCE- 3,300 BCE- 1,500 BCE- 321 BCE-
600 BCE
10,000 BCE 3,000 BCE 1,300 BCE 500 BCE 185 BCE

Palaeolithic Age Indus Valley Civilisation

Rise of mahajanpadas

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 Rapid Round

1. Which time period does the Indus Valley Civilisation belong to?
2. What is the importance of History?
3. What are AD and BC in History?

Tracing India’s History

India and Bharat are the two terms used to address our country. The word India is derived from
the Sanskrit word, Indus or Sindhu (the Sanskrit name of the river). About 2500 years ago, the
Iranians and Greeks came to India through the northwest region. They referred to River Indus as
Hindos or Indos and the region to the east of the river was called India. The name Bharata was
used to refer to a group of people who lived in Northwest India. Their reference can be found in
the Rig Veda, the earliest Sanskrit text dated to around 3500 years ago.

Influence of Geography on India’s History

The geography of a country plays a significant role in shaping its history. For example, the
peninsular India is surrounded by seas, while the Himalayas in the north, and the mountain ranges
of the east and west separate India from the rest of Asia. However, the Bolan, Gomal, and Khyber
passes in the northwest allowed various tribes from Central and West Asia to enter and invade
India. Not only this, passes along the northern mountains helped the spread of Buddhism in Tibet
and Central Asia.

The northeast mountains, with fewer passes, has effectively kept China separated from India.
However, the Great Himalayas are the birthplace of two perennial river systems, the Indus and the
Ganga. As fertile plains arose along the banks of these great rivers, so did civilisations spring up
along them.

Moreover, the navigability of the northern rivers helped internal trade and commerce. Ancient
river ports, such as Kanauj, Banaras (present-day Varanasi), Pataliputra (present-day Patna), and
Prayag (present-day Prayagraj) became centres of trade. These factors contributed to the growth
of large kingdoms.

To the south of the Gangetic plains is the Vindhya Range that cuts across the middle of the
subcontinent. This natural partition between the northern and southern parts of the Subcontinent
led to the creation of two distinct cultures – the northern Vedic culture and the southern Dravidian
culture.

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5
Fig. 1.1 The Indus Valley Civilisation
Sources of Indian History
Historians piece together what happened in the past from a range of historical sources. A source
is anything that provides information about the past; it can be an actual artefact, or it could be an
account of the past. The source plays a vital role in the reconstruction of history. Generally, sources
of history can be divided into two groups – archaeological and literary.
Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources have been classified into 5 categories: inscriptions, artefacts, monuments,
fossils, and coins.
Inscriptions
Inscriptions are writings inscribed on hard surfaces, such as
metal, stone, or pottery. A study of the inscriptions throws
light on the language of the court, the years of rule of a ruler,
and the socio-religious conditions of the people. For instance,
Fig. 1.2 An inscription tablet
Harisena’s Allahabad Pillar Inscription describes the conquests
of Samudragupta. A series, called Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, has been published on the
inscriptions relating to ancient Indian history.

Artefacts
Artefacts are material objects typically of cultural or historical interest. They
can include buttons, pots, jewellery, or tools. The most ordinary objects can be
historical evidence containing valuable information about the period.
Fig. 1.3 Pottery
Monuments
Historical monuments are living examples of ancient times.
Various monuments, such as palaces, forts, temples, victory pillars,
tombs, etc. tell us about our past. These may be discovered during
archaeological excavations. For example, excavations in Harappa,
Taxila, Nalanda, and Mohenjo-Daro have helped historians
gather information on the social life, religious beliefs, economic
Fig. 1.4 Sanchi Stupa
prosperity, artistic skills, and town planning of that era.

Fossils
Fossils are remains or impressions of plants or animals embedded in rock and preserved in a solidified
form. Fossils provide information on prehistoric plants and animals, as well as our human ancestors.
Coins
Coins are an important source for reconstructing ancient Indian history. For instance, the metal
used in coins indicates the advances made in metallurgy during a period. They also tell us about

6
the economy of a period, territorial extent of the ruler as well
as the chronology of a ruling dynasty. The images on the coins
help us in interpreting the religious and cultural beliefs of an
age. For example, the coins of Chandragupta II bear the figure
of Goddess Lakshmi, whereas gold coins of his successor,
Kumargupta I, show him as a devotee of God Kartikeya. Fig. 1.5 Gold coins of Chandragupta II

Tickle Your Brain

Do you think it is possible to reconstruct the history of your own family? What are the artefacts
and other sources that you can use to achieve this? Write a brief history of your family with
those sources.

Literary Sources
Written records are the most reliable sources of history. Literary
sources can be in two forms: manuscripts or textual literature. A
manuscript is a document that is written by hand. They contain
information about the lives of kings, religious beliefs and practices,
medicine, and science. Ancient manuscripts were written on metal,
Fig. 1.6 Palm leaf manuscripts
bark, palm leaf, cloth etc. Textual literature is broadly classified
into religious and secular literature.
Religious Literature
Scriptures provide information on the social, political, cultural, and religious life of people. The
four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva – belong to this category of texts. Other ancient texts
comprise the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, the epics – The Ramayana and The Mahabharata,
and the Puranas. The Jain texts of 6th century CE give us information on the political history of
present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Buddhist texts contain information about many historical
personalities and events, such as Gautama Buddha.

Did You Know

The Siribhoovalaya, written by the Jain monk Kumudendu Muni, is probably the only
literary work in numerals, written in the form of frames, each carrying 729 squares to
represent alphabet.

7
Secular Literature
Secular literature also throws light on the socio-political life of ancient India. These include the following:
Historical Dramas, Historical Works, and Folk Tales
Music and theatre are an integral part of the Indian society. Folk tales are stories or legends
based on common people’s life. Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, and the Jatakas are some famous folk
tales. Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a historical work that depicts the Mauryan society and economy.
Similarly, the literary compositions of Bhasa, Sudraka, and Kalidasa shed light on the socio-cultural
aspects of the society of the period. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi describes republics and political events.
The Tamil Sangam literature, composed over three to four centuries, provides us with information
on the various dynasties who patronised these poets.
Accounts of Foreign Travellers
Accounts written by foreign travellers form important sources of Indian
history. Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court, Megasthenes’ Indika
depicts the socio–political situation during the period of Chandragupta
Maurya. With the spread of Buddhism beyond India, many Chinese
pilgrims and travellers, such as Faxian and Xuanzang, visited India. They
have left important historical records of their visits, although these must Fig. 1.7 Xuanzang, a
be read with some caution. Buddhist Pilgrim Traveller

Tickle Your Brain

Why should we read historical accounts of foreign travellers with caution?

Memoirs, Autobiographies, and Biographies

Memoirs are a collection of one’s memories. An autobiography is a written account of a person’s
own story, while a biography is a detailed account of one’s life written by someone else. For
instance, Banabhatta’s Harshacharita is the biography of King Harshavardhan of Kanauj.
Global Connection

The World’s Oldest Inscription

The world’s oldest inscription was found in Jiroft, in the Kerman
province in Eastern Iran. It is believed to be around 5000 years
old. The inscription is carved on a baked mud brick whose lower
left corner has survived. It is formed by geometric shapes. It is
yet to be deciphered. Archaeologists believe that the Elamite Fig. 1.8 World’s oldest
written language has its roots in Jiroft, where the writing system inscription

developed and spread across the country. These discoveries have led many people to believe
that the Jiroft Civilisation may predate the Sumerian Civilisation.

8
 Concept Map
Reconstructing History

Influence of
What is History? Why do We Periodisation of Calculating Time Tracing India’s Sources of
Geography on
Study History? History History Indian History
India’s History

Prehistory Protohistory History

Neolithic Age Vedic Civilisation Gupta Age

2,500,000 BCE- 8,000 BCE- 3,300 BCE- 1,500 BCE- 321 BCE-
600 BCE
10,000 BCE 3,000 BCE 1,300 BCE 500 BCE 185 BCE

9
Palaeolithic Age Indus Valley Civilisation Rise of mahajanpadas

Archaeological Literary Sources Historical dramas,

Sources historical works, folk tales

Accounts of
Religious Secular
foreign travellers

Memoirs, Autobiographies,
Biographies

Inscriptions Artefacts Monuments Fossils Coins

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) study and reconstruct the past in a systematic manner.

i) Historians ii) Mathematicians

iii) Geographers iv) Scientists

b) The Sangam literature was written in .

i) Tamil ii) Telugu

iii) Malayalam iv) Odiya

c) Harshacharita was written by .

i) Kalidasa ii) Ashtadhyayi

iii) Banabhatta iv) Panini

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) A series on ancient Indian inscriptions, called ,has been published.
b) are a written collection of one’s memories.
c) The name was used by the Greeks to refer to a group of people who
lived in Northwest India.
d) is the oldest hominid fossil discovered in the world.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Harshacharita i) Kumudendu Muni

b) Indika ii) Panini

c) Siribhoovalaya iii) Megasthenes

d) Ashtadhyayi iv) Banabhatta

4. Write True or False.

a) Foreigners entered India through mountain passes in the Vindhyas.
b) History is the study of events of the past.

10
 c) Fossils are not archaeological evidence.
d) Megasthenes visited India during the Chandragupta Maurya’s.
5. Sort the historical sources into the correct categories.
Ramayana, pottery, Qutub Minar
Monuments Literature Cultural artefacts

6. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Name the four Vedas.

b) What information do the Jain texts provide?

c) What are manuscripts?

7. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write a brief note on periodisation of history.

b) How did India get its name?

c) How did rivers help in the growth of large kingdoms?

8. Give reasons.

a) It is important to study history.

b) Coins are regarded as an important source material for the reconstruction of ancient Indian
history.

c) Literary sources give an incomplete picture of history.

9. Picture Study.

a) Identify the monument.

b) How do monuments help in the reconstruction of history?

c) Choose one monument in your city/state and write how it

has helped in reconstructing local history.

10. If you get the opportunity to study a source of history:

™ Which source will you choose to study? Why?

™ How will you plan and organise your findings?

™ Write a brief report (~100 words) on your findings.

11
11. Life Skills
Imagine yourself to be a foreign traveller in Chandragupta Maurya’s court. What values of the
society would you depict in your travel accounts?

Do it to know it!

12. Creative Writing: Write an Acrostic Poem using the word ‘History’. An acrostic poem is one in
which the first letter of each line spells out a word or a message. In this case, the first letters of
all the lines should spell out the word History.

13. Field Trip: Plan a class visit to a museum. Ask the students to make notes of the exhibits they
see in the museum and share the experience in class.

14. KWL Chart: Complete the table after reading the chapter.

What do you Know about What do you Want to know What did you Learn about
sources of History? about sources of History? sources of History?

12
Source Study

“History is the continuous dialogue between past and present. ~ E.H. Carr”
In light of the historical sources you have read about, explain this important remark by one
of the celebrated historians of the modern era.

People Who Made History

Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni

Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni was the first Indian to be qualified in
the modern archaeological excavation techniques. He was
awarded the archaeological scholarship introduced by Lord
Curzon, who wanted the best Indian scholars for archaeological
work. Sahni was an assistant to Sir John Marshall, who carried
out systematic excavations throughout India, including
Avantipur, Parihaspur, and Hushkur in Kashmir, the Hindu and
Buddhist monuments in United Provinces and Punjab. Later,
he led a chain of excavations at Harappa, his discoveries
serving as the basis of our knowledge of one of the earliest
cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Sahni was bestowed the Rai Bahadur
Daya Ram Sahni
title of CIE (Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire) in
1935.

13
 2. The Early Humans

Let Us Learn

 Prehistoric Humans  Stone Age

 Anthropologists and Archaeologists  From Stone to Metal
 Dating Techniques  Megaliths
 Migration of Early Humans

Tune In

Till about 12,000 years, the human way of life was

vastly different than what it is today. Hunter-gatherer
culture was the predominant lifestyle, as humans
hunted animals and gathered food items like wild
vegetation, honey, etc.
What do you think happened to change this lifestyle
so drastically?

Prehistoric Humans
The story of human evolution is a very long one of
change, spanning 6 million years, from our ape-like
primates to our current version. Scientific evidence
reveals that we share physical and behavioural
characteristics with our ancestors. The British naturalist,
Charles Darwin, wrote books, On the Origin of Species
(1859), and The Descent of Man (1871) on the nature
Fig. 2.1 Stages of Human Evolution
of our evolutionary relationships.

Word Galaxy
evolution – process by which living things change and advance over millions of years
primates – “primates” refers to a group of mammals that includes humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians (such
as lemurs and tarsiers).

14
Anthropologists and Archaeologists
The primary sources for describing the process of human evolution are fossils of early humans and
archaeological remains. Archaeological remains are objects and places that were created by early
humans. By carefully studying such evidences, archaeologists can find out how the early humans
made and used tools and lived in their habitats. The latter includes tools, bones, and other evidence
such as footprints and handprints left by early humans. Generally, these remains have been found
buried naturally and preserved for many years. They are either discovered on the surface or by
digging in the ground. For example, the size and shape of a bone and markings left by muscles
help anthropologists learn how the early humans
Word Galaxy
moved and held their tools. Anthropologists also
determine the physical structure and size of the habitat – the natural home or environment of an
animal, plant, or other organisms
brains, and how they changed over time by studying
fossilized bones.

Tickle Your Brain

Do you think anthropologists and archaeologists can work together to reconstruct history?

Did You Know

The oldest fossil in India was discovered in the Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh. The
fossil is 550 million years old and is named ‘Dickinsonia’ believed to be of the earliest known
living animal.

Dating Techniques
Various techniques are used to date the layers containing fossils and archaeological artefacts. The
important dating techniques are:
™ Radiocarbon dating: Used for dating remains associated with all living organisms.
™ Thermoluminescence dating: Used for dating baked materials such as, pottery and terracotta
items.
™ Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating: Used for dating volcanic rocks.
™ Electron Spin Resonance dating: Used for dating bones and shells.

15
Migration of Early Humans
The earliest humans first evolved in Africa. In fact, much of human evolution took place in the vast
continent. The fossilised remains of early humans, who lived between 6 million and 2 million years
ago, have been found in Africa. They first wandered out of Africa into Asia possibly sometime
between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They came to Europe between 1.5 million and 1 million
years ago. Homo sapiens, the species of modern humans, spread across different parts of the
world much later. For example, they first entered Australia possibly within the last 70,000 years and
America within the last 30,000 years or so.

Rapid Round

1. What are the different dating techniques?

2. Why do you think early humans migrated?

Did You Know

The first modern humans, Homo sapiens, descended from their ancestors between 200,000
and 300,000 years ago. They first acquired the ability to speak roughly 50,000 years ago.

Stone Age
In the 19th century, Danish scholar, Christian J. Thomsen,
came up with the ‘Three Age System’ to study the human
past. He coined the term, ‘Stone Age.’ The beginning of the
Stone Age is traced to the first production and use of stone
tools. Its end date is traced to the first use of bronze. The
earliest global date for the beginning of the Stone Age is
2.5 million years ago in Africa. On the basis of stone tools
used by early humans, the Stone Age is divided into three Fig. 2.2 Stone Age cave dwellers

periods: Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Neolithic Age.

Palaeolithic Age Neolithic Age

c. 2600000 BCE – c. 12000 BCE c. 12000 BCE – c. 9000 BCE c. 9000 BCE – c. 3300 BCE

Mesolithic Age

16
 Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age
or Old Stone Age or Middle Stone Age or New Stone Age
c. 2600000 BCE – c. 12000 c. 12000 BCE – c. 9000
Period c. 9000 BCE – c. 3300 BCE
BCE BCE
Palaeolithic humans used Mesolithic humans used Neolithic humans used
crude and unpolished stone advanced flint tools known advanced stone tools. The
tools. Large stones were as microliths. The tools tools were well-shaped
shaped into hammers and were sharper, smaller, and and polished and were
Stone axe heads. These tools more effective than those used for cutting plants,
Tools were used for cutting trees, used in the Palaeolithic fruits, and meat. Tools,
killing and skinning animals, Age. Animal bones and such as sickle blades and
chopping, and digging up horns were used to make grinding stones, were
roots. these tools. used for harvesting and
processing crops.

Stone
Tools

Humans hunted wild Hunting and food Humans cultivated cereal

animals, collected wild fruits, gathering continued to be crops such as wheat
and did fishing to meet food the main sources of food. and barley. Domesticated
Food requirements. animals, such as goats,
cattle, and sheep,
provided a regular supply
of milk and meat.

Word Galaxy
flint – hard, grey rock consisting of almost pure silica, occurring mainly as nodules in chalk

17
 Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age
or Old Stone Age or Middle Stone Age or New Stone Age

There were no permanent People lived in simple People lived in houses

Place of
houses. Humans lived either houses made of straw. made of sun-dried and
Shelter
on treetops or in caves. burnt bricks.

People wore barks of trees, People wore barks of The art of spinning and
leaves, and animal skin to trees, leaves, and animal weaving were developed.
Clothing
protect themselves from skin to protect themselves Linen and woolen clothes
heat, cold, and rain. from heat, cold, and rain. were used.

Palaeolithic humans moved Mesolithic humans started Neolithic humans lived a

Social Life in small groups and led a moving towards a settled settled life in small tribes
nomadic life. life. of 150–2,000 people.

Hunting and food

Agriculture was started.
gathering continued.
Economic Hunting and food gathering Bullocks, donkeys, and
The period marked the
Life were the main activities. horses were used to
beginning of animal
plough the fields.
husbandry.

The significant discovery of Animals, such as goats, The wheel was

fire was made. Fire provided sheep, and dogs, were invented marking a
light and warmth. It was domesticated. New major milestone in the
also used to scare away wild objects, such as fishing evolutionary history of
animals. It further helped to tackles and bows, were humans. The wheel was
cook food. Cave paintings invented to make life used to make pottery,
Special were a special feature of easier. transport heavy objects
Features this age. Other works of art as well as humans. Clay
included animal carvings and pots were made and even
rock paintings. decorated with floral or
geometric designs. These
pots were used to store
grains and water, and for
cooking food.

18
 Source Study

Human beings practised the oldest art

forms, such as painting and drawing, to
express themselves. They used the cave
walls as their canvas. Paintings depicting
human figures, human activities, religious
symbols and animals, and hunting scenes
have been found on cave walls.

™ What information can you obtain from

this cave painting? Discuss in class.

Rapid Round

1. How is the Stone Age classified?

2. What were the food habits of the Palaeolithic people?
3. In which age was the wheel invented?

From Stones to Metals

Chalcolithic Age
The Neolithic Age was followed by the
Chalcolithic Age. This age is distinguished
by the use of stone and copper tools.
Hence the name, Chalcolithic, meaning the
Copper-Stone age. It is often referred to as
‘protohistoric Age’ as it was different from
the Stone Age when knowledge of metal Fig. 2.3 Stone and copper tools
and script was absent. The use of copper led
to the production of metal objects. Houses were either circular or rectangular or plain. They usually
had only one room but multi-roomed houses also existed as is evident at Inamgaon near Pune.
The houses were plastered with cow dung and lime.

19
 Sketch Map not to scale,
An Artist Impression

Fig. 2.4 Prehistoric Sites in India

Farming, hunting, and fishing were some of the occupations of the Chalcolithic people. They
reared cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, and pigs, which were also slaughtered for food. Crops such
as wheat, rice, bajra, jowar, millets, ragi, green pea, lentil, green gram, and black gram were grown.
Painted pottery was an important feature of the age. Chalcolithic pottery ranges from red ware,
deep red ware to deep brown and black. Pictographic red and black, and polished red ware have
also been found. The Chalcolithic burial practice was remarkable in which the dead were buried in
a particular direction all over a particular area.

20
 Tickle Your Brain
What materials do you think the Stone Age people used to create cave paintings?

Megaliths
The practice of erecting
Megaliths, (literally meaning
big stones), started around
3000 years ago. People carefully
put together stone boulders to
mark burial sites. This practice
was prevalent in the north-east,
Deccan, Kashmir, and South
India. The megaliths are often
found underground but some
can also be seen on the surface.
A circle of boulders or a large
standing stone on the ground Fig. 2.5 Megalithic Burial
may indicate the presence of
burials underneath. In Megalithic burials, the dead were usually buried with pots. Several tools,
horses skeletons, iron weapons, and stone and gold ornaments have also been found.

Did You Know

The Lingayat community in Karnataka still engages in the construction of megaliths today
in a symbolic manner.

Rapid Round

1. How was the Chalcolithic Age different from the Stone Age?
2. Which types of pottery were found during the Chalcolithic Age?
3. What are megaliths?

21
Case Studies
Palaeolithic Site in India
Hunsgi
Palaeolithic remains have been found in the Hunsgi region in Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The site
is situated on the banks of the Hunsgi River, a tributary of the Krishna. The tools here are mostly
made of different stones including limestone, sandstone, quartzite, dolerite, and chert. In one of
the excavated sites, huge granite blocks were found arranged across 63 square metres.

Neolithic Sites in India

Sarutaru
Sarutaru is a small town situated 25 km south-east of Guwahati. This Neolithic site lies on top of
a small hillock about 125 m high. Archaeological artefacts found here include ground stone celts
and potsherds. Numerous potsherds have been
Word Galaxy
retrieved from the site. Handmade pottery,
potsherd – a broken piece of ceramic material,
made of clay and quartz particles, have been
especially one found in an archaeological site
found.

Burzahom
Burzahom is located 16 km
north-east of Srinagar, about 1800
Ladder in smoke hole
m above sea-level. Archaeologists
have also found traces of pit-houses
that sheltered people from the cold.
These were dug into the soil with
steps leading into them. Cooking
Ventilation tunnel
hearths were found both inside and
Sipapu Ventilation shaft
outside the houses, indicating that Fire hearth

people used to cook food either Roof-support post Deflector Wing wall

indoors or outdoors depending on

Fig. 2.6 Burzahom pit-house
the weather. Other finds include
different types of earthen pots. These were used
for cooking food and storing things. At times, these Word Galaxy
were decorated. Besides, people used a variety of habitation – the act of living in a building

materials, such as cotton, to weave cloth.

22
Chalcolithic site in India

Inamgaon

The ancient site at Inamgaon is located on the right bank of River Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima.
It is a widespread site, spread across 65 acres and consisting of five mounds forming a rough
semicircle. The Inamgaon excavations have lessened the gap between the Chalcolithic phase and
the early historic period in India by almost three centuries. According to the archaeologists, the
Central Indian tribe of the Malwas was the first to have cultural contact with Inamgaon. Adults were
buried in a pit, just large enough for the purpose, and oriented in a north-south direction. Vessels
containing food and water were also placed in the pit. Burials were found within the habitation
area, either inside or in the courtyard of the house.

Global Connection

Aborigines of Australia
Archaeologists believe that the Aborigines of
Australia could be the oldest population of
Homo sapiens living outside of Africa. They
probably migrated from the continent in
boats about 70,000 years ago. The word
‘aborigine’ means ‘the first or the earliest
known’. The aborigines usually lived in the
desert, inland non-desert areas, the coast,
and Tasmania. Those who lived in the
desert or inland areas survived on fruits,
insects, birds, reptiles, and mammals.
Those who lived in the coastal area ate roots, fruits, small animals, reptiles, fish, and shellfish.
Aborigines were native to Australia and Tasmania. They were nomadic, moving across
watering places and setting up camp there. They lived in family groups and clans. Each clan
had a place on their land where their spirits were believed to return when they died. The men
were custodians, tool-makers, and hunters. The women not only took care of the children but
also gathered and prepared food.

23
 Concept Map
The Early Humans

Prehistoric Anthropologists Dating Migration of Stone Age From Stone to Megaliths

Humans and Techniques Early Humans Metal
Archaeologists

4500
15,000 BCE
25,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
Ladder in smoke hole
100,000 BCE
12,000 BCE

24
70,000 BCE

30,000 BCE
200,000 BCE
Ventilation tunnel 1,500 BCE
50,000 BCE
Sipapu Ventilation shaft
Fire hearth

Deflector Homo sapiens

1,500 BCE
Wing wall Homo Neanderthalensis
Roof-support post
Homo Erectus

Radiocarbon Thermoluminescence Potassium-Argon Electron Spin

dating dating (K-Ar) dating Resonance dating

Palaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Age

Age Age

Chalcolithic
Age
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) dating technique is used to date objects that have been baked, such as
pottery and terracotta.
i) Radiocarbon ii) Thermoluminescence
iii) Potassium-Argon iv) Electron Spin Resonance

b) is the earliest known fossil discovered in India.

i) Rajasaurus ii) Dickinsonia

iii) Lucy iv) Elsa

c) The ancient site of is located on the right bank of River Ghod.

i) Sarutaru ii) Burzahom

iii) Hunsgi iv) Inamgaon

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The Age was distinguished by the use of stone and copper tools.
b) Fire was discovered by the humans.
c) The Mesolithic Age marked the beginning of .
d) The practice of erecting started around 3000 years ago.
3. Write True or False.
a) The earliest humans lived in Europe.
b) Megaliths were erected to mark burial spots.
c) Farming was discovered in the Chalcolithic Age.
d) Burzahom is a Neolithic site in India.
4. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Sarutaru i) Palaeolithic site

b) Hunsgi ii) Chalcolithic site

c) Inamgaon iii) Neolithic site

25
5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Where was the oldest fossil discovered in India?

b) Write about the clothing practices of the Mesolithic people.

c) Where did the Neolithic people live?

d) What crops were grown during the Chalcolithic Age?

e) What are pit-houses?

6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) How do anthropologists help in the study of early humans?

b) Discuss the different types of dating techniques.

c) Explain the migration of early humans.

d) Distinguish between the stone tools of the 3 stages of the Stone Age.

e) State the special features of the Neolithic Age.

f) What are megaliths? Describe the features of megalithic burials.

7. Picture Study

a) Which historic invention is represented in the picture?

b) Why was this invention significant? Write a note in 50 – 70 words.

8. According to Andre Geim, “Human progress has always been driven

by a sense of adventure and unconventional thinking.” Explain this statement in the
context of the progress achieved by the early humans.

9. Life Skills

“If there is no struggle, there is no progress.” Recollect any incident from your life which
supports the statement. Write what you learned from the incident.

Do it to know it!

10. Art Frenzy: Create a storyboard illustrating the life of an early human.

11. Research Work: Find out if there is any prehistoric site near your city or town. Make a fact file
on the same. Include photographs, interesting facts, and local stories about it.

26
Source Study

Take a walk around your neighbourhood. Collect any object/s that you find interesting. Write
a report on how those object/s can help write the history of your neighbourhood.

People Who Made History

Robert Bruce Foote

Robert Bruce Foote was a British geologist and archaeologist who is
widely regarded as the ‘Father of Indian Prehistory.’ In 1858, at the
age of 24, Foote joined the Geological Survey of India. Later, in 1862,
when the Indian archaeological survey was established, Foote joined
in and began the first systematic research of human prehistoric
remains in India. In 1863, he discovered the first hand axes in India.
From surface remains and field observation only, Foote was able to
accurately reconstruct Indian prehistory, naming the major cultural
periods Palaeolithic, Neolithic, and Iron Age, after their European Robert Bruce Foote
analogues.

27
 3. Indus Valley Civilisation

Let Us Learn

 What is Civilisation?  Main Features

 Why did ancient civilisations thrive near  Case Study – Towns in Gujarat
river banks?
 Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation
 Location and Extent of Indus Valley
Civilisation

Tune In

Have you ever been to an archaeological or historical site? Pick any one to visit. Observe
the monuments, artefacts, descriptions of ruins, etc.

Ž What do you think these artefacts and other archaeological remains tell us?

Ž Can they tell us about how people lived in the past? Give two examples.

What is Civilisation?
The term ‘civilisation’ is derived from the Latin words civitas meaning courteousness, and civilis,
relating to a citizen. Civilisation can be defined as ‘the stage of human social development and
organisation which is considered most advanced’. According to Sir Edward Tylor, civilisation is the
result of progress in society from ‘hunting and gathering’ through simple farming to a complex
society. A society is called a civilisation if it has the following characteristics:

™ large urban centres

™ unique art and architecture styles
™ written language

28
™ systems for administering territories
™ specialisation of labour
™ class-structured society

Tickle Your Brain

Can you name the rivers around which major river valley civilisations developed? Mark the
sites on a world map.

Why did Ancient Civilisations Thrive Near River Banks?

Early civilisations sprung up near river banks; hence they came to be known as river valley civilisations
or riverine civilisations. These civilisations developed near river banks for various reasons.

™ Large populations migrated to river valleys as the area had surplus food and water.

™ River banks became fishing and hunting grounds, as wild animals would come to these spots
for drinking water. This meant that people worked jobs other than farming only.

™ Annual floods near the rivers helped spread silt across the valleys, making them fertile for
crops to grow in.

™ Rivers were used for irrigation that brought water to dry areas, resulting in surplus farming.

™ Transportation became easier.

™ Rivers also served as a natural protective barrier against sudden invasions from across the river.

™ In the river valley civilisations, bronze was the most widely used material. Hence, this period is
also known as the Bronze Age.

The main river valley civilisations were the Mesopotamian Civilisation, Egyptian Civilisation,
Indus Valley Civilisation, and Chinese Civilisation. In this chapter, we will study about the Indus
Valley Civilisation.

Word Galaxy
silt – refers to very fine particles of soil, sand, or other materials that are carried by water and then settle at the
bottom when the water slows down.

29
Location and Extent of Indus Valley Civilisation

Important sites of Indus

Valley Civilisation
Sketch Map not to Scale

Fig. 3.1 Important sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation thrived on the banks of River Indus located in present-day Pakistan and
North-west India. In 1921, R. B. Daya Ram Sahni discovered the ancient ruins of Harappa. In 1922,
Mohenjodaro, or the ‘Mound of the Dead’, was discovered by Rakhal Das Banerjee. Since Harappa
was the first city to be excavated, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as the Harappan
Civilisation.

30
Archaeological excavations have revealed that the Indus Valley Civilisation extended over a large
area, including the present-day Indian states of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Western Uttar
Pradesh, as well as Pakistan. Some important sites of this Civilisation are:
™ Harappa in Punjab (Pakistan) ™ Lothal, Surkotada, and Dholavira in Gujarat
™ Mohenjodaro in Sind (Pakistan) ™ Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana
™ Ropar in Punjab ™ Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh
™ Kalibangan in Rajasthan

Rapid Round

1. List the river valley civilisations.

2. Who discovered Harappa?
3. Which city of the Indus Valley Civilisation means ‘Mound of the Dead’?

3300 to 2600 BCE 1900 to 1300 BCE

The Early Harappan Phase The Mature Harappan Phase The Late Harappan Phase

2600 to 1900 BCE

Did You Know

The Harappans were one of the earliest people who developed the system of uniform
weights and measures. Even the baked bricks found at several Harappan sites are of
standard measurement across regions and states.

Main Features
Town Planning
Harappan cities demonstrated a good sense of civil planning and organisation. These cities were
divided into two parts, namely the Citadel and the Lower Town. Each part was surrounded by
walls of baked bricks. The Citadel accommodated significant civic and religious public buildings,
such as Great Bath, residences of the ruling classes, etc. The Lower Town had a larger residential
area and was meant for the common people. The houses were arranged in a grid pattern with
streets cutting across one another almost at right angles. Thus, the city was divided into many
rectangular blocks. The main roads were very wide. The discovery of wooden fossils indicates that
lamp posts were probably installed on the roads.

31
Houses
Each block consisted of twenty to thirty houses. The houses were constructed on both sides of
the roads. The presence of a staircase indicates the existence of a second storey. Most houses
were spacious. They had courtyards and attached bathrooms. Some houses had wells situated
in the backyard. The houses were built at a certain distance from each other to ensure sufficient
ventilation. They were erected on raised plinths to protect against floods.

Tickle Your Brain

Compare and list two main similarities and differences between Harappan and modern-day
houses.

Drainage System
The Indus Valley Civilisation had a well-planned underground drainage system. It was constructed
to dispose of the waste and rainwater. Drains in houses were connected to the street drains which
were equipped with manholes, at regular intervals, for cleaning. Bricks and stone slabs were used to
cover the drains. This shows that the Harappan people paid great attention to health and cleanliness.

Fig. 3.2 Drainage system Fig. 3.3 Great Bath

Important Structures
Great Bath
The most important public place in Mohenjodaro was the Great Bath, comprising the tank,
situated in the Citadel. The tank itself was 39 feet long, 23 feet broad, and about 8 feet deep. It was
constructed with bricks, and coated with plaster and a layer of natural tar that made it watertight.
There were steps at either end leading down to the bath. Changing rooms were constructed along
the sides. Water was probably drawn from a well to fill the bath. There were provisions to drain out
used water. It is believed that the Great Bath was intended for use in religious ceremonies.

32
Granary
Excavations suggest that granaries played a vital role in the Indus Valley Civilisation. The largest
building in Harappa is the Granary. It measured 169 feet by 135 feet, including two similar blocks
with an aisle between them. Each block comprised six halls. The discovery of circular brick platforms
near the granaries shows that they were used to thresh grains such as wheat and barley.
Economy
Farming
The Indus people cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, Did You Know
legumes, rice, etc. No plough share has been discovered
but furrows at Kalibangan indicate that fields were ploughed. The Indus people were the first
Perhaps, the Harappans used the wooden plough drawn by people to produce cotton.
oxen and camels. Gabarbands or nalas, enclosed by dams,
were used for storing water. These have been found in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan.
Buffaloes, oxen, sheep, and goat were some animals domesticated by the people of the Indus Valley.
Trade Relations
The discovery of seals, weights, measures, granaries, and a uniform script at Harappa, Mohenjodaro,
and Lothal indicate the importance of trade in the life of the Indus people. The Harappans had trade
relations with Afghanistan and Iran, as proven by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian texts from about 2350 BCE indicate trade relations between the two civilisations.
They did not use metal money and, perhaps, carried out exchanges through the barter system. Tin,
silver, and gold were brought from Afghanistan.

At the same time, elsewhere

The Harappans had trade relations with the Mesopotamians. Mesopotamia was located in
West Asia in the present-day regions of Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Iran, Syria and Turkey.
Some of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia were founded during the Bronze Age. Uruk and
Akkad were the two main cities. Several clay tablets have been discovered from there bearing
picture-like signs and numbers. The Mesopotamians recorded various information in these
clay tablets and their script was decipherable. That’s why we have more information about the
Mesopotamian Civilisation than the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Word Galaxy
barter system – exchange (goods or services) for other goods or services without using money

33
 Did You Know

The rise of towns along the Indus River was based on agricultural surplus, the production
and use of bronze tools, various crafts, and widespread trade and commerce. This is
known as the first urbanisation in India.

Art and Craft

Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal, the most famous being the so-called dancing
girl in bronze. There were many terracotta figurines as well that were either used as toys or objects
of worship. They represented birds, dogs, sheep, cattle, and monkeys. The statue of the so-called
Priest king, made of steatite, exhibits the artistic skills of the Harappan artisans.

Fig. 3.4 Dancing girl Fig. 3.5 Pashupati seal Fig. 3.6 Priest king

Seals
Seals are the most distinct relic of the Indus Valley Civilisation. They were made of steatite and
faience. Generally square or rectangular in shape, the seals had animal motifs, different signs,
and symbols on them. The most famous Harappan seals are the ‘Unicorn seal’ and ‘Pashupati
seal’ discovered at Mohenjodaro. The latter depicts a horned ‘figure in a seated posture’. He is
surrounded by animals – an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo. Two antelopes can be
seen under the throne.
Bead-making
A variety of beads, of gold, copper, silver, shell, and semi-precious stones, has been discovered from
different Harappan sites in abundance. Beads were made from locally available raw materials. Plenty
of shell objects have been excavated from coastal sites such as Lothal, Balakot, and Nageshwar,
among others. The materials used for making beads were cut in different shapes and sizes, such as
disc, spherical, cylindrical, barrel, and segmented with the help of specific stone tools.

Tickle Your Brain

Why do you think shells were abundantly available in Lothal, Balakot, and Nageshwar?

34
Pottery
Harappan pottery is one of the finest specimens of the
Harappan art. They were chiefly made using the potter’s
wheel, were bright or dark red in colour, and well baked.
Both plain and painted potteries have been found. The plain
varieties of pottery were more common. Different types of
pottery, such as polychrome, glazed, perforated, incised, and
knobbed were known to the Harappan people. Generally,
flora, fauna, geometrical designs, and scenes from forest life Fig. 3.7 Pieces of pottery
were illustrated on the potteries.
Social life
Food
Wheat was the staple food but barley and palm dates were also eaten. People also consumed
mutton, pork, fish, and eggs.
Dress and Ornaments
Clothes made of cotton fabrics were common, although wool was also used. Both men and
women of all classes wore ornaments. The men wore something similar to a dhoti and women
wore skirts. Both men and women wore shawls on the upper body. The art of stitching may have
been known to them as a needle and thread were discovered at Harappa. Ornaments, such as
necklaces, armlets, fillets, finger-rings, and bangles, were worn by both men and women; whereas
nose studs, girdles, anklets and earrings by women alone. These ornaments were made of gold,
ivory, silver, copper, and precious and semi-precious stones, such as crystal, jade, agate, carnelian,
and lapis lazuli.

Fig. 3.8 Jewellery in Indus Valley Fig. 3.9 Mother Goddess figurine

Religion
Archaeological evidences at Mohenjodaro tell us about the religious beliefs of the Indus people.
Many figurines, described as Mother Goddess by archaeologists, have been found, which may or

35
may not be evidence of the cult of the Divine Mother. Animism, or the worship of animals, trees,
and stones, was also practiced by the Indus people. It was believed that these objects possess a
spirit or soul.
Scripts
The earliest known writing system is found on the Indus Valley seals, dating to circa 2600 BCE.
However, this script is not yet deciphered and hence, the contents of these inscriptions are unknown.

Rapid Round

1. What was the most important public place in Mohenjodaro?

2. What were the seals made of?
3. Which civilisations had trade relationship with the Harappans?

Case Study – Towns in Gujarat

Lothal

The city of Lothal, in present-day Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat, was situated near regions
where semi-precious stones were found easily. Hence, it was a significant centre for manufacturing
objects of shell, stone, and metal. The discovery of many seals and sealings show that there
was even a storehouse in the city. A building that was found here was perhaps a workshop for
manufacturing beads. Tools for bead-making, pieces of stone, half-made and finished beads have
been found.

Fig. 3.10 Lothal: General view of excavated Fig. 3.11 Dholavira: General view of
remains excavated remains

36
Dholavira

Dholavira was situated on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Rann of Kutch in present-day Gujarat,
where fertile soil and fresh water was available. Unlike most other Harappan cities, which were
divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three parts. Massive stone walls surrounded
each part, with entrances through gateways. A large open area in the settlement indicates that
public ceremonies were held there. Large letters of the Indus script, carved out of white stone and,
probably, inlaid in wood, were some of the other findings. Harappan writing, found on various
small objects, such as seals, is another unique discovery from Lothal.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

There is an ambiguity surrounding the circumstances that led to the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilisation. Various theories state the possible causes of its decline.

™ According to some historians, the Indus Valley Civilisation was destroyed by Aryan invaders.

™ Another theory states that climatic changes led to the decline of the cities. Perhaps, the Indus
and Ravi changed their courses due to which the cities were completely wiped out. The frequent
flooding of these rivers might also have made it difficult for the people to live there. In course
of time, the cities got buried.

Global Connection

Mesopotamian
Egyptian Civilisation Chinese Civilisation
Civilisation

Rivers Tigris and Euphrates Nile Huang He

Circa 8000 BCE – 2000 Circa 3100 BCE – 332 BCE Circa 1700 BCE – 300 BCE
Period
BCE

Cuneiform, irrigation, Hieroglyphics, pyramids, Writing, silk, coined

Special
wheel, sail, plough mathematics, geometry, money, cast iron
Features
medicine

37
 Concept Map

Indus Valley Civilisation

3300 to 2600 BCE 1900 to 1300 BCE

The Early Harappan Phase The Mature Harappan Phase The Late Harappan Phase

2600 to 1900 BCE

What is Location and Extent of Important Social Life Decline of Indus Valley
Civilisation Indus Valley Civilisation Structures Civilisation
Why did ancient
civilisations Main Features Economy Towns in Gujarat

38
Town Planning Houses Drainage System
Lothal Dholavira

Great Bath Granary

Important sites of Indus

Valley Civilisation
Sketch Map not to Scale

Trade Art and Craft Seals Bead-making Pottery Food Dress Religion Script
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Clothes made of fabrics were commonly used by the Indus people.
i) cotton ii) linen
iii) silk iv) jute
b) was situated on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
i) Lothal ii) Alamgirpur
iii) Banawali iv) Dholavira
c) means the worship of animals, trees, and stones, believed to possess a
spirit or soul.
i) Tribal rituals ii) Agnosticism
iii) Animism iv) Atheism
d) Which of the following is the main source of information of the Indus Valley Civilisation?
i) Literary sources ii) Travelogues
iii) Archaeological findings iv) Both literary and archaeological findings
e) The Indus Valley people had trade links with .
i) Greece ii) China
iii) Mesopotamia iv) Egypt
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) was the staple food of the Indus people.
b) In 1922, R. D. Banerjee discovered or ‘Mound of the Dead.’
c) , enclosed by dams, were used for storing water.
d) was a port city which traded goods with distant countries.
e) The shows a figure in a ‘yogic’ posture surrounded by animals.
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B
a) Lothal i) Rajasthan
b) Citadel ii) Great Bath
c) Lower Town iii) Gujarat
d) Kalibangan iv) larger residential area

39
4. Write True or False.
a) The Indus Valley Civilisation flourished during the Bronze Age.
b) Hunting and gathering were the main occupations of the Harappans.
c) Lothal was the first Harappan site to be discovered.
d) The Indus script is yet to be deciphered.
e) Archaeological excavations are the main sources of information on the
Indus Valley Civilisation.
5. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Define civilisation.
b) Why is the Indus Valley Civilisation also known as the Harappan Civilisation?
c) State any four features of a civilisation.
d) Why is the age of the river valley civilisations also known as the Bronze Age?
e) What was the importance of seals in the Harappan Civilisation?
6. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write a brief note on the Great Bath.
b) Discuss trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation.
c) Write about the pottery of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
d) Describe the dress and ornaments worn by the Indus people.
e) What are the possible reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation?
7. Give reasons.
a) Ancient civilisations thrived near river banks.
b) Seals are the most distinct relic of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
8. The Indus Valley Civilisation had trade relations with other countries. In your view, how
did they communicate with each other, in an age without the Internet and phones?
9. Life Skills
The Indus Valley Civilisation had an elaborate drainage system. What does it demonstrate
about the values of the Indus people?
10. Name the Indian states where you can find the remains of these Indus Valley cities:
i) Alamgirpur ii) Kalibangan
iii) Surkotada iv) Rakhigarhi
v) Ropar

40
 Do it to know it!

11. Art Integration: Make any of the following figures with play dough
i) Mother Goddess ii) Priest King
iii) Dancing Girl iv) Pashupati seal
v) Unicorn seal
12. Creative Writing
Imagine yourself living during the Indus Valley Civilisation era. Write a letter to your friend in
Egypt describing the beautiful items of art and craft found in your area.
13. Comparative Study
The bath in Ancient Rome was also known as the Great Bath. Find out the similarities and
differences between the two Great Baths.

Source Study

Choose any one Harappan site in India (Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Lothal, or any other). Study
the recovered artefacts, look at the pictures of excavations, and read reports on the research.
Compile an essay on your findings. Attach pictures.

People Who Made History

Rakhal Das Banerjee

Rakhal Das Banerjee, archaeologist and historian, was the
Superintendent of the Western and Eastern Circles of the
Archaeological Survey of India from 1917 to 1926. He discovered
the ruins of Mohenjodaro in 1922–1923. This momentous discovery
pushed back India’s history to almost 5000 years. His other important
excavation was at Paharpur in present-day Bangladesh, which
provided information on the famous Somapur Mahavihara, built
during the 8th century CE. He was Head of the Department of Ancient Rakhal Das Banerjee
Indian History and Culture at Banaras Hindu University from 1928 to
1930. He is also known for his work in the fields of epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics,
Indian art, and Indian history.

41
 4. The Vedic Age

Let’s Learn

 Origin of the Aryans  Early and Later Vedic Periods

 Sources

Tune In

Most of you have heard about the Vedas and the Vedic people, sometimes referred to
as the Aryans. The Vedas constitute one of the earliest literary sources of ancient Indian
history.

 Can you guess how the Vedic culture differed from the Harappan culture?
 Why are the Vedas considered holy?

Origin of the Aryans

Around 1500 BCE, the Indus
Valley Civilization started
declining. Around the same
time, the Aryans – a Central
Asian tribe, started migrating
to the Indian Subcontinent.
As the Aryan population
grew, they were compelled
to leave their original home
in search of new shelter and
grazing land. They migrated
to different locations. Those
who migrated to the Indian
Subcontinent came to be
known as the Indo-Aryans. Fig. 4.1 Aryan migration into India

42
The Aryans entered India through the Khyber Pass. The migration took place in several stages and
over several centuries. They came into conflict with the local people called Dasyus. who fought
valiantly; however, they yielded before the superior might of the Aryans. Most Dasyus became
dasas (slaves) of the conquerors. They were admitted into the Aryan society as Shudras. The Aryans
first settled in the Sapta Sindhu region, that is, the region of the 7 rivers. The 7 rivers were the
Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Saraswati. They called this region Brahmavarta,
meaning the Land of the Gods. Later, they started moving towards the east conquering territories
till the Ganga – Yamuna plains. which they called Aryavarta, or the Land of the Aryans.
The Vedic Age is divided into 2 periods.
™ The period between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, during which the Aryans lived in Brahmavarta, is
known as the Early Vedic period.
™ The period from 1000 BCE to 500 BCE, during which the Aryans resided in Aryavarta, is known
as the Later Vedic period.
Sources
Vedic Literature
Information about the life of the Aryans is mainly derived from various literary sources, collectively
known as Vedic literature. Vedic literature includes the Vedas, Upvedas, epics (Ramayana and
Mahabharata), and Puranas.
The word Veda means knowledge. Indeed, the Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge containing
information on the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural life of the Aryans. The Vedas
are written in Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:
™ Rig Veda: a set of hymns
™ Sama Veda: a compilation of songs mainly taken from Rig Veda
™ Yajur Veda: comprises sacrificial
formulae
™ Atharva Veda: a collection of spells
and magical charms
The Vedas were the first oral traditions
to be passed down across generations
for several centuries. Each Veda is
divided into four parts:
™ Samhitas: a collection of mantras or
hymns Fig. 4.2 The Vedas

43
™ Brahmanas: prose texts containing details about the meanings of Vedic hymns and rituals
™ Upanishads: philosophical commentaries on the Vedas
™ Aranyakas: guiding texts for the hermits and students living in the forests. They formed the
concluding part of the Brahmanas.

The Upvedas are subsidiary Vedas. There are four Upavedas, namely Gandharva Veda (art of music),
Ayurveda (medicine), Dhanur Veda (war tactics), and Shilpa Veda (art of architecture).

Did You Know

The Mahabharata, composed of almost 100,000

couplets, is the longest poem in the world. It is
about seven times the length of the Iliad and
the Odyssey combined. The epic is divided into
eighteen parvas or sections.

Indo-European Languages

Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-Aryan language group, a sub-division of the Indo-European
family of languages. Mainly, there are ten divisions of the Indo-European language, namely
Anatolian, Albanian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic, and
Tocharian.

The Indo-Iranian division consists of two main branches, namely, Indo-Aryan and Iranian. Vedic
Sanskrit is the oldest record of an Indo-Aryan language. Hindi, Bengali, Sinhalese, and various
Roman dialects are some examples of modern Indo-Aryan languages. Avestan, the sacred language
of the Zoroastrians, Old Persian, Persian (Farsi), Pashto (Afghan), Kurdish, and Ossetic are some
examples of Iranian languages.

Archaeological Sources

Archaeological sources include iron axes and other weapons of iron belonging to the Later Vedic
Period. Four types of pottery have been associated with the Later Vedic Period – Black and Red

44
Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware, and Red Ware. Grey Ware and Painted Grey Ware
pottery, of the Early Vedic Period, were discovered at different sites, such as Bhagwanpura, Dadheri,
Nagar, and Katpalan in Punjab and Haryana.

Fig. 4.3 Black and Red Ware Fig. 4.4 Red Ware

Tickle Your Brain

What information can pottery provide about a culture?

Rapid Round

1. What do Brahmavarta and Aryavarta mean?

2. Name the four Upvedas.
3. Who were the Dasyus?
4. What are the Indo-European languages?

Early and Later Vedic Periods

1500 BCE–1000 BCE 1000 BCE–500 BCE

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

45
 Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Period Period

1500 BCE–1000 BCE 1000 BCE–500 BCE

Also known as... Also known as...

The Epic Period because the 2 great

Rig Vedic Period since the Rig Veda was
epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were
composed then.
composed then.

Family life Family life

The family (griha or kula) was the basic unit

of the state. Families consisted of parents,
brothers, sisters, sons, and daughters. The joint family system was further
Generally, their relations were cordial, strengthened. The birth of a son was
mutually accommodating, and helpful. It welcomed.
was a patriarchal society. Many generations
of the family lived under the same roof.

Position of women Position of women

The position of women was one of greater The position of women started
honour and authority as compared to deteriorating. Women could not inherit or
the Later Vedic Period. Women enjoyed own properties. They were employed in
a certain amount of freedom in choosing dyeing, embroidery, and basket-making
their husbands. Monogamy was the usual practices. Their earnings were, however,
practice. Women controlled household credited to their father or husband. Some
affairs and participated in sacrifices and women received higher education which
other domestic ceremonies and feasts. facilitated their participation in philosophical
Probably, there was no seclusion of women discussions in the royal courts.
and no restrictions on their movements.
Practice of widow remarriage was prevalent.
The marriageable age was around 16–17
years. Education of girls was not neglected.
Some of them composed hymns and rose
to the ranks of seers such as Visvavara,
Ghosha, and Apala.
Fig. 4.5 Women in the Vedic Age

46
 Rapid Round

1. Describe family life in the Later Vedic period.

2. What was the timeline of the Vedic Age?
3. What was the position of women in the Early Vedic period?

Ashram system
The Aryans believed that a person lived for 100 years. They
divided life into 4 equal stages or ashramas. Brahmacharya Brahmacharya Grihastha

was the first stage when a person stayed with his guru in
the gurukul and received education. The second stage was
Grihastha when the person got married and led a family
Sanyasa Vanaprashta
life. The third stage was Vanaprastha when he gave up his
Fig. 4.6 Ashram system
worldly life and went to the forest to meditate. The last stage
was Sanyasa where the person renounced the world and became an ascetic.

Word Galaxy
ascetic – a way of life that is simple and strict, usually because of religious beliefs

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Religious conditions Religious conditions
The Aryans worshipped different forces of The Early Vedic gods lost their importance,
nature as gods and goddess. while the Trinity — Brahma: the creator,
™ Indra – King of Gods Vishnu: the preserver, and Shiva: the
destroyer — became important. The mode
™ Agni – God of fire
of worship became complex. Religion
™ Surya – Sun God became materialistic, with rituals and
™ Varuna – God of water sacrifices.

™ Vayu – God of wind

™ Usha – Goddess of dawn
Prayers were recited in their praise in the
open air.

Fig. 4.7 The Trinity

47
Tickle Your Brain
How did religious beliefs and social practices influence one another in the Later Vedic period?

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Economic life Economic life
Great progress in agriculture was made. The
improvement in the quality and size of the
plough, as well as the use of manure, led
to an increase in agricultural production.
New occupations arose such as charioteers,
Fig. 4.8 Cow was regarded as wealth hunters, shepherds, fishermen, jewellers,
Cattle breeding was one of the most washermen, dyers, cooks, astrologers,
important means of livelihood. The cow barbers, and musicians.
was regarded as the standard of value.
Wealth and prosperity depended upon the
possession of a number of cows. Other,
animals, such as horses, sheep, goats, dogs
and donkeys, were also domesticated.
Agriculture and hunting were practised.
Trade was carried on by barter system. Rig
Veda mentions artisans such as weavers,
leather workers, and potters.

Word Galaxy
lineage – ancestry
vajapeya – a royal chariot drawn by a horse made to win against the kinsmen in the chariot race
rajasuya – a sacrifice performed by the king to confer supreme power on himself

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Political life Political life
The grama, or village, was formed by a The union of tribes led to the formation
number of families that were connected by of bigger territorial units. Kings performed
ties of kinship. Several villages comprised sacrifices or yajnas, such as ‘Vajapeya’,
the vis or district. A group of vis made up a ‘Rajasuya’, and ‘Ashvamedha’, to symbolise
jana or the tribe. the degree of success achieved in realizing

48
 The Rig Vedic Aryans were divided into while Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Samrat, Virat,
several tribes. Each tribe was under the rule Ekarat, and Sarvabhauma signified higher
of a king or rajan. The king led the tribe in degrees of suzerains. The position of the
battles and ensured their protection. There king was generally hereditary. It was his
were no fixed taxes for the maintenance of duty to uphold the law, or Dharma, and
the state; however, the people obeyed the punish the corrupt.
king or gave him voluntary gifts called bali.

Word Galaxy
suzerain – a country that partly controls another
country, or the ruler of such a country

Fig 4.9 Rituals of the Vedic Age

Rapid Round

1. Which animals were domesticated in the Early Vedic Period?

2. List the different occupations of the Later Vedic Period.
3. What was the role of the King in the Later Vedic Period?
4. What was the ashrama system?

Global Connection

Zend Avesta
The main characteristics of Vedic culture are specified in the Vedic and Iranian literary texts,
namely, Rig Veda and Zend Avesta. Zend Avesta is the sacred book of the Zoroastrians. The
earliest parts of Zend Avesta are roughly attributed to 1400 BCE, making it a contemporary
of the Rig Vedic period. The two texts use the same terms for several gods and even social
classes. There are other similarities between the cultures. Both cultures viewed agriculture
and pastoralism as the principal sources of livelihood. They domesticated the horse which
was used for riding and driving carts. The cults of fire and soma prevailed. Animal sacrifices
were also performed in both cultures.

49
 Concept Map
The Vedic Age

Origin of the Aryans Sources Early and Later Vedic Periods

50
Vedic literature Indo-European languages Archaeological sources

Vedas Upvedas Epics Puranas Pottery Other artefacts

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Brahmacharya Grihastha

Sanyasa Vanaprashta

Family life Ashramas Economy

Time Period Position of women Religion Polity

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Aryans entered India through the .
i) Himalayas ii) Arabian Sea
iii) Bolan Pass iv) Khyber Pass
b) Vedas are written in .
i) Sanskrit ii) Hebrew
iii) Prakrit iv) Tamil
c) The was the basic unit of the state.
i) Village ii) Town
iii) Family iv) Tribe
d) Agriculture and were the main occupation of the Vedic people.
i) Metallurgy ii) Trade
iii) Cattle breeding iv) Fishing
e) The word Veda means .
i) Power ii) Knowledge
iii) Education iv) Law
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) People gave voluntary gifts called to the king.
b) are prose texts containing details about the meanings of Vedic hymns
and rituals.
c) is a collection of spells and magical charms.
d) It was the duty of to uphold the law, or Dharma, and punish.
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Surya i) Goddess of dawn

b) Agni ii) Sun God
c) Varuna iii) God of wind
d) Vayu iv) God of fire
e) Usha v) God of water

51
4. Name the following in one or two words.
a) The second Veda
b) The language of the Vedas
c) Another name for Dasas
5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Why was the Early Vedic period also known as the Rig Vedic period?
b) Who were the Indo-Aryans?
c) What are Upanishads?
d) What are the types of pottery discovered at Vedic sites?

6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Discuss the archaeological sources of the Vedic period.
b) How did the condition of women change during the Later Vedic period?
c) Write about the religious conditions during the Vedic period.
d) Describe the Aryan migration.
e) Describe the evolution of political life in the Vedic age.
7. Give reasons.
a) The Vedas are known as a storehouse of knowledge.
b) The cow was regarded as the standard of value in the Early Vedic period.

8. Picture Study.
a) Which ashram would you associate this picture with?
b) List the four ashrams of the Vedic period.
c) Describe the four ashramas in brief.

9. Draw a venn diagram showing the similarities and differences between the Early Vedic
and Later Vedic periods.

10. Life Skills

“One should strongly resent miserliness and indulge in charity because one can acquire the
never-ending wealth of immortality by doing so.” What can you conclude about the moral
values of the Vedic society from this quote from the Rig Veda?

52
 Do it to know it!

11. Skit: Divide the class into 6 groups. Each group must write a skit on their favourite story from
the Mahabharata or Ramayana and enact it in class.
12. Comparative Study: Do a comparative study between the Harappan culture and the Vedic
culture.
13. Research Work: Collect information about the Upvedas and write a report on the same.
Include information about their origin, types, etc.

People Who Made History

Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri

Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri is a renowned historian of ancient

Indian history who was instrumental in reconstructing the history of
events after Alexander the Great’s expedition to the Indian
Subcontinent. He also uncovered documentary proofs by studying
ancient Indian texts. He played an important role in the growth of
Indological studies.

Hem Chandra
Raychaudhuri

53
 5. From Janas to Mahajanapadas

Let Us Learn

 Formation of Janapadas and  Society

Mahajanapadas  Case Study – Magadha (Monarchy),
 Administration Vajji (Republic)

Tune In

Ž What are the various geopolitical divisions in India?

Ž How are they different from the geopolitical divisions in ancient India?
Discuss in class.

Formation of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

The increasing use of iron in the Later
Vedic Period brought about gradual
but major changes in people’s lives.
Earlier, the thick forests of the Ganga
Plains had not allowed development.
But in the Iron Age, iron tools helped
people clear the forests. As a result,
agricultural production increased.
Gradually, there was excess
agricultural produce. Artisans and
craftspeople started using this excess
produce in the neighbouring areas, Fig 5.1 Iron plough in ancient India
giving rise to bigger settlements.

54
The small tribes, known as Janas, gave way to large kingdoms called Janapadas. People started
paying adherence to the Janapadas they belonged to rather than their own jana. The warrior class,
along with their new-found iron weapons, played an important role in the formation of the Janapadas
in the period between 600 BCE to 400 BCE. A number of janas joined together to form larger and
more dominant independent kingdoms called Mahajanapadas.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas
Sixteen Mahajanapadas existed during the early 6th century BCE. Some of them were republics;
others were monarchies. They were named after the ruling tribe or the most important tribe in the
area.

Did You Know

Ancient Buddhist texts frequently refer to 16 great kingdoms and republics that flourished
from Gandhara (present-day Pakistan) to Anga (present-day Bihar).

Kashi: Kashi was located in and around present-day Varanasi. Varanasi, its capital, was situated on
the confluence of rivers Ganga and Gomati. It flourished under the rule of Brahmadatta.

Kosala: Kosala was surrounded by River Gomati on the west, and the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai) on
the south. It included present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh, with its capital at Sravasti in the Gonda
district.

Anga: Anga lay to the east of Magadha. It consisted of the modern districts of Munger and
Bhagalpur. Champa was its capital. It was located on the confluence of rivers Champa and Ganga.

Magadha: Magadha was located between Anga and Vatsa, corresponding to the modern districts
of Patna, Gaya, and parts of Shahabad. It was protected by the rivers Son and Ganga in the north
and west, respectively. Its capital was at Girivraj or Rajagriha. In the 5th century BCE, the capital was
shifted to Pataliputra.

Vajji: Vajji was located north of the Ganga around the Vaishali district of present-day Bihar.

Word Galaxy
confluence – a place where two rivers meet

55
 Sketch Map not to scale,
An Artist Impression

Fig. 5.2 Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Malla: The territory of Malla was perhaps to the north of the Vajji conferderation with two capitals
at Kushinara and Pava.
Chedi: Chedi almost corresponds to modern Bundelkhand and its bordering areas. Suktimati, the
capital, was possibly situated in the Banda district of present-day Madhya Pradesh. Sahajati and
Tripuri were the other important towns in Chedi.

56
Vatsa: Vatsa was one of the mightiest Mahajanapadas of the
6th century BCE with its capital at Kaushambi on the banks
of the Yamuna. Vatsa was positioned around present-day
Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh.

Kuru: The kingdom of Kuru was located around the

Delhi-Meerut region. Hastinapura, Indraprastha, and Isukara
were its important towns.
Fig 5.3 A silver coin from Vatsa
Panchala: Panchala was located in present-day Rohilkhand
and parts of central Doab. The Ganga divided the territory into two divisions – Northern and
Southern. The capital of Northern Panchala was Ahichhatra (present-day Bareilly district, Uttar
Pradesh). Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala.

Matsya: Matsya lay to the south of the Kuru kingdom. Matsya is traditionally associated with
modern Jaipur. Their capital was at Viratnagara.

Surasena: The Surasena kingdom had Mathura as its capital, located on the bank of the Yamuna.
Mathura was strategically situated at the junction of two famous ancient Indian trade routes,
namely Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha.

Assaka: Assaka was located on the bank of River Godavari. Paithan has been identified with ancient
Pratishthana, the capital of Assaka. The Daksinapatha is believed to have connected Pratishthana
with the other cities of the north.

Avanti: In the 6th century BCE, Avanti was one of the most dominant Mahajanapadas. The central
area of this kingdom would roughly correspond to Ujjain district of Madhya Pradesh, extending
up to River Narmada. It was divided into two parts; the northern part, with its capital as Ujjain, and
the southern part at Mahishmati.

Gandhara: Gandhara was situated between present-day Kabul and Rawalpindi in the northwestern
part of the Indian subcontinent. Certain regions of Kashmir may have also been part of Gandhara.
Its capital, Taxila, was an important city.

Kambhoja: Kambhoja was probably located close to Gandhara. Rajapura and Dwaraka were its
important towns.

Tickle Your Brain

How did territorial divisions help the agriculturalists of ancient India?

57
 Did You Know

Gandhara artists are famous for their numerous scultpures of the Buddha, represented in
the style of the Greek God, Apollo. These figures of the Buddha wore garments like those
seen on statues from the Roman Empire.

Rapid Round

1. How did janapadas evolve into mahajanapadas?

2. Where were the mahajanapadas mostly situated? Why?

Types of Government

Republic (Gana-sangha) Monarchy

™ A republic was ruled by a group elected ™ A monarchy was ruled by a king. Kingship
by the common people. There was no was hereditary.
king. The republic consisted of either one
tribe or an alliance of many tribes.
™ Decisions were taken by a majority vote. ™ The final decision lay in the hands of the king.
™ Revenue was claimed by the tribal ™ The revenue was claimed by the king.
oligarch known as raja.
™ Examples: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti
™ Examples: Malla and Vajji

Word Galaxy
monarchy– a form of government with a monarch at the head
republic– a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives
oligarch– a member or supporter of a government in which a small group of powerful people exercise control

Administration
Most Mahajanapadas had fortified capital cities. Forts, built by the rulers, were of immense
importance as they protected the region from foreign invasion. It also helped the king to control
the people living inside it. Forts showcased the king’s power and wealth.

58
Rulers of Mahajanapadas maintained huge armies and paid regular salaries to the soldiers. For this,
they needed more resources. Thus, they started collecting various taxes from the people. Farmers
had to pay bhaga, a tax on crops, fixed at 1/6th of the total produce. Herders had to give animal
produce to the state, whereas hunters had to give forest products as tax. Craftspeople worked for
a day every month for the king. Taxes were also levied on traded goods.

Tickle Your Brain

Why were taxes important for political administration?

Society
The caste system became more rigid. The importance of
Brahmans grew as sacrifices grew. The top three castes, the
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, were dvija or ‘twice-
born’. These castes were allowed to perform the upanayana
ceremony (wearing of the scared thread), indicating the
beginning of education in one’s life. However, Shudras and
Fig. 5.4 Education in Ancient India
women were deprived of education. The family system also
changed as the father became important in the family. Male
ancestors came to be worshipped. Although women occasionally participated in philosophical
discussions and religious rituals, their position became inferior to men.

Rapid Round

1. What are gana-sanghas? Name two monarchical mahajanapadas.

2. How did craftspeople pay taxes?

Case Study – Magadha (Monarchy)

Location
Several factors contributed to the emergence of Magadha as an important and powerful
Mahajanapada. It enjoyed an advantageous geographical position, controlling the iron ore
deposits of southern Bihar. This enabled Magadha to equip its soldiers with effective weapons. Its
two capitals, Rajagriha and Pataliputra, were strategically located. Rajagriha was an invincible place

59
protected by five hills, whereas Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of the Ganga, Gandak,
Ghaghra, and Son. The rivers offered protection from foreign invasions, while providing a means of
transport and agricultural facilities. Control over the trade routes along the rivers brought in large
amounts of revenue. Timber from the thick forests was used for making chariots, houses, and forts.

Fig. 5.5 Ancient Magadha

Important rulers

Magadha had ambitious rulers who wanted to secure their kingdoms, and expand their territories.
They used the strategy of matrimonial alliances or conquest
Word Galaxy
through wars. Important dynasties of Magadha during 6th – 4th
matrimonial– relating to marriage
century BCE are as follows:

Haryanka Dynasty Shishunaga Dynasty Nanda Dynasty

(560 – 413 BC) (413 – 345 BC) (345 – 321 BC)

BIMBISARA (544 – 492 BC) SHISHUNAGA MAHAPADMA NANDA

AJATASHATRU (492 – 460 BC) KALASOKA DHANA NANDA

(UDAYIN) (460 – 444)

60
Case Study – Vajji (Republic)
Location

Vajji was located north of the Ganga around the Vaishali district of present-day Bihar. It extended
as far as Nepal hills. On the west, River Gandak separated it from Malla and Kosala. In the east, it
stretched upto the forests on the banks of rivers Kosi and Mahanadi.

Did You Know

The Magadhan monarch, Ajatshatru, fought for sixteen long years to defeat the kingdom
of Vajji, or Vriji in 468 BCE.

Administration

Vajji had a republican form of government known as gana or sangha (assembly). It was jointly
ruled by a group of chiefs, each known as raja. The rajas met in assemblies and carried out important
debates and discussions. They performed many rituals together. However, dasas and women could
not be a part of these assemblies. Vajji was a confederate of eight ganas called ashtakula (eight
families) among which the Videhas, Licchavis, Jhatrikas, and Vajjis were the most prominent. The
Aiksavaras, Bhogas, Kauravas, and Ugras were the other families. Vaishali, a large and prosperous
city, was not only the capital of the confederacy but also the headquarters of the Licchavis who
comprised the most important gana during the time of Buddha. Lord Mahavira belonged to the
Jhatrikas.

Word Galaxy
confederacy – an alliance between persons, parties, states, etc., for a common purpose

Rapid Round

1. How did geography contribute to the rise of Magadha?

2. Describe the republican governance of Vajji.
3. What was the ashtakula?

61
Global Connection

Iron Age Empires of the World

Ancient Greece Ancient Rome

Location: Consisted of several hundred Location: Built on seven hills located along
independent city-states (polis) along the the banks of River Tiber
shores of the Mediterranean Sea

Fig 5.6 The Parthenon Fig 5.7 Roman Forum

Achievements: Achievements:

™ Architecture: Parthenon, a temple ™ Codification of laws: Romans were the

dedicated to Goddess of Athena. first to codify their laws
™ Sculpture: Statue of discus thrower ™ Aquaducts, or water carriers, were built
(discobolus). to supply water to the cities
™ Literature: Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey ™ Architecture: Colosseum and Forum

™ Mathematics: Pythagoras and

Archimedes

™ The ancient Greeks started the

Olympics games

62
 Concept Map
From Janas to Mahajanapadas

Sketch Map not to scale,

An Artist Impression

Formation of Janapadas and Magadha (Monarchy),

Administration Society
Mahajanapadas Vajji (Republic)

63
Sixteen Types of
Mahajanapadas Government

Republic Monarchy

Location Administration Important Rulers

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) was an invincible place protected by five hills.

i) Rajagriha ii) Pataliputra

iii) Suktimati iv) Kampilya

b) Lord Mahavira belonged to the clan.

i) Videhas ii) Jhatrika

iii) Bhogas iv) Licchavis

c) belonged to the Haryanka Dynasty.

i) Bimbisara ii) Ajatshatru

iii) Udayan iv) All of the above

d) The Vajji assembly of chiefs was known as .

i) gana-sangha ii) ashtakula

iii) Vriji iv) dvija

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) There were Mahajanapadas during the early 6th century BCE.

b) The small tribes were known as .

c) The farmers had to pay , a tax on crops.

d) was the capital of Kosala.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Kashi i) Jaipur

b) Vatsa ii) Paithan

c) Pratishthana iii) Prayagraj

d) Matsya iv) Varanasi

64
4. Write True or False.

a) Askara was located on the bank of river Godavari

b) The iron plough was discovered in Magadha.

c) Kaushambi was the capital of Vatsa.

5. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Which period saw the rise of the Janapadas?

b) List the important towns of Kambhoja.

c) How was Mathura strategically located?

d) How did the republican system work in Vajji?

6. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Distinguish between a republic and a monarchy.

b) Trace the formation of mahajanapadas.

c) What kind of society existed in the Mahajanapada period? Explain with reference to the
caste system and women.

d) Describe the administrative system of Magadha.

7. Give reasons.
a) Forts were of immense importance.

b) Magadha emerged as a powerful Mahajanapada.

c) Caste system became more rigid during the age of the Mahajanapadas.

8. Iron was used extensively during the Mahajanapada period. So, it was also known as the
Iron Age. What, according to you, should the present-age be called?

9. Life Skills
People paid adherence to the Janapadas rather than their own. Infer the ideals of the people
from this sentence.

65
 Do it to know it!

10. Class Discussion: Discuss whether a republic or a monarchy is a better form of government.

11. Map Work: Mark and label the following places on an outline map of India: Malla, Vatsa, Anga,
Matsya, Chedi, and Kuru.

12. Research Work: Find out about the Gandhara School of Art and compile a report on it. Include
its style, influences, examples, etc.

Source Study

The stories of the Mahabharata and Ramayana are inspired by the history of the
Mahajanapadas. Try to read the two epics and find parallels between the mythological and
historical stories.

People Who Made History

Romila Thapar
Romila Thapar is an Indian historian who is celebrated for her
scientific and rational approach towards studying the history of
ancient India. In her unique works, she has highlighted the
questions of caste, gender, culture, and religion in the political
context of ancient India. In 2008, Thapar was honoured with the
Kluge Prize, the social studies equivalent of the Nobel Prize.
Romila Thapar

66
 6. Villages and Towns in Ancient India

Let Us Learn

 Sources  Economic Conditions

 Types of Urban Centres  Case Studies
 People in Towns and Villages

Tune In

This is an image of the ancient port town of

Sopara (present-day Nalasopara near Mumbai).
Being the largest town on the west coast of India
during the time of the Buddha, and an important
trading port, Sopara has a unique place in the
history of trade and commerce. It had trade
relations with Mesopotamia and Egypt. Sopara
was also a centre of Buddhist practices.
Ž What is the structure depicted in this image? Sopara

Ž Did Sopara look the same as the Nalasopara suburb of the present times?

Following the rise of the Mahajanapadas, the central Ganga plains gained prominence as a
distinct cultural area. New urban settlements grew and thrived along these plains, with Magadha
taking the lead. During this historic period, major cultural and religious changes took place in the
subcontinent with the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.

Sources
Coins
Punch-marked coins were the first coins produced during the time of the
Mahajanapadas and the Mauryan Empire. They were made by ‘striking
Fig. 6.1 Punch-marked
single or multiple punches’ on the surface of the coin. Coins were usually
coin

67
punched on one side; the reverse having either no or a few, small marks. Coins were made of
copper, silver, and gold. They were generally rectangular, square, or round.

Tickle Your Brain

How did the use of money change the nature of the economy in early India?

Northern Black Polished Ware

The ancient period is characterised by a special type of pottery, the
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). This glossy pottery, with
a mirror-like exterior, was made up of a very fine material. NBPW
was first found in the northern region of ancient India. This type of
pottery was exposed to a very high temperature in a potter’s kiln
which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. Further, the
application of a fine black slip gave the pottery a glossy look. Along
Fig. 6.2 Fragments of
with this pottery, iron implements were also found, which were
Northern Black Polished Ware
particularly utilised in crafts and agriculture. NBPW pottery has
been found all over India with some specific differences and distinct structures. Most of the
discovered wares are bowls with straight sides and dishes with incurved rims. Bowls are sometimes
uneven and have narrowing sides. Knotted
lid vessels, lids with flat terminals, Word Galaxy
carinated handis, spouted vessels, and slip – liquid mixture of clay in water
bottle-necked vases are extremely rare. ware – utensils made from moist clay and hardened by heat

Did You Know

The classical period of NBPW is between 700 BCE and 200 BCE. After that, it remained in
circulation in a limited quantity. By 200 CE, very few pieces of NBPW were found.

Monuments
Carvings on the walls, gateways, pillars, or railings of old monuments depict
the day-to-day life of the people in ancient villages and towns.

Tickle Your Brain

Why did people in ancient times erect monuments with such ornate
carvings on them? Fig. 6.3 Carvings on an
ancient monument

68
 Literature

The life in villages and towns is described in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. The

Buddhist text, Tripitaka , which is based on the life of Gautam Buddha,
also throws light on this historic period. Moreover, the Jatakas provide
a lot of information on the social life in villages and towns. Due to the
emergence of towns and cities, this period marked the beginning of
the second urbanisation in India.
Fig. 6.4 The Jatakas

Rapid Round

1. What does NBPW pottery tell us about agriculture in ancient India?

2. How do the monuments help us in reconstructing the life of people in villages and towns?
3. What information do the Jatakas give us?

Types of Urban Centres

POLITICAL TOWNS MARKET TOWNS RELIGIOUS TOWNS COASTAL TOWNS

Political towns Market towns were Religious towns These towns were
were the important located near villages started out as located in and
administrative where there was piligrimage centres. around the coastal
centres. agricultural surplus People assembled areas and flourished
that could be used for there for spiritual due to trade with
Examples:
exchange. Generally, gatherings and other countries.
Hastinapur,
they were situated discussions.
Kaushambi, Champa, Examples:
along important trade
Rajagriha Examples: Varanasi, Sopara, Tamralipti,
routes.
Vaishali Arikamedu
Examples: Ujjain,
Mathura

69
People in Towns and Villages
The use of script was widespread and the literary sources of this era form an important source of
history. During this time, variations of local dialects, such as Pali, Prakrit, Shauraseni, and Magadhi,
began to emerge. Classical Sanskrit became the language of the Brahmans and scholarly people
only. The introduction and use of money almost ended the barter system. People no longer had to
depend on the double coincidence of wants to initiate an exchange of goods.

Economic Conditions
Guild system

The majority of the republics and kingdoms had their independent coinage. The introduction of the
monetary system helped the growth of trade and commerce. The development of towns brought
about an increase in the number of craftspeople. Merchants organised themselves into associations
known as guilds or srenis. There were several guilds, such as the cobblers’ guild, oil millers’ guild,
potters’ guild, and weavers’ guild. Each guild had its own rules and regulations. The craftspeople’s
guilds provided technical training, collected raw materials, and distributed finished products. The
merchants’ guilds organised trade. Sometimes, these guilds also functioned as banks wherein
rich people deposited their money. This money was used for investments. Interest earned on the
deposited money was either returned to the investor or used to support religious institutions, such
as monasteries.

Did You Know

The use of coins began in China and Lydia, in Asia Minor, almost around the same time,
in about 700 BCE.

Trade routes
The most important land route in ancient times was Uttarapatha, or the great northern route. Takshila
was a flourishing centre along this route. The southern route was called Dakshinapatha. Nashik was
a domestic trading centre connecting northern and southern India. Eastwards, trade was carried out
through the Ganga delta up to the coast of northern Myanmar and along the east coast of India.

70
 Takshshila

Hastinapur
Kurukshetra
Vairnavat
Indraprastha
Ahichatra
Virat nagar
Kampilya
Mathura Ayodhya
Ekchakra Shravasti

Prayag Kashi
Rajgruha
Vidisha
Gaya
Ujjaini
Dwaraka Mahishmati
Kundinpur
Prabhas Bhojkat
Pratishthan

Kishkindha

Dakshinapatha
Uttarapatha
Cities

Map of India during

Mahabharata times
Map not to Scale

Fig. 6.5 Trade routes of ancient India

Rapid Round

1. What were the different variations of local dialects that emerged during this time?
2. State any two types of guilds found in ancient India.
3. How was trade carried out between northern and southern India?

Case Studies
Kaushambi (Political town)
Kaushambi was one of the six most prosperous towns in ancient
India. It was the capital of Vatsa under its famous king Udayana. It
was geographically well located. The archaeological evidences
point towards a huge and prosperous city during the ancient
Fig. 6.6 Ruins of ancient Kaushambi
times.

71
Excavations unearthed the Ashokan Pillar, the Ghositarama Monastery, a stone fortress palace,
sculptures, old coins, monuments, and idols. Archaeological evidence confirms the presence of major
political dynasties, such as the Mauryas and the Guptas. Besides being a political centre, Kaushambi
was also a religious centre as the Buddha visited the city. Some stupas have also been found from
the ruins of the old city.

Ujjain (Market town)

Ujjain was a centre of trade in the ancient period. It was
centrally situated, located at the junction of two main trade routes.
One was the Baryagaza-Kaushambi route, heading towards
Pataliputra and the other was connected to the Deccan in the
south. There is ample epigraphic evidence to testify to the
Fig. 6.7 Ruins of ancient Ujjain
economic prosperity of the town. Many inscriptions record the
various donations by Ujjain’s rich people. The town was famous for weaving and fine workmanship in
ivory. Ujjain used to export commercial objects, such as agate, camelian, Indian muslin, and mallow cloth.
Its trade relations with the West were maintained by means of land routes, passing through Takshila.
Vaishali (Religious town)
Vaishali was located on the banks of River Gandak. It was closely associated
with two great religions – Buddhism and Jainism. Lord Mahavira was born in
Vaishali and had lived there. Gautam Buddha had also visited the city many
times. The Chinese pilgrim, Faxian, mentions several important monasteries
and shrines in Vaishali. The second Buddhist Council was also held here.
Fig. 6.8 Ashokan pillar
from Vaishali
Tamralipti (Coastal town)
Tamralipti was one of the most significant sea ports on the
mouth of the Ganga. It derives its name from the Sanskrit word
tamra (copper) which was exported from here. The
Kathasaritasagara mentions Tamralipti as a maritime port and
also as a centre of commerce. It was connected with the West
and Far East by both land and sea routes. Moreover, it was
Fig. 6.9 Ruins of ancient Tamralipti
connected by roads with Rajagriha, Sravasti, Gaya, and Varanasi.
The sea route from Tamralipti circled South India and crossed the Arabian Sea to reach the Red Sea
and different ports of the Mediterranean and Aegean seas in the West. The Chinese pilgrims, Faxian
and Xuanzang, visited the city. Xuanzang mentions Tamralipti as a flourishing port for the export of
indigo, silk, and copper.

72
Tickle Your Brain
How did geographic location decide the nature of towns in ancient India?

Rapid Round

1. What was Ujjain famous for?

2. Describe the significance of Tamralipti as a maritime centre.

Global Connection

Greek City-States
Ancient Greek city-states were known as polis.
The first city-states in Greece possibly arose
from the natural divisions of the country. The
original, local tribal and cult divisions also
played a role. There were hundreds of poleis
(plural of polis ). The polis was the central point
of a town which was generally walled. The town
consisted of the Acropolis, a citadel on raised
Fig. 6.10 Marketplace, Athens
ground, and the Agora, or the marketplace.

The government was located in the centre of the town but the citizens resided throughout
the region. Groups of citizens participated in the governance, defence, religion, and
economic welfare of a polis. They complied with its revered and traditional laws. Usually,
the government comprised a group of citizens, magistrates, and a council. There were
different ranks of citizenship in many poleis, namely, first class citizens and second class
citizens. Second class citizens included women, minors, resident aliens, and slaves.

Word Galaxy
city-state – a city in the ancient world and the area around it with an independent government
magistrate – a person who acts as a judge in a law court that deals with less serious crimes

73
 Concept Map

Villages and Towns in Ancient India

Sources Types of Urban Centres People in Towns Economic Conditions Case Studies

74
and Villages

Coins Monuments Kaushambi Vaishali

NBPW Literature Ujjain Tamralipti

Political Religious Market Coastal Guilds Trade

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) was a domestic trading centre connecting northern and southern India.

i) Bhopal ii) Nagpur

iii) Solapur iv) Nashik

b) Vaishali was located on the banks of River .

i) Kaveri ii) Godavari

iii) Gandak iv) Tapi

c) developed into the language of the Brahmans.

i) Hindi ii) Sanskrit

iii) Pali iv) Prakrit

d) The Buddhist text, , is based on the life of Gautama Buddha.

i) Jatakas ii) Tripitaka

iii) Ashtadhyayi iv) Ramayana
2. Fill in the blanks.

a) was famous for weaving and fine workmanship in ivory.

b) The Chinese pilgrim, , mentions several important monasteries and

shrines in Vaishali.

c) derives its name from the Sanskrit word tamra.

d) was the most prominent type of pottery in early India.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Uttarapatha i) Southern trade route

b) Dakshinapatha ii) Northern trade route

c) Lord Mahavira iii) King Udayana

d) Kaushambi iv) Vaishali

75
4. Write True of False.
a) Coins became popular during the early historic period.
b) Beads were exported from Ujjain.
c) Arikamedu was an important trading centre in the central Ganga plains.
d) Mathura was a famous port town of ancient India.
5. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) ‘Ujjain was a centre of trade in the ancient period’.

b) List the things that Ujjain exported.

c) Why is the Northern Black Polished Ware so called?

d) Why are punch-marked coins so called?

e) What were the various languages and scripts of early India?

6. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) How do literary sources help in reconstructing the life in villages and towns in ancient India?

b) Discuss the guild system of ancient India.

c) Write a brief note on Northern Black Polished Ware.

d) What were the different types of towns in ancient India? Choose any one type, with an
example, and write a note on it.
7. Picture Study.
a) What type of coin is shown in the picture?
b) What metals were used to make such coins?
c) How did these coins affect the economy of ancient India?

8. Compare the economic conditions during the first urbanisation with that of the second
urbanisation.

Do it to know it!

9. Creative Writing: Imagine yourself as a person from a Greek city-state visiting Tamralipti.
Write a letter to a friend back home describing the town.

10. Story Narration: Narrate stories from the Jatakas and deduce the way of life in the villages
and towns of ancient India.

76
11. Art Frenzy: Design a punch-marked coin.

12. Research Work: Use the Internet to learn more about ancient Indian scripts. Write a report on
any three such scripts, including their origins. Include images of the scripts.

Source Study

Visit a museum and make a thorough tour of the pottery gallery. Study the specimens closely
and try to deduce relevant historical information (any social message, food habits, etc.).
Compile a report on your findings and discuss in class.

People Who Made History

Leonidas
Spartan king Leonidas is known in history for his brave stance against
the invading Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae in central
Greece. In 490 BCE, he succeeded his half-brother, Cleomenes I, and
married Cleomenes’ daughter, Gorgo. Leonidas led the undersized
Greek army against the huge forces of the Persian king Xerxes in
480 BCE. Leonidas was able to resist Persian attacks for two days.
However, later, he asked a good part of his army to withdraw, while
he and his 300-member royal guard decided to fight till the end. He Leonidas
died in 480 BCE at Thermopylae.

77
 7. Jainism and Buddhism

Let Us Learn

 Age of the Upanishads  Jainism

 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism  Buddhism

Tune In

Read the poem and discuss the main theme of the poem.
All men are created equal. It doesn’t change the joy and struggle.
Rich or poor, ill or able, Deep in our hearts, we know it’s true.
of any religion, race or gender. All men are created equal.
A worker or a master. Why is it so hard for us to admit?
All men are created equal. Why must we reject and blame?
Our Constitution says it, and so shall we. It’s time we end the shame.

Think of a person or an event in your life that may have affected you deeply. How would
you try to help the person/change the situation, if you could?

Birth of Gautama Passing of Gautama

Buddha Buddha

600 BCE–400 BCE 567 BCE 540 BCE 487 BCE 468 BCE

Composition of Birth of Vardhaman Passing of Vardhaman

Upanishads Mahavira Mahavira

Age of the Upanishads

The term Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting near’. In Sanskrit, upa means near,
ni means down, and sad means to sit. This implies students sitting down near their Guru to learn.

78
The Upanishads were composed by philosophers and thinkers who sought answers to many of
life’s difficult questions, such as life after death, the reason for performing sacrifices, the universe,
and the presence of an Eternal Being. They were compiled over a long period, mainly during the
period of the Mahajanapadas.
The Upanishads, originally called Vedanta, (literally the
conclusion to the Vedas), were primarily composed by Brahmin
men and rajas. However, there are references to women thinkers
as well, such as Gargi, who participated in the discussions held
in royal courts. There were various Upanishads such as Isha,
Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Kaushitaki, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka. The poor were rarely allowed
to participate in these discussions. However, Satyakama Jabala,
son of a slave woman, Jabali, was an exception. A Brahmin
teacher accepted him as his student and named him Gautama.
His desire to learn about life’s reality made him one of the best Fig 7.1 Gargi, an ancient Indian
philosopher
thinkers of the time.

Tickle Your Brain

Why were women not allowed to participate in philosophical discussions in the Later Vedic period?

Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

Between 600 BCE and 400 BCE, there developed a complex caste system, based on birth. The rigid
caste system saw great opposition, which later gave rise to new belief systems.
Under the changed caste system, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas became all-important, while
the Shudras were looked down upon.
™ As trade flourished, the economic conditions of the Vaishyas improved. However, they were
considered inferior to Brahmins and Kshatriyas in the social ladder. This led to widespread
dissatisfaction among the Vaishyas.
™ People were forced to follow elaborate and costly rituals, as prescribed by the Brahmins. Animal
sacrifice became common.
™ Importance was given to Sanskrit which the masses did not understand. All these factors led to
social and religious unrest in India.
™ People wanted a simple religion in a language known to them, a desire which was fulfilled by
the teachings of Gautama Buddha and Vardhaman Mahavira.

79
 Did You Know

It is believed that there are more than 200 Upanishads in existence, although most Hindu
texts refer to 108 of them. The oldest Upanishads are referred to as Mukhya (main)
Upanishads.

Rapid Round

1. Who composed the Upanishads?

2. What were the social factors responsible for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism?

Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara. A Tirthankara is an enlightened soul who attains
perfection through intense meditation. Rishabhanatha was the first tirthankara and the founder of
Jainism.
Vardhamana Mahavira
™ Birth: 540 BCE
™ Place of Birth: Vaishali (present-day Bihar)
™ Father’s Name: Siddhartha
™ Mother’s Name: Trishala
™ Death: 468 BCE, Pavapuri (present-day Bihar)
Teachings of Jainism Fig. 7.2 Vardhamana Mahavira
The five principles of Jainism are:

™ Ahimsa: not to injure any living being ™ Aparigraha: not to own property
™ Satya: not to speak lies ™ Brahmacharya: observance of celibacy
™ Asteya: not to steal

The first four teachings emanate from the earlier Tirthankaras, whereas the last teaching was
added by Mahavira. The followers of Jainism, the Jains,
believe that liberation from worldly bonds can be Word Galaxy
obtained by following the Triratnas or three jewels of emanate – originate from; spread out from
Jainism. These are right knowledge, right faith, and right liberation – an occasion when something or
someone is released or made free
action.

80
 Fig. 7.3 Jain Temple at Palitana

Jain monks and nuns

Jain monks and nuns live away from their family and travel on foot. They usually live in groups of
five or six and eat the food offered to them by the householders. They study almost all day. They
meditate twice or thrice each day. They do not eat before sunrise or after sunset. They wear a cloth
over their mouths while talking so that they do not kill
any organism in the process.
Word Galaxy
meditate – to think calm thoughts in order to
Sacred books of Jainism relax or as a religious activity
Jainism does not have a single sacred book. Many
books, known as the Sutras, were compiled after Lord Mahavira’s nirvana by his immediate disciples,
the Gandharas. These Sutras, written in Prakrit, are collectively known as Agams or Agam Sutras.
Jainism was later divided into two sects, namely, Digambara and Shvetambara.

Table 7.1: Sects of Jainism

DIGAMBARAS SHVETAMBARAS
™ Stress the practice of nudity as a path to ™ Assert that nudity is inessential to attain
salvation. liberation. They wear a white dress and
cover their mouth with a white cloth.
™ Believe that women cannot achieve ™ Believe that women can achieve liberation.
liberation.
™ Believe that a saint needs no food and can ™ The view that a saint can live without eating
sustain life without eating. is not accepted.

81
 Did You Know

According to the Census of 2011, the total population of Jains is 4,225,053, accounting for
0.4% of the total population of India.

Spread of Jainism
Jainism reached South and West India where Brahmanism was not strong.
It extended to Odisha in 4th century BCE. In the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, it
touched the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The spread of Jainism in
Karnataka can be accredited to Chandragupta Maurya who converted to
Jainism. In later centuries, Jainism made its way into Malwa, Gujarat, and
Rajasthan. However, Jainism failed to reach great popularity among the
masses as it did not condemn the caste system.
According to Mahavira, a person is born into a high or low caste depending
on the virtues acquired by them in their previous
Word Galaxy
birth. Farmers found it difficult to follow the
precept – a general rule Fig. 7.4: Symbol of
precepts of Jainism. For example, they had to kill Jainism
insects to protect their crops. However, Jainism was largely supported by
the traders.

Rapid Round

1. What are the principles of Jainism?

2. Describe the spread and popularity of Jainism.

Buddhism
Gautama Buddha
™ Birth: 567 BCE
™ Place of Birth: Lumbini, Nepal
™ Father’s Name: Shuddhodana
™ Mother’s Name: Maya
™ Wife’s Name: Yashodhara
Fig. 7.5 Gautama Buddha
™ Death: 487 BCE, Kushinagara (present-day Uttar Pradesh )

82
Teachings of Buddhism
Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon in the Pali language
at Sarnath. This came to be known as the ‘Turning of the
Wheel of Law’. He spoke to a small group of five men who
became his earliest followers. Gradually, he started attracting
large crowds. Later on, his followers started to preach his
message far and wide. The Buddha’s fundamental teachings
include the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
The Four Noble Truths are:
Fig. 7.6 Symbol of Buddhism
™ The world is full of suffering and sorrow.
™ The cause of suffering and sorrow is human desire.
Word Galaxy
™ The sufferings can be ended by conquering desires. sermon – a talk on a religious or moral
subject
™ Desires can be conquered and freedom from the
cycle of birth and death can be attained through nirvana. The Eightfold Path or Ashtangika
Marga leads to.
The Eightfold Path is also known as the Middle Path as it guides people to achieve nirvana without
extreme ease or hardship.

Right Meditation Right Belief Right Thought

The Eightfold
Right Effort Right Speech
Path

Right Means of
Right Memory Right Action
Livelihood

Fig 7.7 The Eightfold Path

Buddhism also advocated the doctrines of karma and rebirth. Karma means the sum of a person’s
actions in their current and previous births.

Tickle Your Brain

In the modern world, do you think it is possible to follow the Eightfold Path? Justify your
answer.

83
Buddhist monks

The Buddhists organised themselves into a religious order

known as sangha, which was open to both men and women.
Buddhist monks and nuns had to abandon the world or worldly
desires, lead a simple life, and follow the rules of the sangha,
as laid down by the Buddha. They travelled across villages and
cities begging for food. Hence, they were known as bhikshus
and bhikshunis. They spent most of their time meditating.

Sacred books of Buddhism Fig. 7.8 The Turning of the

Wheel of Law
The Buddhist sacred books are called the Tripitakas. They
were written in Pali. In Pali, Tri stands for three and Pitaka
means basket. The Baskets of Teachings were handed down over centuries from the teacher to
the student. The Three Baskets are the Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), Basket of Discourses
(Sutta Pitaka), and Basket of Ultimate Things (Abhidhamma Pitaka).
Like Jainism, Buddhism was also later divided into two sects, namely, Mahayana and Hinayana.
Table 7.2: Mahayana and Hinayana

MAHAYANA HINAYANA

™ Considered the Buddha as an incarnation ™ Considered the Buddha as a teacher and

of God. guide.

™ Emphasised the efficacy of worship and ™ Relied on good deeds and a holy life based
devotion, including rituals and ceremonies. on the Eightfold Path.

™ Worshipped images of the Buddha and ™ Had no faith in idol worship. The Buddha
Bodhisattvas, and prayed for forgiveness. was represented only through symbols.

™ Adopted Sanskrit for writing. ™ Used Pali for preaching their faith.

Word Galaxy
incarnation – a person who embodies, in form, a deity, spirit, or quality

84
 Fig. 7.10 The Fugong
Fig. 7.9 Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath Temple (Pagoda), Fig. 7.11 Buddhist Monastery, Ajanta
China

Rapid Round

1. What is the Eightfold Path?

2. What are the two forms of Buddhism? How do they differ?

Spread of Buddhism
The spread of Buddhism was possibly due to two main factors: the support of the common people
and state patronage. It was a simple religion to follow and Pali, the language of the masses, was
adopted to spread the teachings of Buddhism. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, after his conversion to
Buddhism, incorporated the principles of the religion in his ruling practices. By 250 BCE, Buddhism
had spread to Sri Lanka. Later, the Mahayana sect of Buddhism reached Southeast Asia and China.
By the 4th century CE, it extended to Thailand and by the 6th century CE to Cambodia. Buddhism also
established its root in countries and regions such as Myanmar, Nepal, Tibet, Central Asia, and Japan.

Did You Know

Stupas are dome-shaped monuments used to house

Buddhists relics or to commemorate significant facts of
Buddhism. Pagodas, or multistoried towers are the
principle form of Buddhist architecture, used as
memorials or shrines. Monasteries are a place of abode
for the monks.
Fig 7.12 The Great Stupa at Sanchi

85
 Global Connection

Confucianism Taoism

Founder Confucius Laozi

Period 6th –5th century BCE 6th century BCE

The practitioners have to Taoism promotes harmony or

follow the Confucian virtues, union with nature, the pursuit of
namely, humaneness, spiritual immortality, virtuosity,
Main Beliefs
righteousness, justice, ritual and self-development.
decorum, knowledge, integrity,
self-cultivation, and filial piety.

The Five Classics and Four

Holy books Tao Te Ching and Chuang-tzu
Books

Word Galaxy
filial piety – (in Confucianism) the important virtue and primary duty of respect, obedience, and care for one’s

parents and elderly family members

86
 Concept Map
Jainism and Buddhism
Birth of Gautama Passing of Gautama
Buddha Buddha

600 BCE–400 BCE 567 BCE 540 BCE 487 BCE 468 BCE

Composition of Birth of Vardhaman Passing of Vardhaman

Upanishads Mahavira Mahavira

Age of the Upanishads Rise of Jainism and Buddhism Jainism Buddhism

Gautama Buddhist Spread

Buddha monks

87
Teachings Sacred books

Right Meditation Right Belief Right Thought

Vardhamana Mahavira Jain monks Spread Teachings Sacred books

The Eightfold
Right Effort Right Speech
Path

Right Means of
Right Memory Right Action
Livelihood
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Asteya means .
i) not to injure any living being ii) not to own property
iii) not to steal iv) not to speak lies

b) means the sum of a person’s actions in their current and previous births.
i) Aparigraha ii) Karma
iii) Dharma iv) Moksha

c) are the sacred books of Jainism.

i) Tripitakas ii) Vedas
iii) Upanishads iv) Agam Sutras

d) The Buddhist teachers preached in language.

i) Sanskrit ii) Pali
iii) Prakrit iv) Brahmi

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) A is an enlightened soul who attains perfection through intense
meditation.
b) The founder of Jainism was .
c) A Buddhist monk is also known as .
d) The Buddhist religious texts are called .
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Chandragupta Maurya i) Basket of Discipline

b) Vinaya Pitaka ii) Jainism

c) Lumbini iii) Converted to Jainism

d) Shvetambara iv) Birthplace of Gautama Buddha

4. Write True or False.

a) The Upanishads taught equality of all human beings.

88
 b) Jainism and Buddhism arose as a reaction to the rigid caste system.
c) Buddhist teachings are based on the ideas of karma and rebirth.
5. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Which languages were adopted by the Mahayana and Hinayana sects of Buddhism?
b) What were the Upanishads initially known as?
c) Which event is called the ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’?
d) What are the principles of Jainism?
6. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write a brief note on the Upanishads.
b) Discuss the teachings of Jainism.
c) What were the factors responsible for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism?
d) Write about the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
e) Describe the Buddhist sanghas.
7. Give reasons.
a) Buddhism has successfully spread across the world.
b) Jainism failed to become popular among the masses.
c) The caste system became more rigid at the time of the Upanishads.
8. Picture Study.
a) Look at the symbol. Which religion is it associated with?
b) What is the meaning of this symbol?
c) Discuss about the sacred books of this religion.
9. What is your opinion on the factors responsible for the rise of new religions? Share your
views in class. (You may use the examples from this lesson.)

10. Life Skills

Discuss religious equality in India with reference to the picture given below.
H I N D U I S M

J A I N I S M

B U D D H I S M

S I K H I S M

I S L A M

C H R I S T A I N I T Y

89
 Do it to know it!

11. Class Discussion: Have a class discussion on: “Why did Buddhism prosper more compared to
Jainism?”

12. Art Frenzy: Make a scrapbook on Buddhist stupas and pagodas in various Asian countries.

13. Collage Making: Make a collage on Buddhism and Jainism.

14. Research Work: Pick any Buddhist site in India. Compile a report on its historical importance,
religious significance, and preservation methods. Add pictures to your report.

Source Study

‘The mind is everything. What you think you become.’ ~ The Buddha
Critically analyse this quote from the Buddha’s teachings.

People Who Made History

Confucius
The original name of Confucius was Kong Qui. He was born in 551 BCE in
Shandong province in China. He was a teacher, philosopher, and
political scholar. His teachings have left a long-lasting influence on
East Asian countries. Confucian teachings emphasise ethical codes
regarding private and public life. Confucius underlined the importance
of educational ethics as well. His birthday is an official holiday in
Taiwan and has been celebrated as Teacher’s Day. He is believed to be
the first person in China who wanted education to be freely available Confucius
to all, irrespective of class. Confucius was responsible for making
teaching a profession in China. He believed that education is not only for gaining of knowledge
but it is also important for building one’s character.

90
 8. The Rise and Decline of the
Mauryan Empire

Let Us Learn

 Magadha before the Mauryans  Ashoka

 Downfall of the Nandas  Mauryan Administration
 Chandragupta Maurya  Decline of the Mauryas
 Bindusara

Tune In

You must have seen billboards along the streets you

travel. Have you ever wondered what their purpose
are? Now, look at this Ashokan edict.
Ž Is there any similarity between a highway billboard
and an Ashokan edict?
Ž Think of some life values that Ashokan edicts can
teach us.

Important rulers and dynasties before the Mauryas

Haryanka Dynasty Shishunaga Dynasty Nanda Dynasty

544 BCE– 492 BCE– 460 BCE– 413 BCE– 424 BCE– 329 BCE–
492 BCE 460 BCE 444 BCE 345 BCE 362 BCE 321 BCE

Mahapadma Dhana
Bimbisara Ajatashatru Udayin Nanda Nanda

91
Magadha before the Mauryans
Of the 16 mahajanapadas, Magadha was the most
powerful. Magadha saw the rise of many dynasties –
Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda – before the
establishment of the Mauryan Dynasty. The Mauryan
Empire was the first of its kind in the Indian
subcontinent. Several smaller kingdoms, extending
Fig 8.1 Alexander at War
over a very large area, were incorporated into the
territory of Magadha. In 326 BCE, Alexander, the Macedonian conqueror, turned his attention towards
India. He was assisted by Ambhi, the Prince of Taxila, in his attempt to infiltrate into the subcontinent.
Alexander managed to cross the Chenab and Ravi, and advance upto the Beas.

Downfall of the Nandas

Dhana Nanda, a despot of the Nanda dynasty, ruled Magadha duing Alexander’s campaign to
India. Kautilya, more famously known as Chanakya, a teacher at Taxila University, was worried about
Alexander’s invasion. He went to the Magadha court to suggest that they drive out Alexander’s
army. However, Dhana Nanda not only snubbed his suggestion but
also insulted Chanakya.

Did You Know

Traditionally, Chanakya is identified as Kautilya or

Vishnugupta. He is most famous for his ancient Indian
political treatise, Arthashastra, composed approximately
between 2nd century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
Fig. 8.2 Chanakya

Chanakya famously vowed, “I will not tie my tuft of hair until I uproot the whole Nanda dynasty
and establish dharma in Magadha. Rulers like you have spoiled Bharat. The tuft of hair which you
arrogantly pull now will be like a serpent which comes back to bite you.” Then, he trained Chandragupta
Maurya, a member of the migrant Mauryas along the borders of Magadha. With Chanakya’s help,
Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhana Nanda and established the Mauryan dynasty.

Tickle Your Brain

Why did some Indian kingdoms support Alexander’s invasion of India?

92
 68 72 76 80 84 88 96 100
92

EXTENT OF CHANDRAGUPTA
36 36

N GANDHARA
Herat Kabul MAURYA’S EMPIRE
Srinagar

32
Kandahar 32

SINDHU
(INDUS) Indraprastha
28 Mathura 28

KAPILVASTU

Prayag Kashi
PATALIPUTRA
Sanchi
24
Ujjain MAGADHA
24

Dwarka SAURASHTRA
Girnar Tamralipti

20 20

KALINGA
B A Y
ANDHRA O F
14 B E N G A L 14

ARABIAN
SEA

12
LEGEND 12

Mauryan Empire under

CHOLAS Chandragupta
Capital of Magadha
PANDYAS Ancient Cities
KERALAPUTRA
8 Current Country 8

Boundaries

Sketch Map not to scale,

An Artist Impression

I N D I A N O C E A N
72 76 80 84 88 92

Fig. 8.3 Extent of Chandragupta Maurya’s Empire

Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya conquered the whole of northern India upto the Indus. He defeated
Seleucus I Nicator, Alexander’s general, and gained control over parts of present-day Afghanistan.
He married Helen, the daughter of Seleucus. Seleucus sent his ambassador, Megasthenses, to the
court of Chandragupta Maurya.

Did You Know

Megasthenses has described the ruins of Pataliputra Palace in his book Indika. The city of
Pataliputra was situated on the banks of River Ganga. Palaces and houses were all made
of wood and stone. A deep moat and a high wall was built around the city for its defense.
It had 570 watchtowers and 64 gates. Archaeological evidence points towards timber
palisades, wooden houses, and a ditch.

Word Galaxy
palisade – a strong fence of wooden or iron poles for the protection of people or a place from external attacks

93
Bindusara
Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism and abandoned his throne in favour of his son, Bindusara.
He was also known as Amitrochates or the destroyer of enemies. He ran a smooth administration
and maintained good relations with the Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians. Ambassadors from these
countries visited the king’s court. Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire in peninsular India as
far as Mysore, except Kalinga, on the east coast. Presumably, he conquered ‘the land between the
two seas’, that is, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Rapid Round

1. How did Chanakya influence the rise of the Mauryas?

2. What were Bindusara’s political achievements?

Ashoka
Bindusara was succeeded by his son, Ashoka. Earlier in his life, Ashoka was called ‘Chandashoka’,
meaning “Ashoka, the Fierce”, as he was very short-tempered. Ashokan history is largely based on
the inscriptions that were found in different parts of India. They tell us about his career, domestic
and foreign policies, as well as the extent of his empire. Ashoka had inherited a vast empire. He
continued to follow in the footsteps of his grandfather and father, extending his frontiers with
fresh conquests and engaging in wars with different kingdoms.

Fig. 8.4 Chandragupta Maurya Fig. 8.5 Bindusara Fig. 8.6 Ashoka

Kalinga War
Kalinga was one territory which the Mauryans found difficult to conquer. In the 12th year of his
reign, Ashoka sent a letter to the ruler of Kalinga, asking for his submission. However, Kalingaraj
refused to submit. As a result, Ashoka led a huge army into Kalinga. The entire kingdom of Kalinga
was turned into a battle arena.

94
About 1,00,000 Kalingans were killed and 1,50,000 wounded. An equal number of Mauryan
soldiers were killed. The battlefield in Kalinga resembled a sea of red. Ashoka was so moved by
this unfortunate outcome that he gave up war and became a follower of Buddhism. He even made
Buddhism his state religion.

Tickle Your Brain

How does war affect the common people?

68 72 76 80 84 88 96 100
92

N
36 36

GANDHARA MAURYAN EMPIRE UNDER

Herat Kabul
Srinagar ASHOKA 265 BCE
32
Kandahar 32

SINDHU
(INDUS)
Indraprastha
28 Mathura KAPILVASTU 28

Sarnath
Kashi
Prayag PATLIPUTRA

24 Sanchi Bodh Gaya 24

Ujjain MAGADHA
Dwarka SAURASHTRA
Tamralipti
Girnar
BHOJAKAS
20 20

KALINGA
B A Y
O F
14 B E N G A L 14

ARABIAN
SEA

12 LEGEND 12

Ashoka's Empire
CHOLAS
Capital of Magadha
PANDYAS Ancient Cities
KERALAPUTRA Buddhist Sites
8 8

Anuradhapura Current Country

Sketch Map not to scale, Boundaries
An Artist Impression

I N D I A N O C E A N
72 76 80 84 88 92

Fig. 8.7 Extent of Ashoka’s Empire

Welfare Measures
Ashoka set very high standards for himself with regard to kingship. He considered his subjects as
his children. He appointed rajukas for delivering justice. He planted trees, dug wells, constructed
canals, installed rest houses on highways, and built hospitals for people as well as animals. He
carved rock and pillar edicts to establish direct communication with his people. These inscriptions
were written in Prakrit, the language of the masses.

95
 Did You Know

The 13th Ashokan Rock Edict expresses an idea of conquest by dhamma (dhammavijay)
instead of by war (digvijaya). Ashoka believed that happiness could be attained by following
a way of life based on dhamma.

Ashoka’s Dhamma
Ashoka adopted several measures to spread his dhamma (dharma). His messengers travelled
to other countries to spread Ashokan dhamma. He appointed special officers, known as
dhammamahamatras, to teach the policies of dhamma to the people. Ashoka organised the Third
Buddhist Council or sangiti. He sent missionaries of Buddhism to South India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
and other countries. The killing of birds and animals, and butchering of animals in his palace
kitchen were banned. Thus, Ashoka stressed on kindness towards animals.
Rapid Round

1. Whom did Ashoka succeed?

2. What was the duty of rajukas?
3. How did Ashoka convert from the principle of digvijay to dhammavijay?

Source Study

Ashoka fought just one major battle, the Kalinga War,

after his accession to the throne. The 13th Major Rock edict
records the atrocities and miseries of the war, thus: “When
he had been consecrated eight years the Beloved of the
Gods, the King Piyadasi, conquered Kalinga. A hundred
and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred
thousand were killed and many time that number perished.
Afterwards, now that Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved Fig 8.8 Ashokan Edict at Dhauli,
Odisha
of the Gods very earnestly practised Dhamma, desired
Dhamma, and taught Dhamma. On conquering Kalinga the Beloved of the God felt remorse,
for when an independent country is conquered the slaughter, death, and deportation of the
people is extremely grievous to the Beloved of the Gods and weighs heavily on his mind…
The Beloved of the Gods considers victory by Dhamma to be the foremost victory...”
(Excerpt is taken from ‘Ancient India’ by R. S. Sharma)
™ How would you authenticate the given information?

96
Mauryan Administration
Role of the King
Supreme and final authority in all matters of the empire lay with the king. He led in the war, in
consultation with his Senapati or Commander-in-Chief. He made important appointments, looked
into the state funds, met diplomats, and collected secret information from spies. He also issued
sasanas or royal edicts for the management of the people. He was helped in his work by mantri-
parishads or council of ministers.
In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, there are various references to high officials such as the Amatyas,
Mahamatras, and Adhyaksas. The king maintained a huge army for the protection of the kingdom
as well as for new conquests. The army was maintained with the taxes collected from the people.
Chandragupta had an army of 6,00,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants.
Administration of the Empire
The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces for
EMPIRE
administrative purposes. The provinces were ruled by
viceroys who were usually princes or kumaras. The provinces PROVINCES Ruled by viceroys
were further divided into districts which were managed by
sthanikas. Each district consisted of five to ten villages. Grama DISTRICTS Managed by Sthanikas

or the village was the lowest unit of administration. Gramika

Headed by Gramika,
was the head of the village, who used to regulate land and VILLAGES
the village headman

water rights, and collected taxes from the people. Spies were
Fig. 8.9 Demarcation of the Empire
appointed to keep a watch on the officials.
Sources of Income
The main source of income was land revenue. The farmer paid one-sixth of the total produce
to the state. Chanakya mentions several types of taxes collected from the peasants, artisans, and
traders. Tax was also collected from the mines, forests, and customs at the frontiers, tolls, ferry
duties, and fines. The official in charge of finances and revenue collection was known as Samaharta.
The collected revenue was spent on the
maintenance of the king, his ministers, Word Galaxy
army, salaries of officials, for religious revenue – annual income of a state from which public
expenses are met
purposes, and on infrastructure.

Tickle Your Brain

What, according to you, were the important features of the Mauryan economy?

97
Decline of Mauryan Dynasty
The disintegration of the Mauryan Empire started after the death of Ashoka in
232 BCE. Various factors were responsible for this:
™ The promotion of Buddhism had adversely affected the Brahmans. Hence,
they protested strongly.
™ The Mauryans used large amounts of money for the maintenance of the
army. This severely drained the Mauryan treasury.
™ Ashoka’s successors were incapable of looking after such a huge empire.
™ Ashoka’s reign was followed by a series of foreign invasions. The Bactrians
were the first to invade India in 206 BCE. Fig. 8.10 Pushymitra
™ The Mauryan Empire finally met its end in the hands of Pushyamitra Sunga

Shunga, a general in the army of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, in 185 BCE.
Chandragupta Maurya’s End of Mayuran
Ashoka’s reign
reign Empire

326 BCE 321 BCE–297 BCE 297 BCE–272 BCE 273 BCE–232 BCE 206 BCE 185 BCE

Alexander’s invasion
Bindusara’s reign Bactrian invasion of India
of India

Global Connection

Qin Dynasty
Just as the Mauryan dynasty is regarded as the first empire of
India, the Qin Dynasty is considered the first Chinese empire.
China derives its name from the Qin dynasty. In 221 BCE, King
Ying Zheng established the Qin Empire and proclaimed himself
Qin Shi Huangdi or First Sovereign Emperor of Qin. He
introduced a strict dictatorial government to rule the huge
area. Writing systems along with measurements of length and Fig. 8.11 Shi Huangdi

weight were standardised. The Qin dynasty is associated with

two architectural wonders: the Great Wall
of China and a great palace for the first Word Galaxy
sovereign– a person with supreme power or authority
emperor, containing a hall of about 139.35
dictatorial– typical of a ruler with total power
square metres. The tomb of Shihuangdi,
located near present-day Xi’an, contains an army of more than 6,000 lifesize terracotta
soldiers and horses. The latter earned the tag of a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. In
207 BCE, the Qin dynasty was replaced by the Han dynasty.

98
 Concept Map

Rise and Decline of the Mauryas

Chandragupta Maurya’s End of Mayuran
Ashoka’s reign
reign Empire

326 BCE 321 BCE–297 BCE 297 BCE–272 BCE 273 BCE–232 BCE 206 BCE 185 BCE

Alexander’s invasion
Bindusara’s reign Bactrian invasion of India
of India

Magadha before Downfall of the Chandragupta Mauryan Decline of the

Bindusara Ashoka
the Mauryas Nandas Maurya Administration Mauryas

99
Important rulers and dynasties before the Mauryas Kalinga Welfare Ashoka’s Role of the King Sources of Income
War Measures Dhamma
Administration of the
Haryanka Dynasty Shishunaga Dynasty Nanda Dynasty
Empire

544 BCE– 492 BCE– 460 BCE– 413 BCE– 424 BCE– 329 BCE–
EMPIRE
492 BCE 460 BCE 444 BCE 345 BCE 362 BCE 321 BCE

Bimbisara Ajatsatru Udayan Mahapadma Dhana PROVINCES Ruled by viceroys

Nanda Nanda

DISTRICTS Managed by Sthanikas

Headed by Gramika,
VILLAGES
the village headman
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) In Alexander turned his attention towards India.

i) 326 BCE ii) 320 BCE

iii) 126 BCE iv) 626 BCE

b) has described the ruins of Pataliputra Palace in his book Indika.

i) Ashoka ii) Megasthenses

iii) Bindusara iv) Chandragupta

c) appointed special officers, known as dhammamahamatras, to teach the

policies of dhamma to the people.
i) Dhana Nanda ii) Bindusara
iii) Chandragupta Maurya iv) Ashoka

d) The Mauryan Empire was finally destroyed by in 185 BCE.

i) Ying Zheng ii) Pushyamitra Shunga

iii) Ashoka iv) Ajatshatru

e) The Third Buddhist Council was held at .

i) Sarnath ii) Pataliputra
iii) Kapilavastu iv) Bodh Gaya

2. Write if True or False.

a) The Mauryan empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya.

b) Bindusara was Ashoka’s eldest son.

c) The weakness of Ashoka’s successors contributed to the downfall of the

Mauryas.

d) The district was the unit of the Mauryan administration.

e) Ashokan Pillars are decorated with human figures.

3. Fill in the blanks.

a) Chanakya was a teacher at University.
b) The official in charge of finances and revenue collection was known as .

100
 c) was the main source of income of the Mauryan Empire.
d) Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the War.
e) Megasthenes visited the court of .
4. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Ambhi i) General of Alexander

b) Dhana Nanda ii) Prince of Taxila
c) Seleucus iii) last Mauryan ruler
d) Brihadratha iv) last Nanda ruler

5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Write about the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya.
b) In which language were the Ashokan edicts written and why?
c) Why was Ashoka also called ‘Chandashoka’?
d) Name the main historical sources for the Mauryan period.
6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write a brief note on the sources of income during the Mauryan period.
b) Elaborate on the various measures taken by Ashoka for the spread of his dhamma.
c) Describe Ashoka’s welfare measures.

7. Justify.
a) Kalinga War was a turning point in Ashoka’s life.
b) The Mauryan Empire began to disintegrate after Ashoka’s death.
c) Land revenue was the backbone of the Mauryan economy.
8. Picture Study.
a) Identify the person in the picture.
b) What was his other name?
c) Discuss the territorial extent of his empire.

9. Evaluate the role of Ashoka in spreading peace and non-violence in ancient India.

101
10. Life Skills
What values can you deduce from the following lines in Chanakya’s Arthashastra, also known
as Chanakyaniti?
™ “As gold is tested in four ways by rubbing, cutting, heating, and beating, so a man should
be tested by these four things: his renunciation, his conduct, his qualities, and his actions.”
™ “Once you start working on something, don’t be afraid of failure and don’t abandon it.
People who work sincerely are the happiest.”

Do it to know it!

11. Map Work: On an outline map of ancient India, mark the following:
™ Extent of Chandragupta Maurya’s Empire
™ Extent of Ashoka’s Empire
12. Creative Work: Design your own Chanakyaniti. Create a flow chart on the various political and
administrative principles of Chanakya.
13. Research Work: Find out about the various rock and pillar edicts of Ashoka and make a fact
file on it.

Source Study

“Let all listen, and be willing to listen to the doctrines professed by others.” ~ Emperor Ashoka

Using an example of religious intolerance in today’s world, critically analyse these words by
Emperor Ashoka.

People Who Made History

Alexander the Great

Alexander was born in the ancient Macedonian capital, Pella, in July
356 BCE to Philip II and Olympias. He was educated by Aristotle, the
philosopher. In 336 BCE, Alexander led a successful campaign
against the Persian Empire. He tasted victories across the Persian
territories of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. He became the ‘Great
Alexander the Great
King’ of Persia at the age of 25.

102
 9. The Deccan and the South Indian
Kingdoms

Let Us Learn

 Deccan Kingdoms  Case Study–Village Administration in

 Sangam Age South India

 South Indian Kingdoms  Bhakti

 Economy

Tune In

Ž On an outline map of ancient India, point out the territorial extent of the Mauryan
Empire under Ashoka.
Ž Did this territorial extent cover the Deccan and southern India?
Ž What was the political scenario in the Deccan and South India at that time?

Deccan Kingdoms
Following the death of Emperor Ashoka, his successors failed to maintain the vast Mauryan Empire.
Soon it was conquered by the Sungas. The provinces started declaring their independence.

Satavahanas
The Satavahanas, or the Andhras, set up independent rule in the Deccan after the decline of the
Mauryas. Their rule lasted for about 300 years. The Puranas, coins,
and inscriptions are some of the important sources of Satavahana
history. The Nashik and Naneghad inscriptions provide valuable
information about the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the greatest
Satavahana ruler. Satavahana coins throw light on the economic
conditions of the period.
Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. Krishna, next in Fig. 9.1 Satavahana coin
the line of succession, extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the
west. Sri Satakarni succeeded Krishna. He vanquished western Malwa and Berar. He also performed

103
Asvamedha yajna. Hala was the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty who ruled for five
years. He was famous for his book Gathasaptasati.
Gautamiputra Satakarni ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 CE to 130 CE. He annexed the
entire Deccan. A champion of Brahmanism, he even gave donations to the Buddhists. Yajna Sri
Satakarni (165 CE–194 CE) was the last great ruler of the Satavahanas. His successors failed to hold
the kingdom together and it came to an end by 220 CE.

EXTENT OF THE
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE

BAY
OF
BENGAL

ARABIAN SEA

Sketch Map not to scale,

An Artist Impression

LEGEND
Extent of the
Satavahana Empire

INDIAN OCEAN

Fig. 9.2 Deccan and South India in 150 CE

104
 Tickle Your Brain
How do the Satavahana coins shed light on the economic history of the kingdom?

Chalukyas
The Chalukyas were an important political force in the Deccan, having set up their kingdom towards
the beginning of 6th century. Pulakesin I founded the Chalukya dynasty with Vatapi (present-day
Badami) as its capital. Pulakesin II (609 CE6–42 CE) was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
His Aihole inscription provides information about his rule.
Pulakesin II defeated the famous King Harshavardhana, of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty, and checked
the latter’s ambitions in the South. He emerged victorious in his first expedition against the
Pallavas, although he suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi.
Consequently, Vatapi was annihilated by the Pallavas. Xuanzang visited the kingdom during the
reign of Pulakesin II. Vikramaditya succeeded Pulakesin II and strengthened the kingdom. He
ransacked the Pallava capital, Kanchi. Kirtivarman II, the last
Chalukya ruler, was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Word Galaxy
Rashtrakuta dynasty. annihilate– to destroy completely

Did You Know

The Chalukyan kings were called Umapati Varlabdh and built many temples in honour of
Lord Shiva. Chalukyan architecture is also known as Karnata Dravida architecture.

Rapid Round

1. What are the important sources of Satavahana history?

2. Who was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty?
3. Name the ruler who defeated Kirtivarman II.

Sangam Age
The Sangam Age is a significant chapter in South Indian history. Sangam was an assembly of Tamil
poets under the patronage of the kings. Legend has it that there were three Sangams or assembly
of Tamil poets. They flourished under the rule of the Pandyas.

105
 Did You Know

The first Sangam was presided over by Rishi Agasyta and patronised by 89 Pandya kings.

The first Sangam was held at Madurai, the second one at Kapadapuram, while the third was again
at Madurai. In Tamil literature, the Sangam is hailed as a glorious literary period. Literary works in
every branch of knowledge are important sources for reconstructing the history of the time.
Literary, archaeological, and numismatic evidence fix the period of the Sangam Age from the 3rd
century BCE to 3rd century CE. During this time, South India was ruled by three dynasties, namely,
the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.
Sangam Literature
The literary works of Tamil poets composed during the Sangam
Age are collectively called Sangam literature. It includes
Tolkappiyam and the two epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
Tolkappiyam, a work on Tamil grammar and poetics written by
Tolkappiyar, is the earliest book of Tamil literature. Tirukkural,
Fig. 9.3 Specimen of
authored by Thiruvalluvar is another important literary work of the
Sangam literature
period. Silappadikaram, composed by Ilango Adigal, and
Manimekalai by Sithalai Sathanar throw light on Sangam polity and society. The political history of
the Sangam dynasties can be traced from these literary works.
In addition to Sangam literature, Greek authors, such as Megasthenes, Ptolemy, Pliny, and Strabo,
wrote about the commercial contacts between the West and South India. The Ashokan inscriptions
and the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also provide information about the south
Indian kingdoms.

Tickle Your Brain

What, according to you, was the position of women in the Sangam Age?

Did You Know

Avvaiyar was the title of the most legendary poetess of Tamil literature. Avvai means a
respectable elderly woman. Ar is the honourific suffix. There were three such Avvaiyars.
Among them, Avvaiyar I, a court poetess, lived during the Sangam period.

106
South Indian Kingdoms
Cheras
The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Vanji was their capital
with Tondi and Musiri being important seaports. The Pugalur
inscription of the 1st century CE inform about the three generations
of Chera rulers. Patirrupattu is another important source of
information on the Chera kings.
Fig. 9.4 The Chera Symbol
Cholas
The Chola kingdom stretched from present-day Tiruchi district to
southern Andhra Pradesh. Uraiyur was the Chola capital, which was
later shifted to Puhar. Karikala was the most powerful Chola king. He
became the overlord of the entire Tamil country owing to his military
exploits. Trade and commerce thrived under him. He brought forest
land under cultivation, adding to the kingdom’s prosperity. He
Fig. 9.5 The Chola Symbol
constructed the Kallanai dam across River Kaveri and erected many
irrigation tanks.

Pandyas
The Pandyas controlled parts of present-day southern Tamil Nadu.
Madurai was the Pandya capital. Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi, and Mudathirumaran were the earliest of the Pandyan
kings. Maduraikanchi by Mangudi Maruthanar tells us about the
socio- economic conditions of the Pandya country. Uggira Peruvaludhi
was the last famous king of the Pandyans. Pandyan rule started to
Fig. 9.6 The Pandya Symbol
decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.

Pallavas
By the end of the Sangam Age, the Pallavas became an important
dynasty in South India. They founded their kingdom in
Tondaimandalam with the capital at Kanchipuram. The Pallavas ruled
from 250 CE to the end of the 9th century CE. Simhavishnu was the
first important Pallava ruler. He defeated the Cholas and extended
Fig. 9.7 The Pallava Symbol
Pallava territory up to the Kaveri. Their conflict with the Chalukyas is
well-recorded in the annals of history. The great rulers of this dynasty were Mahendravarman I,
Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha. Aparajitavarman was the last Pallava
ruler.

107
 Rapid Round

1. Who wrote Silappadikaram?

2. Name the capital city of the Cholas.
3. Name two important rulers of the Pallavas.

Economy
Handicrafts were popular during the Sangam period. Palar Kanchipuram

They included weaving, shipbuilding, metal works,

Mamallai
carpentry, making of ornaments, etc. A well-organised Pennai
Ri
v er
internal and external trade flourished during this time.
Arikkamedu
Merchants used carts and animals to carry goods from
Ca
place to place. The barter system was used for internal u ve
ry river
Kodumanal Poompuhar
trade. External trade was carried on between South India Karur
Uraiyur

and the Roman Empire. The port cities of Puhar, Tondi,

Vaigai
R iv e
Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, and Marakkanam became r Bay of Bengal
keeladi
centres of foreign trade. Roman coins have been found Madurai
Thondi
across Tamil Nadu, revealing the extent of the trade. Alagankulam
Tamira
ba
r

an
Kayalpattinam

i
Korkai Ancient cities
Tickle Your Brain Arabian Sea Ancient Ports

How did seaports help a kingdom flourish?

Fig. 9.8 Ancient Kingdoms in South India

Case Study – Village Administration in South India

There were three types of villages in South India: ur, sabha, and nagaram. An ur was the typical
village consisting of farmers who collectively owned land. The village headman collected and paid
the taxes on behalf of the peasants. Urs were mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu. The sabha
consisted of brahmadeya villages or villages granted to Brahmans. Brahmans enjoyed individual
rights in the land but carried on activities collectively. The nagaram consisted of villages settled
and dominated by traders and merchants.

Bhakti
In ancient India, many religions co-existed with each other. For example, Hinduism with Jainism
and Buddhism. However, the growing popularity of Buddhism and Jainism caused anxiety amongst
Hindu religious heads, which resulted in a revival of Hinduism. From the 7th century onwards,
Bhakti spread throughout India, particularly in the south. Bhakti meant total surrender of the
devotees to God. In South India, the Nayanars and Alvars were the noted practitioners of Bhakti.

108
Nayanars, devotees of Lord Shiva, wrote poetry in praise of Him; the Alvars were worshippers of
Lord Vishnu. Devotional poetry developed in this period.

Did You Know

Karaikkal Ammaiyar is known as the first Siva-bhakti poet-saint in Tamil literature.

Rapid Round

1. What were some famous handicrafts of the Sangam era?

2. Name the different types of villages in South India.
3. What gave rise to Bhakti?

Global Connection

Aksum Empire
The Aksum Empire flourised around present-day northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. Aksum was a
major naval and trading power between
1st–7th centuries CE. It connected the
trade routes of the Mediterranean and
Asia. Adulis, its important port, was
strategically located near Red Sea,
around the Arabian Peninsula. Aksum
had trade links with South Arabia
before the Romans. Sketch Map not to scale,
An Artist Impression

Aksum gained prosperity as it

Fig. 9.9 Trade Routes of Adulis
connected the Roman Empire with
India. Goods from South India had a huge demand in Rome due to which loads of ships
cruised the Red Sea, from Egypt to the Arabian Sea, and across the Indian Ocean to India.
Commodities such as silk, spices, glass, brass, and copper were imported from Egypt, India,
and Arabia, while slaves, hippopotamus hide, and ivory were also exported to Rome, Egypt,
Arabia, India, and China.

109
 Concept Map

The Deccan and the South Indian Kingdoms

Deccan Kingdoms Sangam Age South Indian Kingdoms Economy Village Administration in Bhakti
South India

EXTENT OF THE
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE

Palar Kanchipuram
Nayanars Alvars
Mamallai
Pennai
Ri
v er

110
Arikkamedu

Ca
lver
y river
Kodumanal Poompuhar
Karur
Uraiyur
Ur Sabha Nagaram
Veigan
Rive
r Bay of Bengal
keeladi
BAY Madurai
OF Thondi
BENGAL Alagankulam
ARABIAN SEA Tamira
ba
r

an
i
Kayalpattinam
Korkai Ancient cities
Sketch Map not to scale,
An Artist Impression Arabian Sea Ancient Ports

LEGEND
Extent of the
Satavahana Empire

INDIAN OCEAN

Cheras Cholas Pandyas Pallavas

Satavahanas Chalukyas
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) were also known as the Andhras.

i) Chalukyas ii) Cholas

iii) Satavahanas iv) Cheras

b) The Chalukyan king plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi.

i) Pulakesin II ii) Pulakesin I

iii) Kirtivarman II iv) Vikramaditya

c) The inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also provides information about

the south Indian kingdoms.
i) Tanjavur ii) Hathigumpha
iii) Aihole iv) Junagadh

d) The last ruler was Aparajitavarman.

i) Pallava ii) Pandya

iii) Chera iv) Chola

e) of the Sangam period were popular.

i) Handicrafts ii) Paintings

iii) Sculptures iv) Monuments

f) founded the Chalukya dynasty.

i) Pulakesin I ii) Vishnuvardhan

iii) Pulakesin II iv) Kirtivarman

2. Write whether True or False.

a) Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana rulers.

b) A Sangam was an assembly of traders.

c) The ur was the unit of village administration during the Sangam period.

3. Fill in the blanks.

a) The first Sangam was held at .

111
 b) Tolkappiyam, written by , is the earliest Tamil literature.
c) was a title given to the most legendary poetess of Tamil literature.
d) composed the Gathasaptasati.
e) The greatest Chalukya ruler was .
4. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Karikala i) Modern Kerala

b) Cheras ii) Sittalai Sattanar

c) Simhavishnu iii) Kallanai dam

d) Manimekalai iv) Pallava dynasty

5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Which foreign authors wrote about commercial contacts between the West and South
India?
b) Write the source of information on the Chera rulers.
c) Why did the Pandyan rule begin to decline?
d) What do you mean by the term ‘Sangam Age’?
6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write a brief note on Gautamiputra Satakarni.

b) Write about the rise of the Bhakti sect in South India.

c) Discuss about the trade during the Sangam period.

d) Describe the spread of Bhakti in South India.

7. Picture Study.
a) Look at the picture. Which dynasty does it symbolise?
b) Name one important ruler of this dynasty.
c) Write about the achievements of any one of the rulers of this dynasty.

112
8. Compare the economy of the Sangam Age with that of the Mauryas.

9. Life Skills

Read the following maxims from Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural. What values do you derive from
them?
™ When trouble comes, keep ever smiling on; there’s nought like that to meet and conquer it.
™ A very flood of troubles will surely pass away when they are thought out well in wise
men’s minds.
™ Even though all at once to men sore troubles come in fearless souls trouble itself will
troubled be.
™ He, who in joy seeks not for joy in grief real grief he will not find.

Do it to know it

10. Elocution: Conduct an elocution on the topic, “The geography of a region affects its economy”.

11. Skit: Imagine you are a television journalist. Create a news piece on Sangam literature and its
contribution to the Tamil language.

12. Map Work: On an outline map of India, mark the territories of the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.

13. Research Work: Use the Internet or ask your teacher about the position of women in the
Bhakti movement in South India. Compose an essay on any one prominent female personality
of the Bhakti movement.

Source Study

“Know these – to be born in this world is to experience sorrow. To end the cycle of birth is to
achieve happiness. The first of these is the result of desire; the second is achieved by those
who no longer are ensnared by desire.”

Carefully analyse these words from the Silappadikaram. Can you find any similarities between
these teachings and those of other ancient Indian spiritual leaders?

113
 People Who Made History

Tiruvalluvar
Tiruvalluvar was a poet, philosopher, and a teacher who is said
to have lived in Mylapore, in present-day Chennai, with his wife,
Vasuki. Some believe he was a Shaivite Hindu, while others have
declared him to be a Buddhist or Jain. Tiruvalluvar was a Tamil poet
of the Sangam period. He is best known for his book, Tirukkural,
regarded as a magnum opus of human thought. Tirukkural is a
small collection of 1330 maxims, written in metrical verses of 2
lines. The book has been equated with the Bible, Paradise Lost by
Tiruvalluvar
John Milton, and the works of Plato. The fourth day of the Pongal
festival, also known as Kaanum Pongal, is celebrated as Tiruvalluvar Day, as a mark of respect
and appreciation for his work. A colossal statuette of Tiruvalluvar has also been built in
Kanyakumari as a tribute.

114
 10. India and the Ancient World

Let Us Learn

 Foreign Invaders  Influence of Indian Culture

 India and Ancient Trade Routes  Case Study – Nalanda

Tune In

Look at the accompanying image.

Attitudes
Ž What are the identifying features of a culture? Art/
Belief
Drama/
Music
Ž Do you think cultures in the modern world influence
Language
one another? Food
Culture
Ž Was it the same in ancient India and its contemporary
Faith/ Customs
world? Religion

Behaviour Rituals

Foreign Invaders
Bactrians
The Bactrian Greeks invaded India in the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and conquered a large
part of northwestern India. Menander, or Milinda, was one of the important Bactrian rulers who
extended his rule up to Mathura and made Sakala, present-day Sialkot, his capital. Menander
became a Buddhist convert. His dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena were recorded in the
book, Milinda Panho or Questions of Milinda.
Shakas
The Shakas, or Scythians, succeeded the Bactrians and gradually extended their rule over
northwestern India. There were five different groups of Shakas – one in Taxila; second in Punjab,
third in Mathura, fourth in western India, and the fifth in the Deccan. Rudradaman I was an important

115
Shaka ruler (130 CE–150 CE), who occupied large parts of
Gujarat, Konkan, Narmada Valley, Malwa, and Saurashtra.
He was a great patron of Sanskrit and issued the first ever
long inscription in Sanskrit. This is famously known as the
Junagadh or Girnar Rock inscription.

Fig. 10.1 Junagadh Rock inscription

Parthians
The Shakas were succeeded by the Parthians or Pahlavas from Iran.
In the first century CE, they occupied a small part of northwestern
India. Gondophernes was a famous Parthian king during whose reign
St. Thomas visited India to propagate Christianity.

Fig. 10.2 St. Thomas

Tickle Your Brain

What role did geography play in the foreign invasions of the Indian subcontinent?

Kushans
Did You Know The Kushans, who came after the Parthians, were a branch
of the Yuchi tribe from Central Asia. They established their
The Vikrama Samvat was supremacy in the lower Indus basin and the greater part
started by the king of Ujjain in of the Gangetic basin. The Kushan empire extended from
57 BCE to mark his victory over the Oxus to the Ganges, from Khorasan in Central Asia to
the Shakas. Pataliputra in Bihar.
Kujula Kadphises I was the founder of the Kushan dynasty.
He captured the Kabul Valley and minted coins in his name. Kanishka was the most important
of the Kushan rulers. He founded the Shaka era, commencing from 78 CE. Kanishka was a great
conqueror and a patron of religion and art. His empire was vast, stretching from Gandhara in the
west to Banaras in the east, and from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south. Purushapura, or
present-day Peshawar, was his capital. Mathura was another significant city in his empire. Kanishka
embraced Buddhism but was tolerant towards other religions. Charaka, the well-known physician,
was a member of his court.

116
 Fig. 10.3 Extent of the Kushan Empire

Kanishka and Mahayana Sect

Kanishka popularised Mahayana Buddhism. He sent missionaries to
Central Asia and China to propagate Buddhism and built chaityas and
viharas in different places. Kanishka supported Buddhist scholars such as
Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha. The Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir was
organised by Kanishka.

Fig. 10.4 Kanishka

117
Indo-Sasanians
In the middle of the third century CE, the lower Indus region was conquered by the Indo-Sasanians.
They ruled for less than a century. However, their economic contribution was immense as they
minted a large number of coins. The Sassanians were the first to use the term ’Hindustan’ in their
inscription in 226 CE.
Rudradaman I’s
Vikrama Samvat
reign

165 BCE– 45 BCE 57 BCE 78 CE 130 CE–150 CE 226 CE

Use of ‘Hindustan’ in
Menander’s reign Shaka Era starts
Sassanian inscription

Rapid Round

1. During whose reign did St. Thomas visit India?

2. Who were the different groups of Shakas?
3. Which present-day city was known as Purushapura in ancient times?
4. Who were the first to use the term ‘Hindustan’ in their inscription?

India and Ancient Trade Routes

Silk Route
The Silk Route was a trade route connecting East Asia to the Mediterranean. Several routes
evolved from the main route, each linking with different destinations. One of the routes linked
northwestern India to the other routes throughout the Indian subcontinent. It served as the prime
route of commerce from 200 BCE till the 14th century CE. People transported goods such as silk,
spices, porcelain, perfumes, furs, medicine, jewels, slaves, glassware, and horses. However, silk
was traded the most. Dates, saffron powder, pistachio nuts, frankincense, myrrh, gold, silver, and
ivory were imported to China. Goods were relayed by a series of agents on different routes in the
commercial bazaars of ancient oasis towns, cities, or ports.

Word Galaxy
frankincense – an aromatic gum resin used as incense
myrrh – a fragrant gum resin used in perfumery, medicines, and incense

118
 Fig. 10.5 Ancient Silk Route

Did You Know

There are 12 Silk Road sites in India, now on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage
Sites. They are the historical ruins of Vaishali and Vikramshila (Bihar); Sravasti, Kaushambi,
and Ahichhatra; Buddhist remains of Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh); Sanghol (Punjab);
Arikamedu (Puducherry); Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu); Harwan (Jammu and Kashmir);
Burud Kot (Maharashtra), and Indraprastha (Delhi).

Indian traders played a major role as middlemen between the Chinese and the Romans. The
Chinese traded silk with the Indians for precious stones, gold, and silver and then the Indians
would trade these with the Romans. It was through the Silk Route that Buddhism spread from
India to China. Chinese pilgrims, like Xuanzang, Faxian, and Yijing, used this route to travel to India
in search of Buddhist scriptures.
Maritime trade
Several literary works indicate a busy maritime trade in ancient India. According to the Harivamsa,
the first geographical survey of the world was undertaken during the Vaivasvata period. Kautilya,
in his Arthashastra, mentions the Board of Shipping and the Commissioner of Port in charge of
sea traffic. Arthashastra has an entire chapter on the state department of waterways under the
navadhyaksha.

119
 Tickle Your Brain
What was the reason for the sudden rise in land and maritime trading activities during the
period under discussion?

Shoreline trade was carried out between different regions of India as well as with the East and the
West. Goods containers moved between the ports on the Bay of Bengal, encompassing the islands
in the Indian Archipelago and China. The people of Kalinga and the Tamil kingdoms also had brisk
maritime trade with foreign countries. Similarly, there was rapid trade between the western coast
of India and West Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Influence of Indian Culture
India established commercial contacts with several
other countries very early in history. As a result,
Indian languages, religions, art and architecture,
philosophy, customs, and beliefs spread to other
parts of the world. The term ‘Greater India’ is used to
denote the historical spread of Indian culture beyond
the Indian subcontinent. The cultural relationship
between Southeast Asia and India can be evinced Fig. 10.6 The Buddhist Temple in Borobudur, Java
through the transmission of ancient Vedic and
Buddhist culture and philosophy into Myanmar, Thailand, Malaya, Laos, and Cambodia. Indian
scripts were discovered in Southeast Asian islands like Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi, and
parts of the Philippines.
Case Study – Nalanda
Nalanda University, the ancient seat of learning,
was founded in the middle of the 5th century CE.
According to one account, there were 2,000 teachers
and 10,000 students at Nalanda. Various subjects
such as theology, grammar, logic, astronomy,
Fig. 10.7 Nalanda University
metaphysics, and philosophy were taught there. The

Word Galaxy
archipelago – a group of small islands or many small islands in the sea
maritime – relating to the sea, especially used to seaborne trade or naval matters
theology – the study of religion and religious beliefs
metaphysics – the part of philosophy related to the understanding of existence and knowledge

120
revenue collected from villages, granted by the rulers of that period, was used to maintain the
University. King Harshavardhana was one of its most famous patrons. Nalanda attracted many
foreign students including Xuanzang and Yijing from China. Xuanzang described the excellence of
the education system and ascetic life at Nalanda, as well as the ambiance and architecture of the
University.

Rapid Round

1. Who played the role of middlemen between the Chinese and the Romans?
2. What does the term ‘Greater India’ denote?
3. Name the last Chinese pilgrim to visit ancient India.
4. What were the different subjects taught at Nalanda?

Global Connection

Funan Kingdom
Funan, the first Indianised kingdom in Southeast Asia,
comprises parts of present-day Vietnam, Thailand, and
Cambodia. Many archaeological sources confirm the
influence of Indian culture on Funan. The capital of Funan
was Vyadhapura. According to literary sources, the kingdom
was founded by a Brahman named Kaundinya in the 1st
century CE. His grandson passed his kingdom to his general,
Fan-che-man. The latter’s successor and nephew, Fan-chan,
sent an embassy to India. The names of all the kings of Funan
started with the prefix Fan, the Chinese transcript for Varman. Fig. 10.8 Ancient Funan
Varman was an end name for Kshatriyas in India. Indian
cultural influence continued in Funan till around the 6th century CE.

Word Galaxy
embassy – the group of people who representing their country in a foreign country
transcript – a written or type record of spoken language

121
 Concept Map
India and the Ancient World

Art/ Attitudes
Drama/ Belief
Music

Language
Food
Culture

Faith/ Customs
Religion

Behaviour Rituals

India and Ancient Trade Influence of Indian

Foreign Invaders Case Study – Nalanda
Routes Culture

Silk Route Maritime Trade

122
Bactrians Shakas Parthians Kushanas Kanishka and Mahayana Indo-Sasanians

Rudradaman I’s
Vikrama Samvat
reign

165 BCE– 45 BCE 57 BCE 78 CE 130 CE–150 CE 226 CE

Use of ‘Hindustan’ in
Menander’s reign Shaka Era starts
Sassanian inscription
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) issued the first-ever long inscription in Sanskrit.

i) Menander ii) Rudradaman I

iii) Kirtivarman II iv) Kanishka

b) The was founded by the king of Ujjain.

i) Chinese calendar ii) Georgian calendar

iii) Shaka Samvat iv) Vikrama Samvat

c) The Buddhist Council in Kashmir was organised by Kanishka.

i) Fifth ii) Second

iii) Fourth iv) Third

d) was a famous patron of Nalanda University.

i) Kanishka ii) Harshavardhan

iii) Rudradamn I iv) Kadphises I

e) is an important source of information on ancient maritime trade.

i) Milinda Panho ii) Harshacharit

iii) Harivamsa iv) Foguoji

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) Menander was also known as .

b) The first geographical survey of the world was undertaken during the period of
.

c) were succeeded by the Parthians.

d) was the capital of the Bactrians.

e) All the kings of Funan used the prefix in their names.

123
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Milinda Panho i) Buddhist Scholar

b) Vasumitra ii) founder of the Kushan dynasty

c) Charaka iii) ‘Questions of Milinda’

d) Kadphises I iv) well-known physician

4. Write whether True or False.

a) The Parthian rule was succeeded by the Bactrain rule in India.

b) Buddhism, under the Kushans, spread to the Roman Empire.

c) Astronomy was an important subject of study at Nalanda.

d) Indian traders played a major role in the ancient Silk Route trade.

5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What was the extent of Menander’s Empire? Name its capital.
b) Locate the five different groups of Shakas.
c) Write in brief about the contribution of the Indo-Sassanians.
d) Trace the origin of the Kushans.
e) What was Kanishka’s contribution to Buddhism?
6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Explain the importance of Silk Route.
b) Elaborate on the impact of Indian culture on the world.
c) Write a note on maritime trade in ancient India.
d) Describe the major features of the Shaka and Parthian invasions of India.
e) Who was Kadphises I? Describe his rule in India.
7. Picture Study.

a) Identify the place in the picture.

b) When did it flourish?
c) Evaluate the importance of the place.

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8. What, according to you, are India’s cultural exports to the contemporary world?

9. Life Skills

Many foreign invaders absorbed themselves into ancient Indian society. What does it say about
the outlook of the people during those times?

Do it to know it!

10. Class Discussion: Hold a discussion on the fading of old Indian traditions and the changing
ways of life in India.

11. Research Work: The ruins of Nalanda University have been excavated in Bihar. Collect
information on the same and make a fact file on it.

Source Study

Visit any one of the UNESCO World Heritage sites listed in this chapter. What can you learn
about the social and political conditions prevalent there in the past?

People Who Made History

Faxian
Faxian, also known as Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, visited
India in 402 CE. He was born at Shanxi, China. Fa Hien visited India
to deepen his knowledge of Buddhism and study the sacred Buddhist
texts. He visited important Buddhist sites like Udyana, Kapilavastu,
Gandhara, Bodh Gaya, Peshawar, Kushinagara, Banaras, and Taxila.
He stayed at Pataliputra, conversing with Buddhist monks and
studying Sanskrit texts with Buddhist scholars. After studying with
them for 10 years, he decided to go back to China. Once home, Fa Faxian
Hien started translating Buddhist texts into Chinese. He also
recorded his journeys in a book called Foguoji or Record of Buddhist Kingdoms. Foguoji
contains valuable information about the history of Buddhism in India.

125
 11. The Rise and Decline of
the Guptas

Let Us Learn

 Sources  Decline of the Guptas

 Important Gupta Rulers  India after the Guptas – Harshavardhana
 Gupta Administration

Tune In

The Gupta period is often hailed as the Golden Age of

architecture in India. Look at the given picture.
Ž Can you guess the place?
Ž How can you say that this belonged to the golden
age of Indian architecture?

The Gupta dynasty comprised rulers of the Magadha mahajanapada in present-day Bihar. Founded
by Sri Gupta, the Guptas ruled over an empire that covered northern India and parts of central and
western India. The Gupta period, dating from the early 4th century CE to the late 6th century CE,
is often regarded as the classical age of Indian history when works of literature, science, art, and
architecture reached their zenith.

Sources
There are various sources tracing the history of the Gupta period. They consist of literary, epigraphical,
and numismatic sources.
Word Galaxy
™ The Puranas deal with the zenith – the point in time when something is most effective or
royal genealogy of the Gupta prosperous
kings. genealogy – a continuous line of ancestry

126
™ Secular literary works of this period throw light on the reign of the Gupta Empire.

™ The Chinese traveller, Faxian, visited India during the rule of

Chandragupta II. He wrote extensively on the social, economic,
and religious conditions of the period.

™ Moreover, inscriptions such as the Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription

and the Allahabad Pillar inscription provide information on the
reign of Chandragupta I and Samudragupta, respectively.

™ The Gupta coins inform us about the titles adopted by Gupta

kings and the ritual sacrifices they performed.

Important Gupta Rulers Fig. 11.1 Mehrauli Inscription

Chandragupta I

Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghatotkacha who in turn was succeeded by Chandragupta I.
Chandragupta I was the first important ruler of the Gupta Empire. He came to be known as
Maharajadhiraja or the great king of kings. He consolidated his place with a matrimonial alliance
with the Licchavis when he married their princess Kumaradevi.

Did You Know

The Guptas are thought to have been Kushana feudatories. Their original empire was
centred in Prayag and included the current Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta was one of the greatest rulers of the Gupta dynasty.

He was equally illustrious in his other personal endeavours. Coins
issued by Samudragupta portray him playing the veena which shows
his inclination towards music. He was also known as Kaviraja as he
was a fine poet. He patronised many poets and scholars. Harisena
was a poet in his court. Samudragupta was a dedicated Vaishnavite
but was tolerant towards other faiths. However, he is well-known for
Fig. 11.2 Coin showing
his aggressive military conquests.
Samudragupta playing veena

127
 Sketch Map not to scale,
An Artist Impression

Fig. 11.3 Extent of the Gupta Empire

Tickle Your Brain

How did matrimonial alliances help rulers extend their area of influence?

128
Military Conquests
Samudragupta’s South Indian expedition is better known as the Dakshinapatha expedition. He
defeated twelve rulers in this expedition. However, he did not annihilate and seize these kingdoms.
Samudragupta returned the vanquished kingdoms to their rulers but asserted that they recognise his
suzerainty. Following his successful military campaigns, Samudragupta performed the asvamedha
yajna. His rule extended over eastern Himalayan states and the bordering states of Nepal, Assam,
and Bengal, which he controlled directly. The Vindhyan forest territories, known as Atavikarajyas,
were brought under his control. The Shaka and Kushana principalities in the West and Northwest
were under his sway. The kingdoms on the east coast of the Deccan, as far as the Pallava Kingdom,
recognised his overlordship.
Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II succeeded Samudragupta. Chandragupta II continued his father’s policy of military
expedition, using the policy of diplomacy and warfare to
extend his territory. He further strengthened his position
through matrimonial alliances. He married Kuberanaga, the
daughter of a Naga chieftain of central India. He besteowed
his daughter Prabhavati to the Vakataka prince in marriage.
The greatest of his military achievements was the war
against the Shakas. He performed the asvamedha yajna 11. 4 Coin issued by Chandragupta II
after a successful military campaign against the Shakas and
took up the title of Shakari or ‘destroyer of Shakas’. He also assumed the title of Vikramaditya. He
supported great intellectual personalities, such as Amarasimha and Kalidasa who was his court
poet. Cultural development reached its zenith during the reign of Chandragupta II.

Rapid Round

1. Who was succeeded by Ghatotkacha? 2. In whose court was Harisena a poet?

3. What were the Atavikarajyas? 4. Who came to be known as Shakari?

Kumaragupta
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. His rule witnessed peace and prosperity.
Many coins and inscriptions issued
by him have been found. He also Word Galaxy
performed ashvamedha yajna. ashvamedha yajna – a horse sacrifice performed by a king to establish
The Nalanda University is believed his authority or control in the areas through which the horse has
moved unchallenged
to have been founded by him.

129
Skandagupta
Kumaragupta was succeeded by Skandagupta. A group of the Central Asian Huns invaded India
during his reign. However, Kumaragupta fought successfully against them.

Did You Know

Chandragupta II patronized the nine jewels (navaratna) in his royal court. They were
Amarasimha, Dhanvantari, Harisena, Kalidasa, Kshapanaka, Shanku, Varahamihira,
Vararuchi, and Vetala-Bhatta.

Gupta Administration
The Gupta bureaucracy was not complex as the king was closely associated with provincial
administration through the officials known as Kumaramatyas. The provinces were known as Bhuktis
which were placed under Uparikas, the provincial governors. They were generally selected from the
princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishayas or districts, under the control of the Vishayapatis.
The Gramas or villages in the district were looked after by the village headman or Gramika. He was
assisted by the village elders or Gramavriddhas. The judiciary was more developed as compared to
earlier times. Civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Inheritance laws were properly laid
down. The guilds of traders and craftspersons had their own sets of laws. Land taxes were higher
than those on trade and commerce. The king collected 1/4th to 1/6th of the total produce as taxes.
The Guptas organised a system of provincial and local administration.
Decline of the Guptas
Skandagupta was succeeded by weak rulers. They failed to protect their empire from the Huns.
Further, the empire was destabilised by the rise of feudatories, many of whom declared themselves
independent. Trade and commerce were affected by these circumstances. State revenue declined
due to the growing practice of giving land revenues for religious and other such purposes. By the
6th century CE, the glory of the Gupta Empire completely vanished.

Tickle Your Brain

How did the rise of feudatories destabilise Gupta administration?

India after the Guptas – Harshavardhana

The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disunity and chaos in North
India. The Pushyabhuti were feudatories of the Guptas. After the Hun invasions, they asserted their
sovereignty. Thanesar, in present-day Haryana, became their capital.

130
Sources
Harshavardhana, of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty, ascended the throne in 7th century CE. The important
sources for reconstructing the history of his rule are the Harshacharita written by Banabhatta,
Harsha’s court poet, and the travellogues of Xuanzang, the Chinese traveller to India during
Harsha’s reign. The plays written by Harsha, namely, Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyardarshika also
furnish useful information. The Sonpat inscription and the Madhuben plate inscription describe
the chronology of Harsha’s time.

Fig. 11.5 Harshavardhana’s Empire

Ascension to the Throne

Prabhakaravardhana was the first ruler of the Pushpabhuti dynasty. He was succeeded by his elder
son, Rajyavardhana. His sister, Rajyasri, had married Grihavarman, the Maukhari ruler. Devagupta,
the ruler of Malwa, in confederation with Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal, killed Grihavarman. On
hearing the news, Rajyavardhana attacked the king of Malwa and defeated him. However, he was
deceitfully killed by Sasanka on his way to the capital. Harsha succeeded his brother and decided
to avenge the assassinations of his brother and brother-in-law. In his first military expedition,

131
Harsha drove away Sasanka from Kanauj which became his new capital. Eventually, Harsha became
the most powerful ruler of North India.
Military Conquests
Harsha fought against the rulers of Valabhi and made it a Did You Know
part of his territitory. He ruled directly over parts of
present-day Rajasthan, Punjab, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Harsha established the first
Odisha. The subsidiary states of Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi, diplomatic relations between
and Kamarupa recognised his rule. As a result, Harsha India and China by sending an
controlled the whole of North India. However, his military envoy to the Chinese emperor
campaign was brought to a halt by the Chalukyan ruler, Taizong in 641 CE.
Pulakesin II, who defeated him.

Word Galaxy
diplomatic – refers to the skillful handling of relationships, negotiations, and interactions between individuals,
groups, or nations to promote understanding, resolve conflicts, and achieve agreements.
envoy – a messenger or representative, especially one on a diplomatic mission

Estimate of Harsha’s Rule

Harsha was a devout Shaivite. However, in his later life, he
became a Buddhist convert. He banned the use of animal
food in his kingdom. Moreover, he punished those who
killed any living being. He built stupas, monasteries, and rest
houses for travellers across his kingdom. Every five years, he
organised a congregation of all regional representatives. He
frequently discussed and examined the Buddhist doctrine Fig. 11.6 Ruins of Nalanda
with Buddhist monks. Harsha gave financial assistance to
Nalanda University which became a reputed international centre of learning.

Samudragupta’s Huns invade Harshavardhana’s

reign India reign

319 CE–334 CE 335 CE–380 CE 380 CE–412 CE 5th century CE 455 CE–467 CE 606 CE– 647 CE

Chandragupta I ‘s Chandragupta II ‘s Skandagupta’s

reign reign reign

132
Rapid Round

1. What were the political divisions of the Gupta Empire?

2. How did the Gupta Empire decline?
3. Who defeated King Harshavardhana?
4. What were Harsha’s religious beliefs?

Global Connection

Meso-American Civilisation – The Mayans

Meso-America is a term
used to describe the
ancient regions of Mexico
and Central America. The
Mayan civilisation was
spread across the Yucatan
Peninsula and present-
day Guatemala, Belize, and
parts of the Mexican states
of Tabasco and Chiapas; Fig. 11.7 Pyramid of Chichen Itza

and the western part of

Honduras and El Salvador. The classical period of the Mayan civilisation began in 250 CE and
lasted till 900 CE. It was regarded as the Golden age of the Mayan Civilisation.

Many plazas, palaces, temples, and pyramids, as well as courts for playing the ball games
that were ritually and politically significant to Mayan culture, have been excavated near the
Mayan sites. Temples and palaces were built in a stepped pyramid shape and adorned with
intricate inscriptions and figurative artwork. They contributed significantly to mathematics
and astronomy, including the development of a complex calendar system based on 365 days.
However, by 900 CE, the Mayan civilisation started declining. According to some historians,
armed conflicts and reduction in agriculture were responsible for the decline.

133
 Concept Map
Rise and Decline of the Guptas
Samudragupta’s Huns invade Harshavardhana’s
reign India reign

319 CE–334 CE 335 CE–380 CE 380 CE–412 CE 5th century CE 455 CE–467 CE 606 CE– 647 CE

Chandragupta I ‘s Chandragupta II ‘s Skandagupta’s

reign reign reign

Sources Important Gupta Rulers Gupta Administration Decline of the Guptas Harshavardhana

Chandragupta I Chandragupta II Skandagupta

Samudragupta Kumaragupta
Sources Military Conquests

134
Ascension to Throne Estimate of Rule

Sketch Map not to scale,

An Artist Impression

Puranas Accounts of Travellers Coins

Secular literature Inscriptions

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) was the founder of the Gupta dynasty.

i) Sri Gupta ii) Kumaragupta

iii) Chandragupta I iv) Skandagupta

b) The Nalanda University is believed to have been founded by .

i) Chandragupta ii) Samudragupta

iii) Kumaragupta iv) Harsha

c) Harshavardhana made his new capital.

i) Nashik ii) Pataliputra

iii) Thanesar iv) Kanauj

d) The dealt with the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.

i) Ratnavali ii) Harshacharita

iii) Puranas iv) Mahabharata

2. Write if True or False.

a) Skandagupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty.

b) Sasanka was the ruler of Bengal during the time of Harshavardhana.

c) Harshavardhana was the brother of Grihavarman.

d) Kalidasa was the court poet of Samudragupta.

3. Fill in the blanks.

a) Chandragupta II married , the daughter of a Naga chieftain of Central India.

b) Chandragupta II patronised the in his court.

c) was succeeded by Skandagupta.

135
4. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Prabhavati i) Chinese traveller

b) Huns ii) Pushyabhuti dynasty

c) Harshavardhana iii) Central Asia

d) Faxian iv) Daughter of Chandragupta II

5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Name the dramas written by Harsha.
b) Who took the title of Shakari and when?
c) Which inscriptions described the chronology of Harsha’s time?
d) Write a note of Kumaragupta’s rule.
6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Describe the Gupta administration.
b) Discuss the military expeditions of Samudragupta.
c) What are the sources of history of the Gupta period?
d) Describe the events leading up to the ascension of Harshavardhana to the throne of Kanauj.
7. Give reasons.
a) Harsha attacked Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal.
b) By the 6th century CE, the glory of the Gupta Empire completely vanished.
c) The Guptas organised a system of provincial and local administration.
8. Picture Study.
a) Which king minted the coin shown in the given picture?
b) What information can you obtain from the given coin?
c) Write a brief note on the king’s cultural achievements.

9. Samudragupta was hailed as the ‘Indian Napoleon’. However, Samudragupta was born
centuries before Napoleon. Is it proper to call him the ‘Indian Napoleon’ or is it more
appropriate to call Napoleon the ‘European Samudragupta’?

136
10. Life Skills
Foreigners who came in huge numbers to India during the Gupta period were absorbed into
Indian society. Each group of foreigners was considered a caste. What does this say about the
society of that period?

Do it to know it!

11. Creative Writing: Imagine yourself as Xuanzang. Write a letter to King Harsha after your
return to China, thanking him for his hospitality.
12. Role Play: Perform a play based on the story of friendship between Harshavardhana and
Xuanzang.
13. Map Work: On an outline map of India, label the extent of the empires of the Guptas and
Harshavardhana.
14. Research Work: Use the Internet to find out about the art and architecture of the Ajanta and
Ellora caves. Compile a report on the two historic sites. Include interesting facts, pictures, and
chronology of construction.

Source Study

The pillar inscriptions at Mehrauli and Allahabad are important sources of information on
the Gupta period. Find out what they talk about. Write a summary of your findings.

People Who Made History

Xuanzang
The original name of Xuanzang was Chen Yi. He was born in 602 CE in
Henan province in China. Xuanzang was a Buddhist monk and a Chinese
pilgrim in India who translated the sacred Buddhist scriptures into
Chinese. In China, he founded the Buddhist Consciousness Only school.
Xuanzang travelled north of the Taklamakan Desert, passing through
Tashkent and Samarkand, across the Hindu Kush mountains into
Kapisha, Gandhara, to reach India. He became a student at the Nalanda
Xuanzang
University, where he studied Sanskrit, Buddhist philosophy, and Indian
thoughts. He stayed in King Harsha’s court for some time. In China, he spent the rest of his
life translating the Buddhist scriptures that he had brought back from India. He died in 664 CE.

137
 12. Cultural and Scientific
Development in Ancient India

Let Us Learn

 Architecture  Literature
 Paintings  Science and technology

Tune In

Ž Name some of the monuments that you have seen in India.

Ž Do you know how many of them belong to the Ancient period?

Architecture
Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings with attention to
purpose and beauty. In ancient India, architecture was used as an expression of the collective
consciousness of a particular culture. Let us discuss some prominent forms of ancient Indian
architecture below-
Temple Architecture
Temple architecture in India reached the pinnacle of its glory
during the Gupta period because of the patronage received from
the Gupta rulers. The finest examples of Gupta architecture are the
temples at Deogarh and Bhitargaon. The Temple at Bhitargaon was
made of terracotta and brick and is probably the earliest surviving
Gupta temple in terracotta as well as the earliest example of true
‘arch’ in India. The temple suffered damages and what survives
today is mostly a reconstruction.
Fig. 12.1 Temple at Bhitargaon

Tickle Your Brain

What do you think was the motive behind royal patronages for the construction of temples?

138
The Dasavatara temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, is built in red sandstone on a high sqaure-
shaped platform (jagati), which can be reached by steps on all four sides. The doorway to the
temple is lavishly decorated and the panels on the three side walls are beautifully carved which
depict mythological scenes.

Did You Know

Many ancient Indian texts mention the qualifications that architects were expected to have.
For example, the chief architect was to be well versed in all the Vedas and the Shastras.

In South India, The Pallava kings constructed a number of

stone temples in 7th and 8th century. The Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram and Kailashnath Temple at Kanchi are the
finest specimens of Pallava architecture. The shore temple
has three shrines in its complex, two of which are dedicated
to Shiva and the other to Vishnu. The Chalukyas of Karnataka
built numerous temples at Aihole and Pattadakal in Karnataka.
Fig. 12.2 The Shore Temple,
Buddhist Architecture
Mahabalipuram
Stupa
A stupa is a commemorative structure erected to house the
sacred relics of the Buddha and other distinguished monks.
The most architecturally prominent stupa in India is the Sanchi
Stupa, in Madhya Pradesh, from which we can deduce the
basic design of a stupa. The most eye-catching feature of a
stupa is the hemispherical mound, known as the ‘anda’. Above
the mound, is the ‘harmika’- a fenced balcony like structure,
which represents the heaven (the abode of gods). From the
Fig. 12.3 Sanchi Stupa
‘harmika’, emerges the ‘chattri- a three-tier umbrella, which is
symbolic of the three jewels of Buddhism- the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha)
and the Sangha (the Buddhist order).
The stupa is encircled by railings which symbolises the separation of the sacred world from the
human world. It also has gateways at four cardinal points which allows access to the stupa. The
railings and the gateways are richly carved, which depict scenes from the Buddha’s life.
Another important stupa is the Dhamekh stupa, located at Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, where the
Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. This Stupa is architecturally

139
different from the Sanchi Stupa and the structure is more cylindrical. Parts of this stupa date as
far back as the 5th-6th century. But the earliest sections are
entirely enclosed by subsequent additions and the upper
portion is still incomplete. The walls of this stupa are intricately
carved as well.
Caves
The practice of carving out caves from rocks for monks to
reside was started by the Mauryans. The earliest examples are
Barabar Caves near Gaya. Cave architecture later extended to Fig. 12.4 Barabar Caves

the Western and the Southern India.

Rapid Round

1. Temple architecture in India bloomed during the period of which rulers?

2. Where are the Barabar Caves located?

Ancient caves are also known for the splendid paintings found on their walls. The paintings of the
Ajanta caves, are regarded as masterpieces of Buddhist art. One can find there sculptures, wall
murals and paintings on the ceiling. These caves were used as monasteries by the Buddhist monks
who took refuge at such isolated places during the
rainy season. They also provided the monks with
enough time for broadening their spiritual quest
through scholarly discussions. The central topic
of the paintings is the illustration of various Jataka
stories, which speak of the previous births of the
Buddha, several events connected with the life of the
Buddha, as well as contemporary events and social
life. Other than that, the paintings also include a Fig. 12.5 Paintings at Ajanta Caves
range of human figures, animals and other drawings
of the natural world. The ceiling ornamentation comprised of decorative patterns, geometrical and
floral patterns, etc. Paintings were made on rock facades. The colours and shades used were red
ochre, yellow ochre, green earth, lapis lazuli, carbon black and shell/kaolin lime.

140
 Did You Know

Two important art forms, with respect to sculpting developed during the period of the
Kushana rulers.

1. Gandhara school of art– In this, the Buddha is crafted in a very fine and realistic
manner. For instance, the folds of the dress worn by Buddha are very detailed and the
features of Buddha are also very intricate.

2. Mathura school of art– In this, the features are naturalistic and the depiction of Buddha
is more human-like.

The Gandhara school was influenced by Graeco-Roman art, whereas the Mathura school
developed indigenously.

Literature
The earliest literature of South India is a collection called the Sangam literature. It was written in
Tamil in the form of poems and songs. The Sangam literature gives a picture of the conditions that
prevailed in South India during the ancient times. Tolkappiyam, a text on grammar, is the oldest
surviving work of Tamil literature.

Among the secular literature written during the Mauryan period, Arthashastra written by Kautilya
is noteworthy. It is a treatise on statecraft, administration, inter-state
relations with respect to political diplomacy as well on managing
economic affairs. During the period of the Kushanas, Ashvagosha
emerged as one of the greatest writers, who also received patronage
of the rulers. He is known for writing the biography of the Buddha,
Buddhacharita as well as composing Saundarananda, a fine example
of Sanskrit Kavya. This period is also known for the Natyasastra, an
important work on rhetoric and dramaturgy by Bharatmuni.
Fig. 12.6 Kalidasa
The Gupta period is notable for generating distinguished quality

Word Galaxy
patronage – financial support and favours provided by rulers
rhetoric – the study of the ways of using language effectively in a manner that is persuasive and influential
dramaturgy – the art or the theory of writing and putting on plays, especially for the theatre

141
of secular as well as religious literature. Kalidasa, the greatest poet of classical Sanskrit literature,
belonged to the Gupta period. He was a dramatist of great dramas such as Abhijnanashakuntalam,
Malvikagnimitra and Vikramorvashiya. Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava and Meghadoota were his
famous poems. Vishakadatta, the author of Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragupta also belonged
to this era. The two great epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata were compiled during the Gupta
period. Ramayana is authored by sage Valmiki, whereas the authorship of Mahabharata is ascribed
to sage Vyasa.

However, many scholars are doubtful of the authorship of these two epics and believe that they
may have been the works of more than one author. Vyasa is also said to have composed the
Puranas but scholars are of the opinion that the Puranas are neither the work of one author nor
of one particular age. Even though the Puranas discuss mythical themes, they form an important
source of history with respect to the genealogies mentioned of certain ruling dynasties. There
are eighteen Great Puranas and many Lesser Puranas. Grammar texts such as Ashtadhyayi and
Mahabhashya written by Panini give insight on the finesse of the Sanskrit language.

Did You Know

King Harshavardhana was a playwright himself. He penned down famous plays such as
Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika.

Science and Technology

Ancient India produced geniuses in the field of mathematics and astronomy. Special mention must
be made of Aryabhatta, who wrote the text ‘Aryabhattiya’. The text deals with many important
themes such as astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets
etc. He scientifically explained the cause of an eclipse, which was ahead of its time as people
during that time ascribed supernatural causes to every natural phenomenon.

Brahmagupta made significant advances in mathematics. His text ‘Brahmasputa Siddhanta’

contains rules of mathematical calculations as well as the use of the number ‘zero’.

Can you find out who discovered Algebra?

Ayurveda, a well-known system of health science, was developed during the ancient period.
Charakasamhita and Sushrutasamhita written by Charaka and Sushruta were important texts on

142
Ayurvedic medicines. The Charakasamhita covered
the names of numerous plants and herbs used
while making medicines, whereas Sushrutasamhita
mentions the practice of surgery.

Great development was made in the field of

metallurgy during the Gupta period. The iron pillar
at Mehrauli in Delhi symbolises the advancement
of metallurgy during the Gupta period. The pillar
Fig. 12.7 Iron pillar at Mehrauli
that has been standing over there for centuries,
exposed to sun and rain, has not yet rusted.

Word Galaxy

metallurgy – the branch of science and technology concerned with extracting metals from their ores and modifying
the metals for use by studying their properties.

Global Connection

Golden Age of Greece

The Gupta period is known as the ‘Golden Age of India’. Similarly, the period under the
Athenian statesman, Pericles, is known as the ‘Golden Age of Greece’. During this period
of time, significant advances were made in a number of fields including governance, art,
philosophy, drama and literature.

Names Discipline Famous for

Pythagoras Mathematics Pythagoras theorem

Aesop Story writing Fables

Pindar Poetry Odes

Aristophanes Drama Lysistrata, The Clouds

143
 Concept Map

Cultural and Scientific Development in Ancient India

Architecture Literature Science and Technology Paintings

Ajanta Paintings
Secular Literature Religious Literature

144
Puranas Epics

Poems Treatise Dramas Grammar Plays

Mathematics Medicines

Temples Stupa Caves

Metallurgy Astronomy

Sanchi Stupa Dhamekh Stupa Barabar Caves

Kailashnath Temple Deogarh Temple Bhitargaon Temple Shore Temple

 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) were constructed for monks to reside in.

i) Temples ii) Caves

iii) Stupas iv) Pagodas

b) is an important work on rhetoric and dramaturgy.

i) Saundarananda ii) Mudrarakshasa

iii) Natyasastra iv) Ashtadhyayi

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) wrote the biography of the Buddha, Buddhacharita.

b) mention genealogies of ancient ruling dynasties.

c) Causes of the occurrence of eclipses was explained by .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B
a) Deogarh Temple i) Kanchi
b) Kailashnath Temple ii) Madhya Pradesh
c) Sanchi Stupa iii) Delhi
d) Iron Pillar iv) Uttar Pradesh

4. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is the central topic of the paintings of Ajanta Caves?
b) Name the two great epics written in the Indian subcontinent.
c) What is the significance of a stupa?

5. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Why is the Arthashastra considered important?
b) Discuss Aryabhatta’s contribution to the field of science.
c) The Gupta period is notable for generating distinguished quality of secular as well as
religious literature. Explain.

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6. Picture Study
Observe this sculpture of Buddha
a) Which school of art do you think produced it? Give reasons for your
answer.

7. Do you really think the cultural and scientific development was

highly advanced during the ancient period? Give reasons.

8. Life Skills

Ancient Indians wrote a number of texts on varied themes, ranging from poetry, drama to
medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. What do you make of the advancement in learning
during that period?

Do it to know it!

9. Travel Brochure: Make a travel brochure on the architectural wonders of Ancient India.

People Who Made History

Queen Lokamahadevi, in 740 A.D, built the Temple of Virupaksha at Pattadakal, Karnataka to
commemorate the victory of her husband, King Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty over
the Pallavas.

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 13. India – A Kaleidoscope of Cultures

Let’s Learn
 Understanding diversity  Regional diversity
 Linguistic diversity  Case Study – Ladakh and Kerala;
 Religious diversity Kutch and Manipur

Tune In

 Your teacher will instruct you beforehand to bring to class a dish indigenous to the
region to which you belong. Be prepared to explain to your classmates what the dish
means to the natives of your region and what are some of the ingredients used to
prepare it.
 Your teacher will also choose a few students randomly to sing a song in their regional
language. You should be prepared with one such song.
Now you know that though we are all Indians, we are different from each other in many
ways- we hail from different regions , speak different languages and eat different foods.

Understanding Diversity
Diversity means, ‘Differences among groups of people and individuals based on ethnicity, race,
socio-economic status, gender, exceptionalities, language, religion and geographical area. Modern
India is one of the most diverse countries in the world. According to the 2011 census, India is home
to 121 languages( 22 Scheduled languages and the 99 Non Scheduled languages), each having
10,000 or more speakers . There are around 700 different tribes living in India. The country is also
home to almost every major religion in the world.
Linguistic Diversity
The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution consists of 22 languages, which are spoken widely by a
substantial number of people. The English language, in addition to Hindi, is used for all the official

Word Galaxy
Constitution – a set of basic laws or principles for a country that describes the right and duties of its citizens
and the way in which it is governed

147
purposes of the Union. The diversity of India’s languages can be
understood by the fact that the Indian currency has 15 languages,
besides Hindi and English, printed on it, and most signboards are
written in English, Hindi and the state language.

Fig. 13.1 Linguistic Diversity

Did You Know

Matthur, a remote village in Karnataka, is the only place in the world where common people
talk, mostly in Sanskrit — one of the world’s most ancient languages.

Rapid Round

1. Which language can be used for official purposes?

2. How many languages have been recognised by the Constitution of India?
3. Which is the only place in the world where Sanskrit is spoken in everyday life?

Religious Diversity
India is one of the most religiously diverse nations of the
world where every individual is free to follow his/her own
rites and beliefs. Home to four of the world’s major
religions— Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism and Islam,
people practise other minor religions as well.
India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
and Sikhism. Through trade and invasions, Christianity,
Islam, Judaism, also became an integral part of the
Fig. 13.2 Symbols of different religions
Indian culture. India is also home to various aboriginal practised in India
beliefs and tribal religions for example- the Gonds of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, the Bhils of Rajasthan and Gujarat and the
Abors of Arunachal Pradesh worship nature and local deities. Harmonious co-existence of people
practising different religions makes India a unique place to live in. The Constitution of India permits
all Indians to follow any religion of their choice. That’s why India is a secular country where all
religions are granted equal status and no religion is a state religion.

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Regional Diversity
India is a land of diverse cultures, and communities too. Though the traditions, practices, ways of
living, customs, food habits and languages vary across the country, all Indians are connected to
each other by their unique identity as Indians. That’s why, diversity is the source of India’s strength,
and ‘Unity in Diversity’ is the distinct feature of India’s cultural heritage.

Fig. 13.3 Different socio-cultural practices of different regions of India contribute

to regional diversity.

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 Case Study
Ladakh, Kerala, Kutch and Manipur

Ladakh Kerala Kutch (Gujarat) Manipur

Location North India South India West India North-East India

Climate Extreme temperature Maximum temperature in Extreme climate and Maximum temperature in
with –40°C in winter and summer months is 36°C. temperature ranges summer months is 32°C.
35°C in summer. In winter the temperature from 20°C in winter In winter the temperature
Rainfall: 102 mm(Avg.) drops to 18°C. Rainfall: 2250 to 45°C in summer. often falls below zero.
mm(Avg.) Rainfall: 355 mm(Avg.) Rainfall: 1467.5 mm(Avg.)
Food The most well-known You may have often wondered Gujarati food The daily meal consists of
Habits Ladakhi food items are why people eat with their typically consists plain white rice, chamthong
thupka or noodle soup hands in Kerala. Eating food of rice or chapatis, /kangsoi / shaak /hawai ,

150
and tsampa made up of with your hands feeds not pulses, vegetables, ametpa/ iromba , kanghou/
roasted barley flour and only the body but also the kachumbar (mixed ataoba and chamfoot/
skyu , a heavy pasta dish mind and the spirit. That is the vegetables salad), anganba and singju or
with root vegetables. Vedic wisdom behind Kerala’s papad and curd. vegetables with fermented
Ladakhi tea, also known famous Banana Leaf meal. Snacks like dhokla, fish or grounded sesame
as gurgur cha or butter Keralite lunch is traditionally khandvi, sweets like seed spicy salad.
tea, is unique as it is a vegetarian meal. It is served basundi are popular all
made with strong green on the banana leaf, known as over the country. They
tea, butter, and salt. sadya. It comprises of para - relish snacks known
boiled rice, vegetable curries, as farsan, prepared in
side dishes, savouries, pickles several ways.
and desserts. Appam, puttu,
idiyappam are eaten during
the breakfast.
 Ladakh Kerala Kutch (Gujarat) Manipur

Special The Cold Desert of Ladakh. The backwaters of The White Desert of Rann Birth place of the modern
Mention Alleppey, Cochin and of Kutch. day game, polo.
Kottayam in Kerala.
Clothing Goncha, a huge robe of Mundum Neriyathum is Women wear chaniya Women wear a phanek
thick woollen material a traditional dress worn (skirt) - choli (blouse) (a wraparound cloth),
with a colourful cloth by women in Kerala. It with chunaris , which are innaphi (shawl), and a stiff
tied at the waist, is the consists of two pieces of beautifully embroidered skirt called sarong. The
most common Ladakhi cloth: A mundu is a one and with mirror work. phanek is usually worn
dress; loose pyjamas, a piece cloth draped on the The menfolk wear loose with a blouse. Men wear
top hat and long boots lower part of the body trousers, a long-sleeved dhotis and paired with
finish the attire. There is while neriyathu is worn under-jacket, and a short smart jackets or bundis.
little disparity in dress for over a blouse. A mundu coat, with a plain or silk In addition, they wear a
men and women. Ladakhi is a white or creamy bordered cloth. white turban called Pagri

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women wear a beautiful dress with colourful strips (headdress). In winter,
headdress called perak. known as kara or border. rich men wear quilted and
The main clothing is padded coats.
mundu for men, which
is a long garment. It is
tucked around the waist
and reaches to the ankle.
Kaily or lungi is informal
attire for Keralite men.
 Ladakh Kerala Kutch (Gujarat) Manipur

Festivals Losar is the Tibetan New Onam is a traditional Holi, Raksha Bandhan, Lai-Haraoba, held in the
Celebrated Year, celebrated in Ladakh, ten day harvest festival Navartri and Diwali are month of May, is the most
which falls in the month of celebrated in Kerala which some of the festivals famous one and attracts
December. It is observed marks the homecoming celebrated in Kutch. huge gatherings. Yaoshang
by making offerings to the of the mythical King is the foremost festival
gods and goddesses. The Mahabali. It is also the of Manipur. Festival of
biggest and most famous state festival of Kerala. Kuki Chin-Mizoor autumn
of the monastic festival is Vishu marks the new year festival and Cheiraoba or
Hemis. It falls in late June of the Keralites. Manipur New Year are
or the first half of July, the important festivals of
and is devoted to Padma Manipur.
Sambhava. The Saka Dawa

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Festival is the main festival
of Ladakh. It is considered
to be the holiest Buddhist
festival.
Dance Jabro, Shondol, and Koothu, Koodiyattom, Kutchi Gajiyo is the Manipuri, Kartal Cholom
Kampa Sumsak are Patakom, popular folk dance or Cymbal, Pung or
some of the renowned Ashtapadiyattom, belonging to Kutch Manipuri Mridanga, Maibi
traditional dances of Krishnattom, Thullal, region. Dance.
Ladakh. Mohiniyattom and
Kathakali are some of the
important classical dances
of Kerala.

Word Galaxy
monastic – relating to monks, nuns, or others living under religious vows
 Ladakh Kerala Kutch (Gujarat) Manipur

Handicrafts Clay moulding is a Coir and cane products Wall hangings known Cane and bamboo
and wellknown handicraft of are used to make as torans are made basketry such as Heijing
Ladakh region. It is made ecofriendly objects such by embroidery using Kharai, Phiruk, Lukmai
Handloom
by mixing clay with cloth, as coir mattresses, floor herringbone stitches Likhai, Sangbai, Chengbon,
flour, old waste paper and furnishing, mats and interspersed with small Meruk and Morah are well
glue in a proportionate other colourful articles. mirrors and occasional known.
manner and then Sandalwood carving is the chain stitches for peacocks
hammered with a wooden crafting of beautiful things and other motifs. One of
beater on a smooth with sandalwood such as the unique weaves of this
stone. Thanka paintings boxes, small models of region is the tangalio,
highlight various scenes animals, Kathakali dance made by adding extra
of Lord Buddha’s spiritual postures and candle knots on the weft that
life. They are made on stands. create motifs and figures

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white cloth or Latha. The in a dotted pattern on
carpet known as Tsukdan the woven fabric. Beaded
is a peculiar type of the bangles, braids, tassels
carpet; where the drape and necklaces are also
and weft of the rug used famous.
are both of woollen yarn.
 Ladakh Kerala Kutch (Gujarat) Manipur

Cultural ‘Sindhu Darshan Festival’ is The Snake Boat Race is a Rann Utsav is an exotic Hiyang Tannaba (Boat
Festivals celebrated on the banks of boat race that is carried cultural festival held Race) is generally held in
river Sindhu in the month out on the banks of the annually in Kutch. It is the month of November at
of June every year. It is river Pamba at Aranmulla celebrated in December Thangapat. The boats are
celebrated to showcase on the fifth day of Onam. month at full moon called Hiyang Hiren. The
Indus River as a model of Thousands of people night. During this festival, rowers wear traditional
communal harmony and gather there to watch the people are dressed in dresses and head-gears.
peace in India. People from grand race. The boats are multihued attires, fine ‘Chavang-Kut ’, the
different religions and about 30 metres long and jewellery and perform autumn harvest festival
regions perform together have a seating capacity various folk dances and is celebrated with great
thereby depicting the of 150 men. The boats performing arts. Rann enthusiasm by the Kuki,
multi-dimensional culture are made of teak and the Utsav is organised by Chin and Mizo tribes

154
of India. ‘Ladakh festival’ curled ends of the boats the residents of Kutch in in the hill districts of
is organised in the month are shaped like cobra collaboration with Gujarat Manipur.
of September to represent hoods. They are elegantly Tourism every year.
and promote the vibrant adorned with green and
customs of Ladakh. crimson silk umbrellas.
The beautifully decorated
boats are rowed by
oarsmen dressed in white
dhotis and turbans.

Word Galaxy
multi-dimensional – of or involving several dimensions
 Did You Know

Indian sobriquets: Kerala is also known as ‘God’s Own Country’ and Manipur as ‘The
Jewel of India’.

Rapid Round

1. Name the folk dance of Kutch region.

2. What is the Ladakhi tea known as?

Concept Map

understanding
diversity
22 official
linguistic languages
diversity
Ladakh birthplace of
Case religions
Manipur Studies diversity such as Hinduism,
India - A religious
Kaleidoscope of Buddhism,
diversity
Kutch Sikhism and
Cultures
Jainism
Kerala regional
diversity

Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Mundum Neriyathum is a traditional dress worn by women in .

i) Ladakh ii) Kerala

iii) Manipur iv) Kutch

b) Yaoshang is the foremost festival of .

i) Manipur ii) Ladakh

iii) Kerala iv) Kutch

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 c) The birthplace of modern day game, polo is .

i) Manipur ii) Kutch

iii) Ladakh iv) Kerala

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) is the birthplace of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and

Jainism.

b) The traditional vegetarian meal of Kerala is served on banana leaf, known as .

c) marks the new year of the Manipuris.

d) Backwaters are found in the state of .

e) is an exotic cultural festival held annually in Kutch.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) God’s Own Country i) Kutch

b) Jewel of India ii) Kerala

c) Cold Desert iii) Manipur

d) White Desert iv) Ladakh

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What diversity do you see in India?
b) What is the meaning of regional diversity of India?
c) Name the important dance forms of Manipur.

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) How is India a secular country?

b) ‘Unity in Diversity’ has been the distinctive feature of our culture. Explain.

c) Write a brief note on the handicrafts of Kerala.

d) Compare the regions of Kutch and Ladakh with reference to their food and clothing.

156
6. How does geographical diversity lead to cultural and economic diversities in India?
7. Life Skills
™ India is a culturally rich nation with a vivid past. Elaborate the statement.
™ Indians believe in Atithi Devo Bhava. What does this speak about the attitude of the
Indians?

Do It to Know It

8. Food Bazaar: Have a food bazaar in the class showcasing the regional cuisines of India.
9. Explore: Make a list of the languages besides your mother tongue that you can speak at
least one or two words of. Mention at least five such words of each language along with their
meanings.

Global Connection

10. Find out which other countries in the world are as culturally diverse as India.

Tickle Your Brain

What criteria was adopted to group the population of India into different states?

11. Complete the crossword.

Across Down

3) wall hangings of Kutch 1) boat race in Manipur

4) well-known handicraft of Ladakh 2) autumn festival of Manipur

5) traditional attire of Ladakh 7) state festival of Kerala

6) informal attire for Keralite men

8) painting showing various scenes of Lord

Buddha’s spiritual life

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 1 2

People Who Made History

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, coined the
term ‘Unity in Diversity’ in his book, the ‘Discovery of India’, to
describe the multicultural fabric of the Indian nation. He emphasised
that the social, cultural and economic diversities among the people
of the country is not its disadvantage, but its specialty, which trains
its citizens to be naturally inclusive and tolerant of everyone who
maybe abjectly different from them; and here lies the unique Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru
character of the Indian civilisation.

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 14. Deciphering the Stereotypical Society

Let’s Learn

 Stereotype  Case Study – Mahatma Gandhi

 Prejudice  Role of Constitution in Eradicating
 Discrimination Inequality

Tune In

In 2015, the Government of India launched a scheme ‘Beti

Bachao Beti Padhao’ (Save the girl child, educate the girl child)
to address the issues such as gender imbalance and discrimination
against girl children in Indian society.
Ž Do you think such schemes will help change Indian society’s
perception towards a girl child? Discuss in class.

We, humans as social beings, often form opinions about others who are different from us by
judging them by their appearance, age, gender, and community. This is called societal bias. Our
irrational and unjustified thinking feed such biases. As responsible social beings, we must identify
our societal biases, weed them out of our minds and rationalize our thoughts and opinions. This
will help create a healthy society based on the dictum of ‘live and let live’.
Stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination can potentially disturb the mental health of a society.
Let us explore them to weed them out.

Stereotype
The word ‘stereotype’ is derived from two Greek words ‘stereos’ meaning ‘solid’ and ‘typos’ meaning
‘impression’, which when combined together means a solid image or impression that one forms
about people, things or ideas. In modern times, stereotypes refer to a set of beliefs, usually stated
as generalisations, which people hold about the members of a group. Groups can be defined by any
number of criteria, such as race, gender, occupation and age. For instance, some people perceive

159
that people from villages are conservative and not technologically-savvy. Thus, whenever they see
a villager, they automatically feel that the villager must be old fashioned and will not know about
modern technology.
Prejudice
The word ‘prejudice’ is derived from two Latin words ‘prae’ meaning ‘before’ and ‘iudicium’ meaning
‘judgment’; thus denoting ‘prior judgment’. Prejudice is an unfavourable feeling or opinion formed
beforehand, without knowledge, thought or reason. It is an evaluation, of a social group or an
individual that is significantly based on the individual’s group membership. For instance, a person,
who has opened a restaurant in the city’s posh area, feels that people from lower strata of the society
are dirty and should not be allowed in his restaurant. However, it would be illegal if he does so.
Hence, it remains his opinion, which is a prejudice against the lower strata of the society.

Discrimination
The word ‘discriminate’ is derived from the Latin word ‘discriminatus’, meaning to divide or to
separate. While the words ‘stereotype’ and ‘prejudice’ are to do with beliefs and attitudes respectively,
‘discrimination’ is to do with action. Discrimination can be both positive and negative. It is the act of
making a distinction in favor of or against, a person based on the group, class or category to which
the person belongs, rather than on individual merit. For instance, before independence, there were
places where only the British were allowed and there were boards outside the clubs and hotels which
said that Indians are not allowed. This is an example of negative discrimination.

Stereotype (Belief)
“Short people are bad
athletes”

Discrimination (Action)
Prejudice (Feeling)
“I will not allow any short person
to participate in the marathon.” “I don’t like short people”

Tickle Your Brain

Find out an example of positive discrimination mentioned in the Constitution of India

160
 Rapid Round

Are the following statements stereotypical or prejudiced or discriminatory?

1. Boys are good at sports.
2. There are no fat people in Japan except Sumo wrestlers.
3. All slum dwellers are dirty and have a poor sense of hygiene.
4. Older adults are grumpy and spoilsports and should not be called to a party.

Case Study – Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi resided in South Africa from 1893 to 1914, during which he developed ideas and
methods that would profoundly influence the history of not only India, but also of the world.

South Africa in 1890 was made up of many colonies, all held by

European settlers. Indians in South Africa as well as the native
African population faced racial discrimination and prejudice
based on the colour of their skin. Gandhiji had personally
undergone humiliation in South Africa for being a non-white.
He was once hurled out of a train for refusing to travel in a
third-class train coach, when he was forced to do so by the
officials, despite having a first-class ticket. Indians and the native
Fig 14.1 Mahatma Gandhi
population were also debarred from entering areas where the
Europeans resided. Such discriminative policies enraged Gandhiji. It was in South Africa that Gandhiji
first employed the method of ‘Satyagraha’ to help the Indians living there.

In India, Gandhiji challenged the age-old discriminatory practice of untouchability and tried to eradicate
it. He took it upon himself to educate the people of the country about the ills of untouchability.
In order to do so, he toured the country and even started newspapers
such as Harijan, Harijanbandhu, Harijansevak in English, Gujarati and
Word Galaxy
Hindi, respectively. They served as the mouthpieces of his battle against eradicate – put an end to
untouchability.

Tickle Your Brain

How did newspapers serve as the mouthpieces of Gandhiji’s battle against untouchability?
Source some newspaper articles from online archives and discuss their content in the class.

161
Role of Constitution in Eradicating Inequality

The Constitution of India has played an important role in keeping in check the practices involving
inequality in Indian society. It has approved the Right to Equality as one of the fundamental rights
given to the people of India. According to the Indian Constitution, every individual is equal before the
law. Nobody shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, caste, race, sex or place of birth.
Special provisions are made for the development of socially and educationally backward classes or
for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Untouchability in any form is prohibited. The
Indian Constitution provides equal opportunities to all citizens in matters of employment. The Indian
Constitution has prohibited use of any title, which is not military or academic in nature such as Sir,
Raja, etc., because these titles express superior status of certain people and inferior status of others.

Word Galaxy
Scheduled Caste – an official designation given to certain lower castes in Indian society, which have historically
faced deprivation, oppression and extreme social isolation and are now protected by the constitution and
granted special concessions.

Tickle Your Brain

Debate and Discuss-
Do you think the constitution has been successful in eradicating inequality in our society?

Concept Map

equal opportunities
to all citizens stereotype

equal before the law

prejudice
special provisions for the
socially and educationally
role of the Constitution Deciphering the
backward classes discrimination
in eradicating inequality Stereotypical
Society
prohibition of untouchability
Mahatma Gandhi
prohibition of use
of titles such as Sir Case Study

162
 Let Us Exercise

1. Fill in the blanks.

a) , and are different types of
biased and irrational attitude towards society.
b) The statement ‘Girls are more emotional than boys’ is an instance of .
c) The use of titles such as Sir, Raja is prohibited by the .
d) enlightened the Indians on the evils of untouchability.
2. Match the columns.

Column A Column B
a) I won’t consider any elderly applicants i) Instance of stereotype
for the position, assuming they won’t
be able to cope with the technology
used in the workplace.
b) All elderly people cannot adapt to ii) Prejudiced thinking
modern devices.
c) I feel uncomfortable around elderly iii) Discriminatory behaviour
individuals, assuming they cannot
cope with modern technology.

3. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Define prejudice.
b) Give one example of stereotype.
4. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) How has our constitution dealt with the issue of inequality?

b) How did Mahatma Gandhi’s own experiences lead him to take a stand against racial
discrimination in South Africa ?

c) Which Article of the constitution talks about ‘Untouchability’ and what does it say?

d) Which words mentioned in the Preamble of the constitution are suggestive of a nation
based on equality ?

e) How would you label the following behavior?

163
 The principal of a prestigious school refuses to admit a differently –abled child to his school
for being in a wheelchair.

f) Identify the kind of thought described below.

A customer enters a clothing store. By merely glancing at the customer, the shopkeeper
makes up his mind that this particular customer will not be able to afford any of the expensive
clothes in his store.

5. Do you feel discrimination on the basis of the colour of the skin is prevalent in our
society? Has the television and print media been responsible for promoting it? Give your
opinions.

6. Life Skills
You notice that some children are being denied entry into your neighborhood park for
belonging to a different religious community. What steps would you take to undo this injustice?

Do it to know it!

Explore: Find out the life story of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar and the role he played in the making of the
Indian Constitution.
Skit: Write a skit depicting the effect of prejudices on people and present it in the class.

164
 15. The Government and its
Formation

Let Us Learn

 What is a Government?  Universal Adult Franchise

 Levels of Government.  Case Study – Women’s Suffrage
 Different types of Government Movement

Tune In

Ž How does the classroom environment change when the teacher is not present?
Ž Who disciplines the class?
Ž Are there certain codes of conduct to be followed in the classroom? Who makes them?

What is a Government?
A government is an institution which is a territorially based body, such as within a nation, which
involves a group of people that carries out governance i.e. it formulates and executes collective
decision to run the affairs of the particular nation.
The activities of a government determines how well a nation/state is doing overall.
Functions of the Government
™ Delivering public goods and services effectively, ensuring that everyone has enough to eat and
good health facilities
™ Ensuring stability by maintaining law and order
™ Improving economic capacity of the people through employment generation
™ Ensuring safety and security of persons and property, by dealing with armed intrusion across
the borders and with internal conflict situations
™ Accommodating various ethnic, religious groups to ensure cooperation among all
™ Allocating essential services such as postal, railway and banking to the people

165
™ Providing aid to the people when there is any natural disaster such as an earthquake or a
landslide
Word Galaxy
™ Taking sufficient measures to eliminate social
infanticide – the practice of killing unwanted
evils such as dowry, child labour and female
children soon after birth
infanticide
™ Working for the betterment of the weaker section of the society

Levels of Government
India is a vast country with a huge number of people. Therefore, for its effective management, the
government functions at three different levels. Such an arrangement also serves the dual objective
of promoting unity while accommodating regional diversities.

looks after the subjects of national

importance
Central

looks after the subjects specific to

State
a particular state

looks after the day to day affairs at the

Local
city, town and village level.

Fig. 15.1 Stages of the Government

Did You Know

In the initial phases, only the central and the state governments existed in India. In 1993,
through the 73rd and the 74th amendments to the constitution, the local government,
both at the urban and the rural level were formed.

166
Types of Government
There are different types of government depending upon the nature of power it holds and how
it came to power.

The Legislature The executive The Judiciary

The body that makes law. The body that implements Interprets the laws and gives
E.g- The Parliament the laws. E.g- the President, judgments in accordance
the Vice-President, and the with the constitution. The
Council of Ministers with prime duty is upholding
the Prime Minister as the the constitution and
head to aid and advise the administering justice
President according to the law. E.g-
The Supreme Court.

Democracy Monarchy Dictatorship Communist

Democracy is a form of A form of A form of A form of government

government in which government in government in which runs on the idea of
the supreme power is in which the supreme which a single establishing a classless
the hands of the people. power is held by a person has society and abolishment
There are two forms monarch, such as absolute power. of all kinds of private
of democracy, one is a queen or a king. They seize control property, in order to
direct - in which people The right to rule is either by force or create equality among
themselves participate inherited from one unfair elections. its citizens. Although,
in the decision making generation to the communism, in its pure
process, e.g. - ancient other. form, aims for an order of
Greece, and the other one existence so perfect and
is indirect democracy, also just, that there is no need
known as representative of a government, but in
democracy, in which its current form, power
people elect their has been monopolized
representatives through by the communist party.
voting to make decisions
on their behalf.
For example: India For example: Saudi For example: For example: China
Arabia North Korea

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 Tickle Your Brain
Which type of government is more likely to put into effect all the three branches ?

Did You Know

Anarchy means rule by no one or non-rule, meaning no one has authority over the people.

Rapid Round

1. What is anarchy?
2. Give an example of monarchy.

Universal Adult Franchise

Universal adult franchise means that all adult citizens of a nation have the right to vote in political
elections, which determines who is going to form the government on their behalf. This right is
granted to all irrespective of class, caste, religion, gender etc. However, in exceptional cases, some
individuals may be denied this right. Find out who those individuals are.
In most countries, an individual who has attained
the age of 18 is considered an adult. But this varies Did You Know
from country to country.
The fight towards achieving universal adult franchise The minimum age to vote in
has been a long one across the globe. For instance, different countries
when democratic governments were first instituted, Austria: 16 years India: 18 years
only adult males who owned property as per the Greece: 17 years Singapore: 21 years
criteria laid down were allowed to vote. In certain
countries, the non-white population were not allowed to vote.
As far as women are concerned, they had to wait even longer. Let’s discuss that in the next section.
Case Study – Women’s Suffrage Movement
The term ‘suffrage’ is synonymous to the term ‘franchise’ discussed above, which means the right
to vote. The suffrage movement was a decades- long fight by women to win the right to vote. It
began in the United States .

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Women had long been denied political participation. They were not even granted the basic right
of being able to vote in elections. Women were expected to marry and care for their children and
husband. The women who started to fight back and break these restrictions from the mid 1800s
were called suffragettes.
They wrote and lectured, carried out protests and civil disobedience to convey their message.
During the Industrial Revolution, many women started working in factories or farms. There, they
got a chance to meet other women and talk about political and social issues. By the end of the 19th
century, the right to vote became synonymous with women’s struggle for equality. A movement was
started to get voting rights for women. Suffragette
was the name given by the newspaper, The Daily Word Galaxy
Mail, to the women involved with the movement. The suffragette – a woman seeking the right to vote
through organised protest
movement got significant support.

Did You Know

The tactics used by suffragists went beyond petitions and memorials to Congress. Testing
another strategy, Susan B. Anthony registered and voted in the 1872 election in Rochester,
NY. As planned, she was arrested for “knowingly, wrongfully and unlawfully voting for a
representative to the Congress of the United States.” She was convicted by the State of
New York and fined $100, which she insisted she would never pay.
Source:National Archives and Records Administration

Women won the right to vote in New Zealand (1893), Australia (1902), Finland (1906), and Norway
(1913). It was thought that it would not be long when the women around the world would be able
to vote. However, the movement slowed down during the First World War. The war environment
was not conducive for carrying out the activities but the World War I changed the dynamic and
ultimately strengthened the suffrage movement. The industrial demands of modern war meant
that women moved into the labor force and contributed to the war effort on the home front.
Suffragists got a chance to bolster their arguments in favor of domestic expansion of voting rights.

Global Connection

Look for the document ‘Declaration of Sentiments’ on the internet. What does it say? Discuss
in class.

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 Concept Map

Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) By the end of the 19th century, the became synonymous with women’s
struggle for equality..
i) right to vote ii) right to property
iii) right to education iv) right to work

b) was the first country to grant women the right to vote.

i) India ii) New Zeland
iii) Australia iv) Canada
2. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Democracy i) North Korea

b) Communist ii) India

c) Dictatorship iii) China

3. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Differentiate between government and governance.

b) What ideology does a communist government run on?

170
 c) What do you understand by democracy?
d) How would you differentiate between a monarch and a dictator?

4. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Do you think it is necessary to have a government looking after the affairs of a country?
What would happen without it?
b) What kind of changes did the introduction of universal adult franchise bring about?
c) Why did women feel the need to launch a movement in the mid 1800s? What kind of
movement was it?

Tickle Your Brain

How important do you think political elections are? Describe the election scenario in your
country

5. Life Skills
™ What is expected of you as a citizen of a democratic country? What is your role?

Do it to know it

6. Art Frenzy: Make a pictorial chart of how democracy was in its earliest form versus how
it is now.
7. Class Discussion: Have a class discussion on the topic, ‘which is the best form of government’.
8. Which form of government does the United Kingdom have?
[Hint- There is both a parliament and a monarch]

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 16. Village Administration

Let Us Learn

 Panchayati Raj  Gram Panchayat

 A Case study on women’s representation  Zilla Parishad
 Gram Sabha  Panchayat Samiti

Tune In

Ž What does the picture depict?

Ž What do you think the people are doing?

Panchayati Raj-The Background

The term ‘Panchayat’ literally means an assembly (yat) of five (panch) wise and respected elders
chosen and accepted by the village community to rule (raj) on behalf of them. Therefore,
panchayati raj can be inferred as the system of self-governance at the local-level. Panchayats or
village assemblies existed in ancient India as self-governing institutions which had distinct and
well-defined functions. The institution of Panchayat represented not only the collective will, but
also the collective wisdom of the entire rural community. The Panchayat System had disintegrated
during the British Rule. With the introduction of centralized colonial administration under the
British, the traditionally self-sufficient and self-governing character of the village completely
eroded. Following the 1857 revolt fiscal burdens prompted Lord Mayo to pass a resolution in 1870
on the development of local institutions for the management of local finances. In 1882, Lord Ripon

172
stepped forward in favour of imparting political education to the people in general and the rural
people in order to equip people with the knowledge of administering their own localities. He also
supported holding of elections for constituting the local government institutions. Therefore, Lord
Ripon is known as the Father of local self-government in India.
Post independence, when the Constitution came into force, Article 40 made a mention of
panchayats under the Directive Principles of State Policy. It laid down that the “State shall take
steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government”.
As the Directives Principles cannot be enforced by a court of law, Article 40 did not make a serious
impact and was not uniformly followed across the country.
Therefore, to strengthen the institution of Panchayati Raj, the constitution had to be amended and
by the 73rd amendment in the year 1992, a new Part IX was added to the constitution titled “The
Panchayats”. The amendment upgraded panchayats from non-justifiable to justifiable part of the
constitution and has put constitutional
Word Galaxy
obligation upon states to enact the
fiscal - relating to government money or public money
Panchayati Raj Acts as per provisions
amendment- a change made by correction, addition or deletion.
of the Part IX.

Rapid Round

1. What are Panchayats?

2. Who is known as “the father of local self-government” in India?

The working of the Panchayat system

Zilla district level

Parishad

Panchayat
Samiti block level

Village Panchayats village level

Fig. 16.1 Three Tiers of Panchayati Raj

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 Did You Know

• Moving away from the traditional meaning of “Panchayat” as assembly of “five”

people, the constitution recognizes Panchayat as an institution of self-government
for the rural areas, which consists of more than 5 elected representatives.
• 24 April is celebrated as Panchayati Raj Divas because on 24th April,1993 the 73rd
amendment came into force, meaning it was formally implemented.

Village Panchayat
Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat are two important institutions in India’s Panchayati Raj system
that aim to fulfil the aspirations of the community at the village level.
Gram Sabha
Gram Sabha is an assembly of all adults
in a village, who are primarily living
in the area covered by a Panchayat.
All the people who are 18 years of Professional Tax
Donation for
Community Works
age and above and are included in
the electoral rolls of a village are the
members of the Gram Sabha of that
village. A Gram Sabha holds a meeting Government
at least once in two months, and every Schemes Funds Sources of Funds Taxes on houses and
Received Through market places
meeting or proceeding is conducted Various Departments
in public. Its working is done with
consensus as far as possible, but in
Taxes on Pilgrimages
case of no consensus, a decision is
taken on the basis of a majority. The Fig. 16.2 Sources of Funds
Gram Sabha can ensure the mandatory
presence of at least one member from every family of the village for the execution of its works.
A few key functions of the Gram Sabha
1. It has control over the contribution received in any form including voluntary contributions of
cash and goods and the labour of villagers; amount received through the government from
minor forest produce and minor minerals.

2. It has complete right over how these funds are to be utilised.

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3. Gram Sabha safeguards and preserves the natural resources located in its area.
4. It is responsible for resolution of disputes. To carry out the proceedings/hearings of the
disputes, Gram Sabha may constitute a Justice Committee comprising of three to twelve
members. The hearing of any dispute will take place only in public. Before arriving at the final
decision, persons from both the parties and other people actively involved in the proceedings,
if any, will be given ample opportunity to express their views. All the members of the Gram
Sabha will have an opportunity to give their views on the conclusions and proposals of the
Justice Committee. To punish a guilty person, fines may be levied according to the economic
status of the person and in case of an extremely serious matter, complaint may be made to a
competent Authority with the approval of Gram Sabha.
5. It is the fundamental duty of the Gram Sabha to maintain peace and order in its area.
Gram Panchayat
Gram Panchayat is the key local government institution responsible for the development of the
village. It consists of elected representatives of the people. The number of members usually ranges
from 7 to 31, and seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women. The
Sarpanch is the head selected from the elected representatives. All the seats in a Panchayat are
filled by persons chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat area.
A few key functions of the Gram Panchayat Word Galaxy
1. Preparation of annual plans and annual constituency- a geographically defined area in which
budget for the development of the voters elect a representative to a legislative body.
Panchayat area.
2. Promotion and development of agriculture and horticulture.
3. Improvement of breed of cattle, poultry and other live-stock.
4. Planting and preservation of trees
5. Promotion of rural and cottage industries
6. Implementation of house building programmes
7. Construction, repair and maintenance of drinking water wells, tanks and ponds. as well as
construction and maintenance of village roads, drains etc.
8. Promotion of public awareness and participation in poverty alleviation programmes as well as
promotion of public awareness and participation in the education sector.
In conclusion, both Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat are important institutions that work towards
the development of the village and the fulfilment of the community’s aspirations. While Gram Sabha
represents the voice of the people and safeguards their rights, Gram Panchayat is responsible for
the implementation of development programmes in the village.

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 Table 16.1 Difference between Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat

Gram Sabha Gram Panchayat

™ Gram Sabha consists of all the adult ™ Gram Panchayat is a small body whose
members of a village members are elected by the members
of Gram Sabha.
™ Gram Sabha is a permanent body and it ™ The term of office of Gram Panchayat is
is not subject to dissolution for five years.
™ Gram Sabha monitors and evaluates the ™ Gram Panchayat is an executive organ
activities of Gram Panchayat. of the local self-government system
and is responsible for implementing
the decisions and policies made by the
Gram Sabha.

Source Study

“I am convinced that if India is to attain true freedom and through India the world also,
then sooner or later the fact must be recognized that people have to live in villages, not in
towns, in huts, not in palaces. Crores of people will never be able to live in peace with each
other in towns and palaces. They will then have no recourse but to resort to both violence
and untruth. I hold that without truth and on violence there can be nothing but destruction
for humanity. We can realize truth and non-violence only in the simplicity of village life”
What can you infer from these statements made by Mahatma Gandhi?

Tickle Your Brain

Do you think the Panchayati System is the closest we have come to direct democracy in India?

Block Level Panchayat ( Panchayat Samiti)

A Panchayat Samiti is the government at the block level. It is also known as Janpad Panchayat.
The Panchayat Samiti is the link between the Gram Panchayat and the district administration. It
is a local government body at the tehsil or Taluka level in India. A tehsil/taluka is a sub-division
within a district and it consists of a cluster of villages. The samiti is elected for a term of 5 years and
is headed by the chairman and the deputy chairman. The day to day functions of the Panchayat
Samiti is carried out by a Government official named as Block Development Officer (B.D.O.). There
are several other officers who assist the B.D.O. in discharging different duties.

176
Functions
™ Panchayat Samitis function to promote good governance and to provide facilities to common
people easily.
™ The Panchayat Samiti executes plans and schemes with the money allocated by the State
government or Central government.
™ The main functions of the Panchayat Samiti are planning, execution, and supervision of all
developmental programs in the Block. The Panchayat Samiti also supervises the works of Gram
Panchayats within its jurisdiction.
™ The Panchayat Samiti looks after the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and
other backward classes as well as endorses the self-employment schemes in the rural areas.
District Level Panchayat ( Zilla Parishad)
™ The District/Zilla Panchayat constitutes the apex body of the three-tier structure of the
Panchayati Raj system.
™ The Chairman of all the Panchayat Samitis form the members of Zilla Parishad. The Chairman
of the Zilla Parishad is elected from among its members. There is a Chief Executive Officer in
the Zilla Parishad, who is deputed to the Zilla Parishad by the State Government
™ The Zilla Parishad, for the most part, performs co-ordinating and supervisory functions. It
coordinates the activities of the Panchayat Samiti falling within its jurisdiction. In certain states,
the Zilla Parishad also approves the budgets of the Panchayat Samitis.
™ The Zilla Parishad also renders necessary advice to the Government with regard to the
implementation of the various development schemes.
Rapid Round

1. What is a tehsil?
2. Who are the members of a Gram Sabha?

Concept Map
Zilla

Zilla

177
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Panchayat System had disintegrated during the initial phase of the
rule.

i) French ii) German

iii) British iv) Government

b) Any person who is of age and above and has the right to vote is a
member of the Gram Sabha.

i) 21 years ii) 18 years

iii) 28 years iv) 30 years

c) The is the head selected from among the elected representatives.

i) Ward member ii) Panch
iii) Sarpanch iv) Panchayat officer

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The Panchayati System came into effect from April 1993 onwards by an
of the constitution.
b) The term of the Gram Panchayat is years.
c) The Gram Panchayat is an executive organ of .
d) A Block is a within a district and it covers several .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Panchayat Samiti i) The apex level

b) Gram Panchayat ii) The bottom level

c) Zilla Parishad iii) The intermediate level

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What aspect of the British rule led to the break down of the existing Panchayati Raj system ?
b) What is the function of the Justice Committee constituted by the Gram Sabha?

178
5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Mention a few primary functions of Panchayat Samiti.

b) Article 40 of the Constitution is not adequate enough to ensure a strong Panchayati system.
Why is it so?

c) List a few key functions of Gram Panchayat.

6. Life Skills

a) The village of Dinkapur is deficient in natural sources of water. Therefore, the agricultural
activities suffer and productivity is less. What action can the people of the village take?
Who should they approach?
b) The village of Dinkapur is witnessing repeated instances of burglary. What measures can
be taken to maintain the law and order in the village?
c) Mungerilal and Basesar Ram are two villagers who are always fighting over trivial issues.
The other villagers are tired of their repeated fights. How can the villagers make sure that
the conflict is resolved?

Do it to know it

7. Debate: Panchayats would not be purposeful without women representatives.

8. Skit: Conduct a mock Gram Sabha meeting

9. Class Discussion: Have a class discussion on the ‘Importance of Panchayati Raj‘.

10. Art Frenzy: Draw a chart depicting the working of the three-tiers of the Panchayati system.

179
 17. District Administration

Let Us Learn

 Zilla Parishad  Tehsildar and Naib-Tehsildar

 Deputy Commissioner  Kanungo
 Police Force  Patwari
 Sub Divisional Officer  Case Study

Tune In

Ž State the three-tier system of the government at rural level.

Ž Which institution is at the apex of the Panchayati Raj system ?

Zilla Parishad
Zilla Parishad is the government at the district level and is at the apex of the Panchayati Raj. The
District is the Principal Administrative unit below the state level. It is a unit of administration
covering most of the departments of Government.
The Zilla Parishad also includes the Panchayat Samiti at block level and the Gram Panchayat
at gram level. The office of the Zilla Parishad is located at the district headquarters. The word
‘Parishad’ in Hindi means Council.
Did You Know
The Zilla Parishad, therefore, is the
District Council. The Zilla Parishad
By the 73rd amendment act ,1992 and the 74th
consists of- Amendment act, 1993, two new parts were added
™ The members directly elected to the constitution, namely Part IX titled “The
from the territorial constituencies Panchayats” and part IX A titled “The Municipalities”.
in the district.

Word Galaxy
act – An act is a piece of legislation passed in the parliament in order to change an existing law or to make a new
law. ‘Acts’ are laws which have been passed by the Parliament. Before it is passed by Parliament it is called a ‘Bill’

180
™ The members of the House of the People and the members of the State Legislative Assembly
representing a part or whole of the district whose constituencies lie within the district; and
™ Ten per cent of the Pradhans of the Gram Panchayats in the district
Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, other backward classes and women.
The chairmen of all the Panchayat Samitis are the members of Zilla Parishad. It is headed by a
President and a Vice-President.
The Zilla Parishad is involved in a wide variety of activities which may broadly be categorized as
Developmental, Civic, Welfare, Coordinative, Supervisory, Financial and Advisory. It is the principal
agency for rural development in the district

People Who Made History

Warren Hastings introduced the office of the district collector in 1772.

The Administrative Setup

The Deputy Commissioner
The general administration of the district is vested with the Deputy Commissioner.
He/she is at once the Deputy Commissioner, the District Magistrate and the District Collector. As
the Deputy Commissioner, he/she is the executive head of the district (Known as the Chief Executive
Officer) with multifarious responsibilities relating to development, local bodies, civil administration,
etc. As the District Magistrate, he/she is responsible for law and order and heads the police. As
the Collector, he/she is the chief officer of the revenue administration and is responsible for the
collection of land revenue, and is also the highest revenue judicial authority in the district.
The Deputy Commissioner supervises the different divisions of Parishad and is assisted by Deputy
CEOs and other officials of the district and the blocks. He/she
Word Galaxy
is appointed by the government. The Government may, also
Multifarious - numerous and varied.
appoint an Additional Chief Executive Officer for a Zilla Parishad
to assist the Deputy commissioner.
The Main Functions of The
Deputy Commissioner

Supervising and coordinating the activities of Revenue Collection Law and Order
the various departments of the government.

Fig. 17.1 Main functions of District Collector

181
 Source Study

Section 76(2) of the Manipur Panchayati Raj Act states that ‘The Chief Executive Officer
shall attend every meeting of the Zilla Parishad and may take part in the discussion but
shall not have the right to move any resolution or to vote. If in the opinion of the Chief
Executive Officer any proposal before the Zilla Parishad is violative of or is inconsistent with
the provisions of this Act or any other law or the rules made thereunder, it shall be his duty
to bring the same to the notice of the Zilla Parishad.’

Question- Based on your reading of this clause, state one point of difference between the
Deputy Commissioner of the Zilla Parishad and the elected members of the Zilla Parishad.

Rapid Round
Superintendent of Police

1. Who is the chief executive officer of a district?

2. What task does the district collector undertake? Deputy Superintendent of Police
3. State the duration of the members of the Zilla
Parishad. Inspector

The Police Force Sub-Inspector

The police administration in the district is under the
Superintendent of Police, who next to the Deputy Assistant Sub-Inspector
Commissioner is responsible for the maintenance of law
and order. The Superintendent of Police is assisted by Head Constable
Deputy Superintendents of Police. The SP is responsible
for the supervision of all police stations in the district. Constables
Each district is divided into several Sub-divisions. The
Fig. 17.2 The structure of the police
Deputy Superintendent of Police is in command of the department in a district
Sub-division. The officer in charge of a police station is
the Inspector. It is the duty of the Inspector to detect and prevent crime, and maintain law and
order within his/her jurisdiction. The police stations are operated by officers of the rank of Sub-
Inspectors, Assistant Sub-Inspectors, Head Constables and Constables.

Word Galaxy
Resolution - a formal expression of opinion/will voted by an official body or an assembled group.

182
Sub Divisional Officer
The Sub-Divisional Officers (S.D.O) are placed in charge of specific talukas( sub-divisions) in a
district. The Sub Divisional Officer has similar authority and duties to the Deputy Commissioner with
regard to matters of revenue, magistrate, executive, and development falling under his purview.
He/she possesses adequate powers to co-ordinate work in the sub-division. However, he/she is
obligated to go via the Deputy Commissioner on critical policy matters. The sub-divisional officer
exercises direct control over the Tahsildars in his/her subdivision and is the link between the
District Collector and the Tahsildars in his subdivision.

Tickle Your Brain

How do smaller divisions of a geographical area help in efficient administration?

Tahsildars and Naib-Tahsildars

In a Taluk, The Tahsildar is the most important Government functionary and is immediately
sub-ordinate to the Sub-divisional officer.
A Tahsil or a Taluka is a subdivision of a district which comprises a group of several villages
organised for revenue purposes. There is no considerable distinction in the revenue duties of
a Tahsildar and a Naib-Tahsildar. The Tahsildar and the naib-tahsildar are responsible for the
collection of land revenue and ensuring that the village Accountants and Revenue inspectors in
charge work efficiently and maintain current village records.
To remain in touch with the subordinate revenue staff, to observe the seasonal conditions and
condition of crops, to listen to the difficulties of the cultivators and to distribute that active loans,
the Tahsildar and Naib-Tahsildars extensively
Word Galaxy
tour the areas in their jurisdiction.
Naib - a deputy / someone who is second in command
Kanungo
A Kanungo oversees the work of the Patwaris (see below) and is the foremost connect between the
Tahsildar/Naib-Tahsildar and the Patwari. The Field Kanungo, the Office Kanungo, and the District
Kanungo together make up the Kanungo organisation. The Field Kanungo frequently goes around
observing the work of the Patwari on the location. He/she examines the conduct and the work of
the Patwari. The Office Kanungo takes the charge of all the records collected from the Patwari. The
District Kanungo is responsible for the efficiency of both the Office and the Field Kanungo.
Patwari
Patwari is at the lowest rank in the Revenue Administration of a district. Patwari measures land on
the ground and prepares all the prescribed record, which is checked, verified and made final by the
higher officials.The duties of the patwari also include conducting surveys, field inspections, revision

183
of maps or reports related to alterations, partitions, revenue, rents, etc. Under the instructions of the
Collector, he/she prepares the records of rights. Apart from these functions, it is the duty of a Patwari
to report all serious mishaps that disturb the land or the crops and also to report disease outbreaks.

Word Galaxy
Revenue - the income of a government from taxation, or other sources, appropriated for the payment of public
expenses.

Rapid Round

1. Who is a connect between the Tahsildar/Naib-Tahsildar and the Patwari?

2. Who is at the lowest rank of Revenue Administration of a district?

Functions of Zilla Parishad

™ Zilla Parishad provides basic amenities to the people of the district and plans the timing and
execution of the district’s development programmes.
™ Zilla Parishad also looks after the agricultural programmes.
™ In addition to creating and managing schools, Zilla Parishad also organises adult literacy
programmes.
™ Zilla Parishad looks after the primary health centres, hospitals and conducts vaccination drives
against epidemics. Additionally, it runs initiatives for family welfare.
™ Zilla Parishad builds bridges and roads.
™ Zilla Parishad also plans for the development of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
and other backward communities.
Case Study (Source: Sukumar, N., Lal, L. D., & Mishra, V. K.- 2019)
In a study conducted across social groups, it was found that nearly 99 per cent of the elected
representatives emphasised upon education as the most important enabling factor in Panchayati
Raj Institutions. According to them, illiteracy/semi-literacy was viewed as an important hurdle to
effective participation. The study also investigated the reasons behind education being regarded
as a significant enabling factor. According to the respondents, first, education proved to be a vital
source to gain confidence at work place; second, it enabled them to understand policies in a much
better way; third, it enabled them to articulate their demands and negotiate with high officials;
fourth, it enhanced understanding and awareness of policies, schemes, and government orders.
Question- Give your opinion on how important education is for democracy to function effectively.

184
 Concept Map

Case Study
functions of Zilla
Parishad
Patwaris Zilla
Parishad
Kanungos
revenue collection
main functions of
Tahsildars and District the Deputy Supervising and coordinating
Naib-Tahsildars Administration Commissioner the activities of all the govt.
The Deputy departments.
Commissioner
Sub Divisional
law and order
Officer

The police force

Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Zilla Parishad is the government at the .

i) state level ii) national level

iii) district level iv) local level

b) The post of has been formed to support the District Collector in his
everyday work.

i) Patwari ii) Tahsildar

iii) Kanungo iv) Additional Collector

c) The is responsible for maintenance of record of the crops grown during

every harvest.

i) Tahsildar ii) Patwari

iii) Naib-Tahsildar iv) Collector

185
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) The is the highest executive officer in the district.

b) The District collector is appointed by the .

c) A Sub Divisional Officer is the link between the District Collector and the
in his subdivision.

d) A Kanungo oversees the work of the .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Deputy Commissioner i) Exercises direct control over tehsildars

b) A connect between state government
ii) Zilla Parishad
and the Panchayat Samiti
c) Sub Divisional Officer iii) CEO

d) Patwari iv) Maintains land records

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What are the main functions of a District Collector?

b) State the composition of Zilla Parishad.

c) How is law and order maintained in a district?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write any five functions of the Zilla Parishad.

b) How is the administration run in a district?

c) What are the functions of a Patwari?

d) What are the duties of a sub-divisional officer?

6. What changes would you like to make in the functions of Zilla Parishad.
7. Life Skills
What values, according to you, should a good administrator and a leader possess?

186
 Do it to know it!

8. Smart Search: Find out the names of the Superintendent of Police and the District Collector
of your area and share it in the class.

9. Interview: Conduct an interview with a policeman and write an essay on ‘A day in the life of a
policeman’.

10. Class Discussion: Have a class discussion on, ‘Women’s representation in Indian politics.

11. Make a Chart: Collect newspaper clippings on any developments taking place in your district
and make a chart.

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 18. Municipal Administration

Let’s Learn

 Urban local bodies  Advanced locality management

 Municipal Corporations

Tune In

Ž Name the local bodies at the village level.

Ž Which local body is responsible for looking after the district?

Urban local bodies

The background

Prior to 1992, the Constitution had not made the local self-government in urban areas a clear-cut
constitutional obligation.
This changed with the enactment of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act, 1992, which added a
new part IX-A relating to the Municipalities in order to provide for a common framework for urban
local bodies and to help strengthen the functioning of the bodies as effective democratic units of
self-government. The Act came into force on 1st June,1993.
Over the past decades, due to economic growth and opportunities, the urban areas in the country
has experienced rapid growth. While the national governments pursue the goals of economic
development, it is generally left for the local governments to manage the rapidly growing urban
areas, and to provide the basic services to the residents. In India, Urban Local Bodies are the
constitutionally provided administrative units, which provide basic infrastructure and services in
urban areas i.e cities and towns.

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Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are classified into three:

Types of Urban Local Bodies

Nagar Panchayats Municipal Councils Municipal Corporations

Areas in transition from a

Smaller urban areas Large urban areas
rural area to urban area

Did You Know

The first Municipal Corporation was established in the former Presidency Town Madras
(Chennai) in 1688; and was followed by similar corporations in the then Bombay (Mumbai)
and Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1726.

Elections to Municipal Corporations

The members of the Municipal Corporation are directly elected by the people and are called
Councillors. The city is divided into different parts known as wards for election purposes. The
number of wards within municipalities has been left to be determined by the States. The range
varies from State to State. Generally, State laws seek to limit the total number of wards based on
population. Each ward is represented by a Municipal Councillor who is elected by the voters of the
particular ward. He/she is accountable for the overall improvement of the ward and for looking
after the basic needs of its residents. The municipal councillor identifies the core issues of the
respective ward and takes necessary steps to address them. Sometimes, more than one councillor
may be elected.
The elections to the Municipal Corporations are carried out under the guidance of the State Election
Commission. Seats are reserved for the Backward Classes, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
women. The term of a Municipal Corporation is five years. The Mayor is the head of the Municipal
Corporation. The Mayor and the Deputy Mayor are elected by and from amongst the elected
members of the municipal corporation. A mayor is the ceremonial head and assumes a political

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role while the administrative head is the Municipal Commissioner. The Deputy Mayor works under
the Mayor. When the office of the Mayor is vacant, the Deputy Mayor acts as the Mayor until a
new Mayor is elected. Also, when the Mayor is absent from his/her duty on account of illness or
any other cause, the powers, duties and functions of the Mayor is exercised and performed by the
Deputy Mayor.The Mayor may by order in writing delegate any of his powers, duties and functions
to the Deputy Mayor.

Tickle Your Brain

Some cities across India hold direct elections for the post of Mayor because ,although the 74th
Constitutional Amendment passed in 1992 lays out the broad outline of how municipalities
should function, it has not prescribed the mode of election or tenure of mayors.
According to you, how would a directly elected mayor be different from an indirectly elected
one?

Urban Local Bodies

Corporation Corporation Standing Municipality Town Statutory /

Mayor Deputy Committee Chairman & Panchayat Standing
Chairman Committees
Mayor (Town Planning) Vice-Chairman & Vice-
Chairman

Fig. 18.1 Structure of Municipal Corporation

Municipal Commissioner
The Municipal Commissioner is the Chief Executive Officer of the Municipal Corporation. All
administrative powers are exercised by the Municipal Commissioner. The Commissioner is
appointed for a fixed term as defined by the State government. The Commissioner’s tenure may be
extended or reduced. The Chief Executive Officer is responsible for the implementation of policies
and programmes of the Corporation and the sustainable development of the municipality.

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Functions of Municipal Corporation
A Municipal Corporation coordinates with the State Government for the effective implementation
of the various developmental programmes.
Mandatory functions
a) lighting public roads and places;

b) watering public roads and places;

c) cleaning public roads, places and sewers removing filth, rubbish, night-soil, odour or any other
noxious or offensive matter from privies, latrines, urinals, cess-pools or other common receptacles

d) extinguishing fires and protecting life and property when fire occurs;

e) regulating offensive or dangerous trades or practices;

f) securing or removing dangerous buildings or places and reclaiming unhealthy localities;

g) acquiring, maintaining, changing and regulating places for the disposal of dead bodies and of the
carcasses of dead animals;

h) constructing, altering and maintaining public roads, municipal boundary marks, markets, drains,
sewers, drainage-works, sewerage-works, baths, washing-places, drinking-fountains, tanks, wells,
dams and the like;

i) constructing public latrines, privies and urinals;

j) obtaining a supply or an additional supply of water

k) naming streets and numbering houses;

l) registering births and deaths;

Special duties of municipalities
a) providing special medical aid and accommodation for the sick in times of a dangerous disease
and taking such measures as may be required to prevent the outbreak or suppress and prevent
the recurrence of the disease
b) giving relief and establishing and maintaining relief works, in times of famine or scarcity, to or
for destitute persons within the limits of the municipality.

Word Galaxy
relief work - providing aid to people in need, especially areas struck by disasters.

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 Global Connection

Local government in Scotland has been made up of 32 local authorities since 1996. Local
authorities vary considerably in size and population, but all have responsibility for providing
a range of public services to the communities in their area.
Each council is made up of councillors who are directly elected by the residents of the
area they represent. The council areas is divided into a number of wards, and three or four
councillors are elected for each ward. There are 1,227 elected councillors, who are normally
elected every four years.

Discretionary functions
a) constructing, establishing, maintaining, or contributing to the maintenance of public parks,
gardens, libraries, museums, reading rooms, etc.
b) constructions and maintaining, where necessary suitable sanitary houses for the habitation of
the poor and granting loans for the construction of such houses
c) providing accommodation for any class of servants employed by the municipality or granting
loans to such servants for construction of houses
d) planting and maintaining trees in the roadside;
e) the public health and infant welfare;
f) contribution towards any public fund raised for the relief of human suffering within or without
the municipality;
g) the organisation or maintenance of shops or stall for the sale of necessities of life;
h) holding fairs and exhibitions;
i) supply of milk;
j) establishing labour welfare centres for its employees
k) maintenance of ambulance service;
l) establishing and maintaining public hospitals and dispensaries and providing public medical
service;
m) housing and maintaining the destitute, orphans and the differently-abled and maintaining
maternity centre and child welfare clinics;
n) establishing rescue
homes; Word Galaxy
discretionary - left to individual choice or judgment; not fixed by rules but are
o) any other matter which
decided on by people in authority, who consider each individual case.
is likely to promote
destitute - lacking possessions and resources such as money, food, a home.
education

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Sources of income
The Municipal Corporation collects taxes
from people for providing and running
several services. A tax is a sum of money Education Tax

that people pay to the government for Toll Tax

the services the government provides. Octroi Tax

The Municipal Corporation collects taxes

in different ways such as toll tax for use of
roads and octroi tax on goods coming
Sources of Funds
into a city. But the expenses of the Entertainment Tax
Grant in Aid
municipalities are more as compared to
its income. Hence, the State governments
give grants to the municipalities. A Grant-
Property tax Professional Tax
in-Aid is the aid given to the local bodies
by the government for meeting their Fig. 18.2 Sources of IncomeFunds

expenditure.

Rapid Round

1. How many types of Urban Local Bodies are there?

2. Who is the executive head of the municipal corporation?

Case Study
Surat
From the 1994 pneumonic plague that killed nearly 1,200 people to becoming India’s second-cleanest
city, Surat’s rapid rise is an outcome of the its residents, migrants, and community workers take
matters concerning hygiene and cleanliness into their own hands and making it an inseparable part
of their daily lives.
The city of Surat is located in southern Gujarat, on the banks of the river Tapi. In all cities, the rapid
growth of population and urbanization resulted in the growth of slums, garbage, and overflowing
drains. People would have learnt to live with it, as they still do today in many parts of the world,
had the city not been hit by a plague outbreak in September 1994.

Word Galaxy
Pneumonic plague - Pneumonic plague occurs when bacteria Y pestis infects the lungs. This type of plague can
spread from person to person through the air.

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Constant rains for over two months caused flooding and widespread inundation in low-lying areas,
which was the result of the flawed drainage system. Hundreds of cattle and other animals died
due to the flood and water-logging. In fact, the floods only exacerbated the dangers inherent
in inadequate waste management systems. In the face of the unprecedented crisis, the Surat
Municipal Corporation (SMC) immediately launched a seven-point action plan for restoring
normalcy at the earliest. This involved the government, non-governmental agencies, civil society,
and the private sector working together. Doctors in public and private hospitals joined hands
with the civic authorities. Top priority was given to the cleaning of dirt and debris, disposal of
carcasses accumulated due to the floods, pumping of stagnant water, spraying of pesticides, and
anti-rodent operations.

In May 1995, the Government of Gujarat launched a major programme to clean up the city.
This included a change in the personnel set-up of the Surat Municipal Corporation. The city was
divided into 52 sanitary wards, under six administrative zones. The strategy of micro-planning
included meticulous ward-level planning. Through a well-coordinated strategy, the SMC increased
the disposal of accumulated garbage from 50% per day during the plague period to almost 94%
of the 1,100 tonnes of waste generated daily. The transformed outlook of the people of Surat
towards living a disciplined and meaningful civic life can be witnessed by the entire country today.

Case Study

Advance Locality Management

The ‘Advance Locality Management’ Programme (ALM) of Mumbai is one of the earlier efforts
of citizen-government partnership for Solid Waste Management in India. Initiated in 1997, it is
still operational in Mumbai and the movement has spread to other cities as well. The ALM is an
identified locality or neighborhood, the residents of which commit themselves to improve the
“Quality of Life” in the locality/ neighborhood in close co-operation with the MCGM (Municipal
Corporation of Greater Mumbai). Improving the “Quality of Life” is only possible, if there exists
an alert and active Citizenry, who have identified pressing problems and possible methods
of redressal and thereafter, voluntarily, come forward, jointly as a body to assist MCGM in
improving infrastructure services in the locality/ neighborhood.
ALMs provide the Citizens a means to pool their strengths and resources and help the service
providers (MCGM) in maintaining and improving the services in a well-defined locality/
neighborhood in sustainable manner & if necessary, simplifying procedures leading to greater
transparency where procedures are time consuming and cumbersome.

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 Rapid Round

1. What is ALM?
2. In which state is Surat located and in which year did it witness the plague epidemic?
3. What is an octroi tax?

Concept Map

Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option

a) The term of a Municipal Corporation is .

i) seven years ii) five years

iii) ten years iv) one year

b) Advance Locality Management in India was started for the first time in .

i) Delhi ii) Mumbai

iii) Bengaluru iv) Kolkata

c) Surat is located on the banks of river .

i) Ganga ii) Yamuna
iii) Tapi iv) Godavari

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2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The is the Chief Executive Officer of the Municipal Corporation.

b) The ALM Programme emphasizes on partnership.

c) manage the rapidly growing urban areas.

d) The added a new part to the constitution relating to the municipalities.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Export tax i) tax on goods coming into city

b) Toll tax ii) tax on use of roads

iii) tax on goods leaving an economic
c) Octroi tax
territory.

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Briefly explain the different types of urban local bodies.

b) Why was there an outbreak of plague in Surat?

c) What are the duties of a municipal councillor?

d) Why do state governments give grants to the municipalities?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Discuss the impact of the plague of 1994 on Surat.

b) Explain the process of election for the constitution of a Municipal Corporation.

c) What is the purpose of ALM?

d) State any five mandatory functions of the Municipal Corporations.

6. Help in solving the problems.

a) Sheran is staying in a ward where garbage is spilled all over the street. People are getting
suffocated by the stench of it. What should be done?

b) Jasdeep lives in a low lying area. Her locality is flooded with rainwater. The drains are
clogged and overflowing. What should be done?

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7. Life Skills
Surat transformed itself from one of the dirtiest cities to one of the cleanest cities of India, due
to the initiatives taken by its citizens. What would you do to become an active citizen, playing
a role in the affairs of your city?

Do it to know it!

8. If you want to start an Advanced Locality Management (ALM) in your area: Decide

a) Whom to approach b) The motto of your ALM

9. Write a Slogan: Write a slogan advocating civic sense among the people of your locality.

10. Group Discussion: Arrange a group discussion on the qualities that you would like in your
candidate who is contesting Municipal Elections.

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 19. Rural Livelihoods

Let’s Learn

 Agriculture  Fisheries
 Animal husbandry  Case Study – Bastar
 Dairying

Tune In

Ž What does the picture depict?

Ž What are the different types of
occupations that you see people
practicing in this picture?

A large section of the population of India resides in the villages. The livelihoods and lives of the
people in the villages revolve around the rural environment and resources. Most of the villagers
depend on agriculture as their main source of income. Besides agriculture, other major occupations
in the villages are animal husbandry, fishing and dairy development. Some villages attract tourists.
Therefore tourism generates revenue and also provides employment to people. Cottage crafts,
such as the handloom, which employ labour intensive techniques of manufacture provides
immense employment opportunities to the masses. Many educated people take up teaching as
a profession. Some go out to the cities to
Word Galaxy
receive their education and come back to
labour intensive- requiring or using a large supply of labour
serve as doctors and nurses.

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 Did You Know

The Mawlynnong village in Meghalaya is the cleanest village in Asia, which attracts many
tourists from all over the world.

Tickle Your Brain

What are some other cottage industry crafts practiced by the rural people?

Source Study

“An ideal Indian village will be so constructed as to lend itself to perfect sanitation. It will
have cottages with sufficient light and ventilation built of a material obtainable within a
radius of five miles of it. The cottages will have courtyards enabling householders to plant
vegetables for domestic use and to house their cattle. The village lanes and streets will be
free of all avoidable dust. It will have wells according to its needs and accessible to all. It will
have houses of worship for all, also a common meeting place, a village common for grazing
its cattle, a co-operative dairy, primary and secondary schools in which industrial education
will be the central fact, and it will have Panchayats for settling disputes. It will produce its own
grains, vegetables and fruit, and its own Khadi. This is roughly my idea of a model village...“
These statements were made by Mahatma Gandhi. How far has his dream been realized?

Agriculture
India holds the record for second- largest agricultural land in the world, with around 60% rural
Indian households making their living from agriculture. There are two major cropping seasons in
India: Kharif and Rabi. The crops that are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops. (also
known as monsoon crop) in India. Kharif crops are usually sown with the beginning of the first
rains in June- July, during the south- west monsoon season and are harvested in the months of
September- October. Some of the major Kharif crops are rice, maize, pulses and cotton. The crops
that are sown in the winter season i.e from November to April, are called Rabi crops. (also known
as the “winter crops”). These crops are harvested during April and May. Some of the major rabi
crops are wheat, mustard, tomato, onion and potato. Rabi and Kharif crops are mainly cultivated
with the help of rain water. This type of farming is known as rain-fed farming. Crops are also

199
grown during the summer season with the help of irrigation. They are grown in the short duration
between Rabi and Kharif crop season, i.e from March to June. These crops are known as Zaid crops
(also known as summer crops). Cucumber, watermelon, pumpkin are some major zaid crops. This
type of farming is known as irrigated farming.
Types of farming
a) Subsistence farming- a type of farming in which most of the produce is consumed by the
farmer and his or her family, leaving little or nothing to be marketed. The production in
this case is small-scale.
b) Commercial farming- it is the practice of growing and rearing crops for profitable reasons.
It is the large-scale production of crops, to be sold in the markets or to be exported outside.

Did You Know

In the late 1960s, M.S. Swaminathan, a plant geneticist, helped design and lead the
Green Revolution, a huge development effort that in just a few years brought food self-
sufficiency to India, which had suffered from deadly famines for decades. He is known as
‘The Father of Green Revolution in India’.

Types of farmers in India

Table 19.1 Types of Farmers

SL No. Category Size-Class

1. Marginal Below 1.00 hectare

2. Small 1.00-2.00 hectare

3. Semi- Medium 2.00-4.00 hectare

4. Medium 4.00-10.00 hectare

5. Large 10.00 hectare and above

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Farmers require money for the purchase of seeds, agricultural machinery, land and other necessities.
Therefore, NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) was established on
12 July 1982 to promote sustainable and equitable agricultural and rural development through
participatory financial and non-financial interventions, innovations, technology and institutional
development to ensure prosperity. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) is the bank that grants monetary aid for such development activities in the villages.
Rapid Round

1. When are rabi crops grown?

2. What is a kharif crop?

Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the practice of
selective breeding, and raising of
livestock. Animals such as cows, Animal Husbandry
buffaloes, goats, sheep etc. are
reared for utility, i.e. to obtain
animal yields such as milk, meat,
wool etc. Animals are also used for
transportation. Poultry is also a
major additional occupation.
Poultry include chickens, turkey,
ducks, and geese. These are raised
for their meat and eggs.

Word Galaxy
livestock- are domesticated terrestrial
animals that are raised to provide a
diverse array of goods and services
such as traction, meat, milk, eggs,
hides, fibres etc.

Source: National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development

(NABARD)

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 Fig. 19.1 Poultry Fig. 19.2 Dairy development

Dairying
Dairying, also called dairy farming, encompasses the breeding, raising, and utilisation of milch
animals for the production of milk and the various dairy products processed from it. The nation’s
milk supply comes from millions of small producers, dispersed throughout the rural areas. These
farmers maintain an average herd of one or two milch animals, comprising cows and/or buffaloes.
The dairy sector employs more than 8 crore farmers directly. Women play an important role in
dairy development. A survey of the rural women in the Rajkot district of Gujrat revealed that 90
per cent women are involved in milking the animals, while 89.16 per cent women care for newborn
or young animals. The farm women are actively involved in cleaning of animal sheds (89.16 %),
feeding the animals (87%) and disposal of cow dung (86.66 %). Steps have been taken by the
government of the country to boost women’s leadership skills, encourage savings and contribute
to women’s empowerment. In some states, dairy cooperatives have been formed with members as
well the management consisting entirely of women.

Word Galaxy
milch animals - milk producing animals
cooperatives - an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic,
social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise.

Fisheries
Fishing is carried out in rivers, lakes, seas, creeks and oceans.
There are about 3,432 (as per State Governments, CIFRI &
CMFRI reports) marine fishing villages in India. Indian fisheries
sector represents an economically important and fast-growing
production sector and contributing significantly to the
national economy in terms of food, nutrition, socio-economic
development and providing livelihood to a large section of
the society. The fisheries sector provides income and Fig. 19.3 Fishing

202
employment to more than 2.8 crore people, who are involved with fishing related occupations such
as net mending, marketing of fish, peeling, curing, preservation and processing. Women form a
significant part of workforce involved in such activities. During 2021-22, India has not only become
the 2nd largest fish producer but also stood as the 4th largest exporter of fish and fisheries products.

Did You Know

National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) was launched by the Ministry of Rural
Development (MORD), Government of India in June 2011.
Aided in part through investment support by the World Bank, the Mission aims at
creating efficient and effective institutional platforms of the rural poor, enabling them to
increase household income through sustainable livelihood enhancements and improved
access to financial services.

Case Study – Bastar (Source: Distric Adminitration, Bastar)

Bastar is a district of Chhattisgarh State. It is known for the beautiful forests and tribal culture,
because of which it is known as the cultural capital of the state.
Tribal communities account for 70% of the population of Bastar. Some of the tribal communities are
Gond, Maria, Muriya, Bhatra, Halba, Dhruva community. Bastar district is full of dense forests, high
hills, waterfalls, caves and wild beasts. The main crop of Bastar is paddy.The pattern of livelihood
in Bastar is being prescribed by tradition. Even today, agricultural practices are traditional. The
number of tractors is negligible whereas bullock carts are all broad. The use of traditional farm
equipments has reduced the production of agriculture. Collection and sale of forest produce and
other forest related work is supplemented by lower agricultural income. The main base of the
economy of Bastar district is agriculture and the collection of forest produce.

Concept Map

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 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) A large section of the population of India lives in the .

i) states ii) towns
iii) cities iv) villages

b) There are major cropping seasons in India.

i) three ii) two
iii) four iv) five

c) Bastar is located in the state of

i) West Bengal ii) Bihar
iii) Chhattisgarh iv) Uttar Pradesh
2. Fill in the blanks.

a) is the major occupation in the villages.

b) Farming in which crops are grown with the help of irrigation is known as .

c) is the bank that grants monetary aid for agricultural development.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Kharif i) Summer crops

b) Rabi ii) Winter crops

c) Zaid iii) Monsoon crops

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What do you mean by rain-fed farming?

b) What is the main base of the economy of Bastar?

c) State the different types of occupations practised in the villages.

204
5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write a brief note on animal husbandry.
b) Differentiate among the types of farmers in India.
c) Describe the role of women in the dairy industry.
6. List a few commercial crops.

7. Life Skills
What are some of the hardships that the farmers of India face? What can be done to eliminate
those hardships?

Do it to know it!

8. Essay Writing: Research and write an essay on ‘Operation Flood’

9. Scrap Book: Collect current newspaper clippings giving information on agriculture in India
and make a scrap book.

10. Class Discussion: Have a class discussion on ‘Migration of people from the villages to the
cities.’

11. Collect pictures of the various crops grown in India and paste it on your notebooks or a chart
paper.

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 20. Urban Livelihoods

Let Us Learn

 Types of Occupations  Case Study – The Story of Baburao

 Case Study – Bhuleshwar, Mumbai  Different Occupations in Urban Areas
 Migration

Tune In

Look at this illustration. Think about your own city and the
different types of work that people do there. Not all parts of
your city have people in the same occupations. Try to talk
to some of them.
Ž Can you name some of those occupations?
Ž Find out how any 2 of these types of work are organized.
Compile a report on your findings

Introduction
There are many ways for people to earn their living in urban areas. They are either self-employed
or work for someone else.
Self-employed people may work on streets selling goods, repairing items, or providing services.
Some people also run licensed shops. Permanent workers are employed in private companies,
factories, government offices etc.

Word Galaxy
self-employed – not working for an organization or company but finding work for yourself or having your own
business
license – to give someone official permission to do or have something

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Types of Occupations

Primary Occupations - Secondary Occupations - Tertiary Occupations -

These occupations are based These are occupations which These occupations provide
on natural resources. transform primary goods services to the primary and
For example, hunting, into goods which are directly secondary occupations.
collection of forest produce, useful to us. For example, teaching,
animal rearing, fishing, For example, manufacturing, railways, transport of goods.
farming, agriculture, mining. construction, food processing.

Rapid Round

Identify the types of occupation:

Word Galaxy
1. Cotton is harvested in a farm.
tertiary – third in order
2. In the cotton factory, cotton is processed into cloth.
or level
3. The cloth is transported to the trader.
4. The trader sells it to the customer.

Case Study – Bhuleshwar: A Mumbai Bazaar

Bhuleshwar, located in South Mumbai, is a
place where one can see the old world meeting
the contemporary. There are hordes of buildings
along with ancient temples and trading
institutions. Every nook and corner of the place
reveals a unique sight. Street vendors compete
with the shops, aligned on both sides of the
street. The streets are tapered and are always
packed with people at any time of the day. Fig. 20.1 Bhuleshwar street

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 Tickle Your Brain
Why are the streets in Bhuleshwar always packed with people?

One can find a wide range of items to buy here, from clothing and swanky jewellery to fruits, flowers,
and vegetables. The place is located close to other major market areas of Mumbai. Mahatma
Phule Market is famous for its fruit and vegetable market; Mangaldas Market for garments; Zaveri
Bazaar for jewellery, and Dhabu Street for leather products. Chor Bazaar and Mutton Street are
well-known for their antiques and furniture shops.
Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another in search of permanent or
semi-permanent residence. Migration usually occurs across a political boundary.

Did You Know

Step migration is a series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person’s place of
origin to a final destination – such as moving from a farm to a village, then, to a town,
and, finally, to a city.

Reasons for Migration

Usually, people migrate because of economic, political, cultural, or environmental factors. ”Push”
factors for migration make people leave a place, while ”pull” factors draw people to a new place

Push Factors Pull Factors

™ Fewer job opportunities ™ Better job opportunities
™ Lower wages ™ Higher wages
™ Crop failure ™ Hope for a better way of life
™ Poor health facilities ™ Better health facilities
™ Poor educational services ™ Better educational facilities

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 Rapid Round

1. What is migration?
2. Why do people migrate?

Case Study – The Story of Baburao

Baburao is one of the many workers to have migrated to Mumbai in search of employment. He
migrated from the Marathawada region in Maharashtra due to a perennial drought situation. He
works as a Naka worker. Naka is Marathi for junction. Naka workers assemble on the nakas in the
morning, from 6 a.m to 8 p.m. They wait there until they are engaged, by labour contractors to
work in the construction sector, or as masons, carpenters, plumbers, or domestic help.

Tickle Your Brain

Why are health and education facilities usually better in urban areas than in rural ones?

Baburao is paid ` 400/- per day and, sometimes, even less. His wife, who also migrated with him, is
a domestic help However, she is paid half of what Baburao earns. They live in a jhuggi, a thatched,
tiny residential unit, without any sanitation facility. The working condition is poor. Baburao says that
the working hours are too long and there is no job security. Due to a poor working environment,
their health also suffers. He has access to local government hospitals for treatment. However, if he
does not turn up for work or is unwell, he loses his pay for the day. They are also unaware of any
government schemes for their benefit. Migrants are usually unaware of their rights or illiterate to
understand them. Baburao wants to continue working for some more time as a naka worker and
then go back to his village.

Word Galaxy
migrant – a person who moves from one place to another, especially to find work or better living conditions

Did You Know

According to UNHCR, the number of people displaced forcibly worldwide was 79.5 million
at the end of 2019. Of these, 26 million were refugees. Refugees are migrants who are
forced to flee their homeland due to war or other forms of violence.

209
 Street Vendors
Manual Workers

Who are they: They sell their items in the street,

Who are they: Usually, their employment consists of either from a stall or with their goods laid out on the
a series of short-term jobs. They are hired for an hour footpath.
or a day for the performance of specific tasks.
Examples: Vegetable seller, fruit seller
Examples: Masons, carpenters
Income: They do not have fixed incomes. Most
Income: They work on a daily basis. Their earnings of them do not have business licenses. Often, the
are meagre. municipal corporation dismantles their stalls that
Nature of employment: They do not have have been erected on the roadside.
permanent jobs. Nature of employment: They are self-employed.

Different Occupations in Urban Areas

Traders Professionals

Who are they: They are managers and owners of Who are they: Their jobs require special training and
stores selling specific goods. education. They work and earn a salary.
Examples: Shopkeepers, boutique owners Examples: Teachers, bank employees
Income: They do not have a fixed income. Their Income: They have a fixed income, as well as several
income depends upon the condition of their other benefits like various allowances and paid
business; if it flourishes, they earn profits. Unlike leaves.
street vendors, they are licensed to do business. They Nature of employment: They have permanent jobs.
own or rent shops for doing their business.
Nature of employment: They are self-employed.

Rapid Round Word Galaxy

dismantle – separate into
1. What are economic disadvantages of migrant workers in a city? different
2. What are the different types of urban occupations?

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 Concept Map

Urban Livelihoods

Types of Occupations Case Study - Bhuleshwar Migration The Story of Baburao Different Occupations in
Urban Areas
Reasons for Migration

Push Pull

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Factors Factors

Manual Street Traders Professionals

Primary Secondary Tertiary Workers Vendors
 Let Us Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Bhuleshwar is located in Mumbai.

i) South ii) North

iii) East iv) West

b) Manual workers are usually employed in a series of jobs.

i) long-term ii) short-term

iii) mid-term iv) permanent

c) Naka in Marathi means a .

i) junction ii) signal

iii) residential unit iv) service

d) Animal rearing is a occupation.

i) tertiary ii) primary

iii) secondary iv) casual

e) Permanent workers have a income.

i) daily ii) fixed

iii) casual iv) short-term

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) occupations are based on natural resources.

b) Mumbai city gets its name from .

c) is the movement of people from one place to another in search of

permanent or semi-permanent residence.

d) Higher wages constitute a factor of migration.

e) Traders have to do business.

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3. Write True or False.
a) Push factors make people leave a place.

b) A casual worker lacks job security.

c) Government employees receive daily wages.

d) Poor educational facility in a village is a pull factor for migration.

e) Teaching is a primary occupation.

4. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Teaching i) Manual worker

b) Fruit seller ii) Street vendor

c) Mason iii) Trader

d) Shopkeeper iv) Tertiary occupation

5. Answer the questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What do you mean by step migration?

b) What are secondary occupations?

c) Give 2 examples of primary occupations.

d) State the push and pull factors of migration.

e) How are permanent jobs different from casual ones?

6. Answer the questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write a brief note on manual workers working in the city.

b) What are the similarities and differences between a street vendor and a trader?

c) Who are casual workers? What are their sources of income and nature of employment?

d) Describe how socio-economic factors play a role in human migration. Explain using a
real-life example.

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7. Look at the images. How are the means of livelihood in cities different from those in
villages?

8. Life Skills
According to Aldous Huxley, “A large city cannot be experientially known; its life is too manifold
for any individual to be able to participate in it.” What does this quote say about city life?

Do it to know it!

9. Interview: Interview a businessman or a casual worker or a domestic help in your

neighbourhood. Find out what a day in their life is like.
10. Debate: Organise a debate on the topic, “Migration from villages to cities must be controlled.”
11. Essay Writing: Write an essay on your neighbourhood marketplace.
12. Skit: Compose a skit on two migrants talking about their problems of working in the city. Enact
it in the class.
13. Source Study: December 18 is observed as International Migrants Day. Visit the United Nations
website and find out how marking International Days this way helps the global community of
humans. Write and discuss your findings.
14. Research Work: Seventy thousand years ago, a great human migration originated from the
African mainland. Use online resources to prepare a report on this migration. Include photos,
historical and archaeological evidence, and impact of this great migration.

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