4 Religious, Literary and Visual Culture

Q.1.Discuss the different dimensions of bhakti of Alvars and Nayanars. Do

you think it posed a challenge to Brahmanic orthodoxy in the 8th and 9th
centuries?
Ans. The bhakti saints can be broadly classified into two streams- the Alvars
and Nayanars. The Alvars were the followers of Vishnu and the Nayanars
expressed their devotion to Shiva. The bhakti movement led by the Alvars in the
country led to the overthrow of the Jain and Buddhist faiths the
Tamil and
establishment of the supremacy of brahmanical worship. A significant role
in
this movement was played by the Shaiva Nayanar saints Appar and Sambandar.
They actively questioned the authority of the Jaina and Buddhist faiths by engaging
in debates and performing miracles. Other Nayanar saints like Sundarar and
later Manikkavacakar continued their hostility and opposition towards the
heterodox sects. On the other hand, the Alvar saints quietly propagated the path
of Vishnu bhakti and sang the praises of their lord. Their devotional rigour and
constant admiration is reflected in the four thousand devotional verses that they
composed.
The Alvars: The term 'Alvar' means 'those who are absorbed in the divine'
There are twelve Vaishnava saints. Vishnu temples usually contain separate
shrines with stone or bronze figures of the twelve Alvars. The Alvar philosophy
is deeply indebted to the Vedic and Puranic scriptures. The Alvars were also
conversant with the agamas which provided them with the concrete worship of
the icons. The Alvar saints felt that Transcendent Being is verily also the one who
is the godhead whom mankind knows and loves, for He is with man and
revealing
Himself to man (Varadachari, 1966). The first three Alvars are known as Poykai,
Putam and Key. They wandered from one shrine to another in search of god. The
first Alvar saint Poykai intuited god's existence through his transcendent
knowledge, saint Putam through maturing gnosis into devotion and saint Pey
through the intuitive conjoinment of knowledge and devotion attained the
supreme vision of 12th century called the Divyasuricharitam by Garudavahana.
In Alvar bhakti, the relationship between the devotee and Mayon (Krishna) was
often expressed in terms of the lover-beloved relationship. It has been suggested
by Friedhelm Hardy that the mythological references in the Tiruvantatis represent
earliest stage of Alvarreligiosity and highlights the prominence of the Krishna
avatara (Hardy, 1983). Poykai Alvars first verse reveals the wonder nature of
god's creative being which is expressed by means of similes drawn from life. The
Alvars were overpowered by the concept of the myth of the Trivikrama and
Poykai continued the usage of the myth in his verses. Putam enumerated the
exploits of Vamana-Trivikrama, the incident of Putanavadh, the Varaha avatara,

(36)
 Paper-V: History of India-IIl (c. 750-1200 37
the Shaktasura episode in his verses which
suggest of him being familiar with the
avatars of Vishnu. Pey represented the three gems of
as possessing Shri in His divine heart, as the most
spiritual experience of god,
beautiful and satisfying Being
and as the most kind and as the healer of all sorrow and abolisher
of sin and fear of death. The first three Alvars were worshipped as incarnation of
Vishnu. Other significant Alvar is Kulashekhara. He is unique among the Alvars
in many ways. He seems to have had mastery over the Tamil and Sanskrit
languages. In his hymns to the supreme godhead (Perumal) called Perumal
Tirumoli, Kulashekhara traces the growth of his consciousness. The Tirumoli
comprises of 105 hymns and is divided into ten sections. Saint Nammalvar is
considered as the founder of the Sri Vaishnava philosophy. Born in a low caste, he
spent his life fasting and conquered the breath which causes transmigration by
the grace of god. He wrote four works namely, Tiruviruttam, Tiruvasariyam,
Tiruvayamoli, and Periya Tiruvandadi. As his verses provided poetry to the
ordinary people, he is called Nam-Alvar or 'Our' Alvar.
The Nayanars: Later traditions have recognized the number of Nayanars or
adiyars, as sixty three. The term Nayanar means 'leader'. Most of them were
individuals though occasionally a group of devotees was counted under one name
While all the sixty three saints are worshipped, a special status is attached to a
group of three saints who have acquired greater significance than the rest. The
three Shaiva saints are referred as Mover or "Three Revered Ones". Appaar,
Sundarar and Sambandar. Often, this group of three is expanded into the Nalvar
or "Four Revered Ones", by the addition of the important saint Manikavachakar,
who didn't belong to the original sixty three saints but lived a centurylaterthan
the last of the groups. First among the Tevaram trio was Tirunavukkarasu (king
of the holy tongue/ speech) also known as Appar. He was a Vellala (peasant
proprietor) from Tiruvamur, believed to be a contemporary of the Pallava king
Mahendravarman I. though born in an orthodox Shaiva family he was attracted
to Jainism in his early life, and joined the monastery as a monk. Appar's sister
Tilakavatiyar, a devout Shaiva convinced him to put his faith in Shiva. Angered
him, but he
by the poet's devotion to Shiva, the Jains persecuted and torture
the Pallava king to
emerged safe from all his trials and succeeded in reconverting
Shaivism. In iconography, the saint is often portrayed holding the hoe with which
he cleared the temple courtyards of weeds and grass (Figure 1). This image is
suitable both for the Tamil Shaiva ideal and of humble service (tontu) and Vellala
farmer's attachment to the land.
Q.2. Write a note on art and architecture during the early medieval period.

Ans. The Turks who conquered India had a genius

for architecture. They had
of their own. There was a blending of
strong architectural Istincts and style
a
Indian craftsman and used
Indian and Islamic styles. The turks had to employ
material from temples to build mosques, palaces and tombs. The earlier buildings,
architectural principles
except, Qutub Minar were built on defective and crude
and lacked proportion and symmetry. The arches were faulty. But in the Khilji
our eyes. The first
Building, Lodi Tombs, harmony, symmetry and grace greets
architectural construction made by Qutub-ud-din Aibak was Quwwat-ul-Islam
Alai
Ilutmish and Allauddin both enlarged this mosque.
mosque built in 1195.
 AMAR:B.A. (Hons.) History II Year (Sem-ll1
38
Darwaza built by Allauddin Khilji is one ot the most treasured gems.
bf
architecture. He also builthuge magnificant tank, Hauz-i-khas, Ma
and
a
Aost of t
buildings whichh st
monuments built in this period have not survived, yet the buildings wh
Indo-Islamic architecture
existing are fairly good specimens of early
The Hindus also built some monuments. Rana Kumbha of Mewar
Kumbhalgrah and Kirti Stambha. In South, tall and massive gopuramaerecte
erected. Kalyenmandapa at Vellore and Mandap in temples of Varda Raia G.
are of special signficance.
Q.3. Discuss aspects of regionalism is the art and architecture of theear
medieval India. earh
Ans. Art of Early Medieval India: Cholas who supplanted the Pallavae :
vas in
South India were mightly builders. The Dravidian style was developedandw
was
perfected under them. The best example of this style is furnished by the grea
Shiva temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja the great. The great Shikhara
of fourteen storeys rises to a height of 100 feet and it is crowned
consistino
by a massive
dome consisting of a single block of stone, this huge block was carried to the
immense height by being rolled along on inclined road about four miles
lone
specially built for the purpose. The massive building is covered from the base to
the top with
sculpture and decorative mouldings. It occupies the centre of a
courtyard with other subsidiary chapels. There was another massive temple at
Gangai Kanda Cholapuram the new capital city built by Rajendra Chola in the
Trichnopoly district. This city was also adorned with a magnificent palce and a
vast artificial lake with stone embankment more than 15 miles
now in ruins. But remnants long. All these are
depict its grandeour and magnificence.
Features of Chola Art: The Chola
The large strcuture were decorated with
art is characterised by a massive grandeou.
minute sculptures
skill immense labour and infinite involving artistic
pairs.
conceived like giants and finished like Ferguson has remarked the Chola artists
was thee addtition of a
jewellers. Another feature of the Chola art
huge gateway called a "Gopurams. Ultimately, the
"Gopurams' sometimes large in number came to occupy the dominant
'their lowering height and lavish decoration
while the main shrine
place by
imposing was reduced to comparative insignificance. The being for less
Konam, for exmple, is a very splendid Gopurams of Kumbha
overshadows the
piece of work by itself but it
main shrine that the structure taken completely
as a whole is less
and probably producers far less artistic effect. Inspite of all this it blessing
achievement. depicts great
The third feature of the Chola art in addition to
Gopurams is the political
halls and long colornnades of the temples. Travellers are struck with awe the
sight of the graganti temples at Madina, Srirangam, Rameshwaram and byother
places with thousand pillard halls and long vistas of covered colonnades. Thus,
Chola Art produced magnificent
buildings.
Areview of the progress and development of South Indian art is
the proper understanding of the necessary for
high culture and refinement of the ancient Indians.
Judged by the standard of art Indian civilization must be
it very high place indeed regarded as occupying
among those of antiquity. It exhibits not only grace and
 Paper-V: History of India-1ll (c. 750-1200) 39
refinement but also technical skill and pitient industry of a very high order. Indian
art offers the most vivid testimony of the wonderful resources in men and
pOssessed by the rulers and the religious spirit that dominated the money
entire
Dopulation. It points out progress made in ancient time.
Architecture of Early Medieval India : The history of architecture and
Sculpture in the South India Peninsula begins with the Pallava temples, in addition
to the temples in Kanchi (Kanjeevaram) and other places. Some of the rock out
temples known as the Sevla pagodas or Rathas of Mameulapuram are built in
Dravidian arcthitectural style or the Pallava style. The temple or pagodas are
named after the five Pandava brothers and their wife raupadi
Bhim rath Draupadi ratha, etc. These monolithic
Dharanurajarath,
temples made out of massive
stpme are complete with all the details of temple and stand today undying
as an
testimony to the superb quality of Pallava art. There are also many rock out caves
belonging to the Pallava period. The earliest artists mostly worked in wood or
other perishable materials and hence, their work
entirely disappeared.
Influence -The Pallavas architecture largely influenced the architecture ot
the Indiarn Colonies in the east. The characteristic Pallava or
Dravidian type of
Shikhara is met within the temples of Java, Cambodia arid Annam. But there are
important difference between them and the South Indian
temples. The pillars
which form such an important adjoint to the latter which are altogether absent in
the former. One of these, was erected
by a minister named Vimla Shah in AD.
1032 and the other by Tejapala in A.D. 1231.
Q.4. Elucidate the religious developments in early medieval India with a
special focus on Bhakti and Puranic Hinduism.
Ans. The'sense of guilt in kings coupled with
was exploited
principle of its prayashchitta
by brahmanas. Huge gifts of cows, bulls, land and gold were strongly
recommended by them if the kings did not want themselves or their ancestors to
lead a miserable plight of an insect or lower animal in the next world.
Of all the
items of gift, land got the
pre-eminent position. Vyasa, who is quoted very often in
epigraphic records, is known to have laid down that giver of land lives in heaven
for, 16000 years. Many puranas,
similarly, stipulate that the donor of land would
have the good fortune of being in the
charming company of apsaras (celestial
nymphs). In the hands of brahmana lawgivers, the sacred texts did not remain
abstract theories and
prescriptive works only. Instead.
the character of some sort of
they seem to have acquired
policy statements.
Were the kings who made large
gifts
of land, only victims of avarice of
brahmanas? Eviderntly not. The quest for legitimacy was a major consideration
for political authorities. (The issue has been discussed in detail in Block 3; see
specially Units 9.7, 10.4 and 11.5). In the present context it would be sufficient to
underline the mutuality of interests of the donor as well as the donee. The
prashastikaras (eulogy singers), the dharmasbastrakaras (lawmakers) and
purohitas (brahmana in the court) were all collaborators in the new landed order
How did this new order manifest itself in the cultural ethos of the
centuries? It appears that at the level of ideas the post-Gupta
post-Gupta
scene in the
sub-continent is marked by two distinctive strains, viz. growth of bhakti and an
entire
40 AMAR:B.A. (Hons.) History II Year (Sem-l]

all-pervasive influence of tantric practices. It is possible to explain thei

widespread dispersal in terms of the growth of the feudal mode ot productio
epitomised in the phenomenon of land grants.
Bhakti and
Pilgrimage-For about half a millennium from the mid-sixt
century, Shaiva and Vaishnava saints (Nayanars and Alvars respectively)
their followers practised and propagated bhakti in the countryside and wentançt
pilgiim centres singing and dancing. The overall
pattern is that of consolidation oj
classical brahmanical society in early medieval India. Originating in sixth centur
Kanchipuram, area under the Pallavas,it had traversed the full length of
Tarnilaham by the end of the ninth
of the century and, engulfed all the major kingdoms
Cholas, Pandyans and the Cheras. If we are to believe in a recent
the spread of the
Bhakti movement in the analysis,
north, epitomised in such
Bhagavata Purana, was also the result of the impetus givenpopular
Work as the a

Tamil saints. The

spread of the movement is by the
base, which, in turn, derived its intimately associated with the temple
raison d'etre and economic sustenance
land grants received
from not only kings and men at the helm of through
but even from
influential members of the society. political affairs
Some recent
writings on the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Alvars as well
Nayanars have been able to show the
gradual importance of the
the resultant pattern of brahmanical paddy
in the Kaveri
Valley cultivation
ahd settlements,
in turn, contributed
to the growth of the Chola which,
power. To illustrate, the
spread of the temple movement in the Kaveri specific
tamous Nayanars, viz., Valley may be looked at. The three
Appar, Sambandhar and Sundarar sang 307,384 and 100
hymns respectively. Out of these 442
period and all of which are concentrated temples, as many as 3 15 belong to the Chola
in the Kaveri
north of this river while 189 were
to its south). That this
Valley (126 being situated
was an
important tool of the consolidation of political temple Bhakti movement
kings apparent from the similarities in the
is power by feudal chiefs and
designate temple and its officers on the one handvocabulary and symbols used to
and the King and his retinue
the other. For
example: Koyil stands for both palace and on
were
comparable with crowned kings; rituals of worship temple: crowned-deities
same is conceived on the
pattern as the rituals of service to the
King-bathing, anointing, decorating,
dressing of deity, were replicas of similar practices in the court. Taxes and
were
paid to temples, as they were experted tributes
temple is also constructed with mandapas; forkings as well. Like
the palace
walled enclosures, prakaras, dvarapalas, etc. (pavilions,
the King, was
doorkeepers respectively), The chief deity of the
accompanied by his consort and relatives and served temple, like
army of musicians, dancing girls, actors, by a whole
pyramid consisting of plurality garland
feudal makers, etc. To
and co-existence of thecompare the
commanding loyality from his immediate vassal-we see' in the Bhakti' lords-each
a clear movement
recognition of the plurality and co-existence of different deities-each
occupying the position of the lord for his devotee. The devotee deity
the deity as udaiyar or tambiran habitually addresses
himself as adiyan, i.e. slave. Whatstanding
for "lord" and "master"
and describes
became the hallmark of
growing brahmanical power was the surrender of greatness in the age of
acceptance of the position of "the servant of the pride in the self and voluntary
Lord" -as
Kulashckhara Alvar
 Paper-V: History of India-lII (¢. 750-1200) 41

had proclaimed. To all this must be added the concerted drive on the part' of men
of religion of evolve a mechanism of regular pilgrimage ostensibly to earn merit
(Punva). It is well known that the brahmanical literature alone mentions more
than 400 tirthas in early medieval times and that the Mahabharata and the
Puranas alone contain at least 40,000 verses on tirthas, sub-tirthas and legends
connected with them. And this is not all-one can add not only numerous
sthalapuranas but specific digests on tirthas dealing with brahmanical and non-
brahmanical centres of pilgrimage.
Q.5. Temple architecture in the early medieval period was marked by a
tendency of regionalism. Comment.
Ans. Indian temples have symbolised the very ethos of lifestyle of people
through the millennia. The panorama of Indian temple architecture may be seen
across at extremely wide chronological and geographical horizon. From the simple
beginnings at Sanchi in the fifth century of the Christian era to the great edifices at
Kanchi, Jhanjavur and Madurai is a story of more than a millennium.
The prominent Shilpashastras that deal with the subject of temple architecture
are:
Mayamata, Manasara, Shilparatna, Kamikagama, Kashyapashilpa and
Ishanagurudevapaddhati
In the majority of these works the subject is dealt with under the three heads
of: the geographical distribution their differentiation from the point of view of
shapes, and their presiding deities and castes.
All these topics, however, are not mentioned in all these works. Some later
texts as the Kamikagama and Kashyapashilpa show that the nature
ornamentation, number of storeys, the size of prasadas, etc. also constituted bases
of differentiation.
Major Styles
The ancient texts on Indian temple architecture broadly classify them into
three orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida and Vesarad indicate a tendency to
highlight typological features of temples and their geographical distribution. These
terms describe respectively temples that primarily employ square, octagonal
and apsidal ground plans which also regulate the vertical profile of the structure.
Nagara and Dravida temples are generally identified with the northern and
southern temple styles respectively. All of northern India, from the foothills of the
Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the
northern style. There are, of course, certain regional variations in the great expanse
of this area. A work entitled Aparajitapriccha confines the Nagari (Nagara) style
to the Madhyadesha (roughly the Ganga-Yamuna plains) and further mentions
Lati and Vairati (Gujarat and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles. The local
manuscripts of Orissa recognise four main types of Orissa style temples, viz., the
Rehka, Bhadra, Kharkhara and Gaudiya.
The Dravida or southern style, comparatively speaking, followed a more
consistent development track and was confined to the most southernly, portions
of the sub-continent, specially between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari. The
term Vesara is not free from vagueness. Some of the texts ascribe the Vesara style
to the country between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna but there are texts
42 AMAR:B.A. (Hons.) History 1I Year |Sem-11I]
placing it "between the Vindhyas and the Agastya, the location of which
uncertain. Since the temples of the Nagara type are found as far south as LDharwad
(in Karnataka) and those of the Dravidian type as far north as Ellora
Maharashtra), a narrow and compartmentalised geographical classification(inis
misleading.
as influences
At certain periods thhe reoccurred
striking overlapping of major styles
from'different regions confronted each other, e.g., the
early Chalukyas whose kingdom was temples of the
strategically
peninsula in the seventh and eighth centuries. Thepositioned Mahadeva of the
in the middle
in
Khajuraho is another striking example where the various Kandariya temple
combined into an integrated whole, the Kerala architectural elements
plan types. Square, circular or temples display variety in their
apsidal ended buildings are utilized. The
earliest
examples in Kerala go back to the twelfth century.
Q.6. Trace the evolution of the North Indian
from 8th to 12th style of temple architecture
Ans. In this
Century.
with the fall of
period the Hindu architecture in Northern India declined
powerful Hindu because
architecture and funds wereKingdoms there were no kings to
also not avialable. But patronise temple
comparatively free from Muslim aggression like
regions which were
Pradesh, temple construction continued. Orissa, Rajasthan and Madhya
This north India Here regional form of art
style is called (Nagara). There are also several classesdeveloped.
style which have regional qualities. For example, Orissa
of Nagara
Sun
temple at Konark and several temples in style very
is famous. The
temple were all built at this time. These Bhubaneshwar and possibly Puri
and
sculptures. These are huge temple and temples have been decorated with idols
have no pillars inside. The
Bhubaneshwar and Raja Rani Ling Raj,
temples are built in this style. These
templies
garbhgrahs' and two
mandaps. Each side of have
These garbhgrahs are not
decorated. 'garbhgrah' is around three meters.
In front of
The doors of the
temples are garbhgrah are southern mandaps.
decorated. At the top of the
made of metal. temple there is a pitcher
The
Khajuraho temples in Madhya Pradesh are also
Nagara type of architecture. These were built
superb examples of
and 11th by Chandela
century. These are Jain, Shaiv and Vaishnav Rulers between 10th
temple here is Mahadev temple which is 353 metres temples. The most famous
along with a garbhgrah. All mandaps have domes. high. It has three mandaps